ENEL 676 – Module III
Wind Part 1
Keaton Wheeler, Ph.D., [Link].
[Link]@[Link]
1
Wind Part 1 Outline
Wind Turbine Types (physical)
The Power in Wind
Effects on wind turbines
Wind power curves
2
Introduction to Wind Power
Wind power is now widely used in electrical systems, with many countries
adopting the technology. Historically, wind power has been used for various
purposes, including:
Sailing, Water pumping, Providing power for factories.
The first wind power plant was established in 1891, designed to produce
hydrogen through electrolysis.
Wind energy was also heavily relied upon before the 1940s to provide power to
remote and isolated communities. However, from the 1940s to the 1970s,
interest in wind power significantly declined as the power grid expanded and oil
prices remained low.
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Introduction to Wind Power
Wind power has become more popular due to societal desires and the rise in
green initiatives from world leaders.
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Types of Wind Turbines
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Vertical Axis Turbines
The Darrieus Rotor, developed in the 1920s, is the only vertical-axis wind turbine that has achieved any
commercial success. Some significant development took place on these turbines, including the
creation of a 500 kW machine by Sandia Labs in the USA. Several turbines were installed, but the
manufacturer, FloWind, ceased operations in 1997.
Main advantages of the Darrieus Rotor:
• No Yaw Control required: Unlike horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs), Darrieus rotors do not need
to position their blades to face the wind, as they can capture wind from any direction.
• Lower mounting and maintenance costs: Heavy machinery, such as the gearbox and generator, is
kept on the ground, reducing both installation costs and maintenance complexity.
• Lighter tower: Since the Darrieus rotor does not carry the same weight as a HAWT, the tower does
not need to be as structurally strong, reducing construction costs.
• Lighter, more affordable blades: The blades are not subject to the same flexing as those of HAWTs,
allowing for lighter, less expensive materials to be used.
Despite these advantages, the Darrieus Rotor has not seen widespread adoption due to issues such as
performance and efficiency in certain conditions.
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Vertical Axis Turbines
Main Issues with the Darrieus Rotor:
• Lower and more turbulent wind speeds near the ground: The wind speeds
closer to the surface are typically lower and more erratic, which results in
less consistent power output from the turbine.
• Limited starting torque: At low wind speeds, the Darrieus rotor struggles with
generating enough torque to start turning, which can make it difficult to
begin operation in light wind conditions.
• Inability to reduce power at high wind speeds: Unlike Horizontal-Axis Wind
Turbines (HAWTs), the Darrieus rotor does not have a mechanism to adjust
the pitch of its blades. As a result, it cannot reduce its power output during
high wind conditions, which can lead to overloading or damage. In contrast,
HAWTs can adjust blade pitch to protect the system during strong winds.
These issues limit the performance and adaptability of the Darrieus rotor in
certain operating conditions.
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Horizontal Axis Turbines
There are two main types of wind turbines: Upwind and Downwind turbines.
Upwind Turbines: In upwind turbines, the blades are oriented to face the
wind. This means the wind strikes the blades first, and the tower is located
behind them. Upwind turbines are the most common type used today, as
this configuration helps avoid turbulence caused by the tower, allowing for
more efficient energy capture.
Downwind Turbines: In downwind turbines, the blades face away from the
wind. In this design, the wind hits the tower before reaching the blades.
While less common, downwind turbines can reduce the mechanical
stresses on the blades because the wind doesn't directly hit them first, but
this design can cause more turbulence around the blades, reducing
efficiency.
Each design has its own advantages and trade-offs related to efficiency,
durability, and cost. Upwind HAWT is the most common wind turbine.
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Downwind Turbines
Main Advantage: The primary advantage of downwind turbines is that they do not require yaw control. Since
the wind naturally turns the nacelle and blades into the optimal position relative to the wind direction, there is
no need for a mechanical system to adjust the orientation of the turbine.
Main Disadvantage: The main drawback is the wind shadowing effect caused by the tower. As the blades
swing past the tower, they encounter a region of reduced wind speed, known as the "wind shadow." This
causes the blades to flex, which can lead to fatigue failure over time. Additionally, the reduced wind speed in
this area lowers the turbine's power output and can increase audible noise due to the turbulence created by
the tower.
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Upwind Turbines
Upwind turbines do not suffer from the wind shadowing effect because the wind hits the blades before reaching
the tower. This design allows upwind turbines to operate more efficiently, generally delivering more power than
downwind machines, while also producing less audible noise.
However, the main challenge with upwind turbines is that they require complex yaw control mechanisms to
ensure the blades are always positioned correctly relative to the wind direction. This adds to the mechanical
complexity and cost of the turbine.
Despite this, upwind turbines are the most common type of wind turbine in use today due to their higher
efficiency and quieter operation.
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Number of Blades
As the number of blades on a wind turbine increases, the following effects occur:
• Higher torque: More blades generate more force, leading to higher torque, which can be useful for
applications requiring higher starting or running torque, such as water pumping.
• Lower rotational speed: More blades generally result in slower rotation speeds, as the added drag reduces
the turbine's ability to spin quickly.
• Lower efficiency: Increased blade count leads to more drag, which reduces the overall efficiency of the
turbine. The system becomes less effective at converting wind energy into mechanical power as more blades
increase friction and resistance.
This is why windmills with a large number of blades are better suited for low-speed applications where high
torque is more important than high rotational speed, such as water pumping. However, this design is not ideal
for electrical generation, where higher rotational speeds are necessary to efficiently drive the generator. The
slower rotational speeds associated with more blades would require larger, more expensive generators to
produce the same amount of electricity.
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Number of Blades
The most common types of wind turbines used for electrical generation are 2-blade and 3-blade
machines. 3-blade machines tend to operate more smoothly and produce lower audible noise. This is
because the variation in wind speed with height is more evenly distributed along the blades, leading to
a more stable and consistent performance.
However, the main drawbacks of 3-blade turbines are:
• The third blade adds cost and increases the weight of the turbine, making it more expensive to
manufacture and install.
• The added complexity of a third blade also makes the turbine more difficult to maintain and
construct, as it requires more components and potentially more intricate designs for balancing and
mechanical integrity.
Despite these challenges, 3-blade turbines are still preferred in many large-scale wind energy
applications due to their improved performance and lower noise levels compared to 2-blade designs.
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The Power in Wind
Call the area swept by a wind turbine A (m2)
For a HAWT with a Blade Diameter of D (m):
𝜋
𝐴 = ( )𝐷2
4
For a Darrieus rotor:
2
𝐴= 𝐷𝐻
3
Where D is the breadth (m) and H is the height (m)
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The Power in Wind
Assume a wind speed of v (m/s)
This means that the volume of air passing through the swept area (A) of the turbine per unit of time (i.e. 1
second) is given as:
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3 /𝑠
Consider the density of air as ρ (kg/m3)
This means that the mass of air passing through A per unit time is given as:
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)
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The Power in Wind
The kinetic energy in wind with a mass m (kg) and speed v (m/s) is given by:
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑖𝑛 𝐽
2
Considering power (W) is energy (J) per unit of time (s) the power of wind in the swept area is given by:
1 1
𝑃𝑤 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 𝑣 2
2
2 2
1
𝑃𝑤 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 (𝑊)
2
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The Power in Wind
Note that at 15 degrees celsius and 1 atmosphere, ρ is 1.225 kg/m3
From the equation it is apparent that the power in wind is proportional to the cube of wind speed.
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Example
BE CAREFUL AND DON’T USE THE AVERAGE WIND SPEED!!
Compare the energy at 15 degrees celsius, 1 atm pressure contained in 1 m2 of
the following:
a) 100 hours of 6 m/s wind speed.
b) 50 hours of 3 m/s and 50 hours of 9 m/s (6 m/s average)
Solution:
a)
1 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 ∗ ∆𝑡 = ∗ 1.225 ∗ 1 ∗ 63 ∗ 100ℎ = 13.23 𝑘𝑊ℎ
2 2
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Example
BE CAREFUL AND DON’T USE THE AVERAGE WIND SPEED!!
Compare the energy at 15 degrees celsius, 1 atm pressure contained in 1 m2 of the following:
a) 50 hours of 3 m/s and 50 hours of 9 m/s (6 m/s average)
Solution:
b)
1 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(3𝑚/𝑠) = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 ∗ ∆𝑡 = ∗ 1.225 ∗ 1 ∗ 33 ∗ 50ℎ = 0.827 𝑘𝑊ℎ
2 2
1 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(9𝑚/𝑠) = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 ∗ ∆𝑡 = ∗ 1.225 ∗ 1 ∗ 93 ∗ 50ℎ = 22.326 𝑘𝑊ℎ
2 2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.827 + 22.326 = 23.152 𝑘𝑊ℎ
This is significantly different than the average wind case (75% more).
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Effect of Temperature and
Pressure
Using the ideal gas law we get:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Where P is the absolute pressure (atm), V is the volume (m3), n is the mass (mol), R is the ideal gas constant
(8.2056*10-5 [Link].K-1mol-1) and T is the absolute temperature (K). 1 atmosphere is 101.325 kPa
The density of air is given by
𝑛
𝜌= .𝑀
𝑉
Where M is the molecular weight of air in kg/mol (0.02897)
This gives:
𝑃 𝑀 𝑃
𝜌= . = 353
𝑇 𝑅 𝑇
This means that the air density (hence power in wind) increases linearly with increasing pressure (atm). It is
also inversely proportional to temperature (K)
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Effect of Altitude
At 1 atm we are around sea level. When a site is above sea level the pressure reduces. It can be
demonstrated that:
𝑑𝑃
= −𝜌𝑔 ((𝑁/𝑚^2 )/𝑚)
𝑑𝑧
z is the heigh above mean sea level, g is the gravitational constant (9.806 m/s2). Given that 1 atm is
1.01325x105 N/m2
𝑑𝑃 𝜌𝑔 𝑃 9.806
=− 𝑎𝑡𝑚/𝑚 = −353 ∗
𝑑𝑧 1.01325 ∗ 105 𝑇 1.10325 ∗ 105
𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝑑𝑃 0.0341
= −0.0341 ⇒ = − . 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑇 𝑃 𝑇
Meaning
0.0341
− 𝑇 .ℎ
𝑃=𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Where h is the height above sea level (altitude) (meters)
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Air Density at Varying
Altitudes and Temperature
Overall, we can determine the air density at higher altitudes and different temperatures via:
𝑃 353 −0.0341 .ℎ
𝜌 = 353 =( )𝑒 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇
Example: calculate the air density at a) sea level at 15 degrees celsius and b) at a site 2000m above sea level
where the temperature is 5 degrees celsius.
Solution:
353 −
0.0341
.0
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑒 273+15 = 1.225 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
273 + 15
353 0.0341
−273+5 .2000
𝜌𝑏 = 𝑒 = 0.993 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
273 + 5
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Power of Wind at Higher Altitudes and
Different Temperatures
Using the previous equations, we get
1 1 353 0.0341
− 𝑇 .ℎ
𝑃𝑤 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑣 3
2 2 𝑇
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Impacts of Tower Heights
Wind speed generally increases with height above the ground, especially in areas with rough
terrain, because the wind faces less resistance higher up. Since wind power is proportional to the
cube of the wind speed, increasing the height of the turbine can lead to a significant increase in
power.
To take advantage of these higher wind speeds, wind turbines are often placed on taller towers.
Ideally, wind speeds should be measured directly at the turbine's height, but if that's not possible,
empirical formulas can be used to estimate the wind speed at higher elevations using
measurements from lower heights (usually around 10 meters).
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Impacts of Tower Heights
The formula you can use is (this is common in the USA):
𝛼
𝑣 𝐻
=
𝑣0 𝐻0
Where v is the wind speed at height H, v0 is the wind speed at the reference
height of H0 (usually 10m) and α is the friction coefficient.
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Impacts of Tower Heights
The formula you can use is (this is common in Europe):
𝑣 ln(𝐻/𝑧)
=
𝑣0 ln(𝐻0 /𝑧)
Where z is the roughness length. This equation has some basis from
aerodynamics but nothing beats actual measurements.
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Impacts of Tower Heights
Using the USA formula; the power of wind at varying heights assuming the same pressure and temperature
can be given by:
3 3𝛼
𝑃 𝑣 𝐻
= =
𝑃0 𝑣0 𝐻0
Example: A HAWT with a 30m rotor diameter is mounted with its Hub at 50m above the ground that could be
characterized as wooded countryside (lots of trees) (α=0.25). Estimate the maximum ratio of specific power
a turbine will experience during its rotation.
Solution: the maximum is experienced when the tip of the rotor is at the highest point (50+30/2=65m). The
minimum is when the wind is experienced at its lowest position (50-30/2=35m)
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Impacts of Tower Heights
We get:
3𝛼 3(0.25)
𝑃 𝐻 65
= = = 1.59
𝑃0 𝐻0 35
The power at the highest point is 59% greater than the lowest point. This means the blade will flex in
the direction of the wind changes which will cause fatigue over time while also increasing audible
noise.
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The Maximum Theoretical
Efficiency of a Turbine
This is known as the Betz Efficiency. According to German physicist Albert Betz,
the maximum theoretical efficiency of a wind turbine is 59.3%. It will occur
when the turbine reduces the wind speed to one third of its original speed.
The Proof:
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The Betz Efficiency
v = upwind speed, vd = λv = downwind speed, vb = wind speed at the blade
Assume:
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑
𝑣𝑏 = = 1 + 𝜆 𝑣/2
2
The power absorbed by the blades of the turbine is the difference in rate of change of kinetic energy of wind
before and after meeting the blades:
1 1
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑑2 = 𝑚𝑣 2 (1 − 𝜆2 )
2 2
We also know that:
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑏 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣(1 + 𝜆)/2
Note that the theory assumes the energy of wind is passing through the entire area A extracted by the blades.
This means the blades should be sufficiently large. If the speed is lower, a lower maximum efficiency would be
expected.
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The Betz Efficiency
1
𝑃𝑏 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣(1 + 𝜆)/2 𝑣 2 (1 − 𝜆2 )
2
1 1
𝑃𝑏 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 1 + 𝜆 1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑃𝑤 . 𝐶𝑃
2 2
Where Pw is the power of upwind and Cp is the power conversion efficiency of the turbine blades. For
maximum efficiency:
1 2
𝑑𝐶𝑝 𝑑 1 + 𝜆 1 − 𝜆
2
=0⇒ = 1 + 𝜆 1 − 3𝜆 = 0 ⇒ ∴ 𝜆 = 1/3
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆
2
1 1 1
𝐶𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1+ 1− = 0.593 = 59.3%
2 3 3
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Efficiencies of Practical
Turbines
In general, the best wind turbines can achieve around 80% of the Betz limit, resulting in an overall efficiency
of about 45-50%. The efficiency of a wind turbine is highly dependent on the rotor speed.
• If the rotor turns too slowly, more wind will pass through the swept area without being affected by the
blades, which lowers the efficiency.
• If the rotor spins too quickly, the wind disturbance caused by one blade affects the others, creating
turbulence and reducing efficiency.
Thus, maximum efficiency occurs at an optimal rotor speed. Turbines with fewer blades can typically rotate
faster before turbulence becomes a significant issue, allowing for higher speeds and potentially better
performance.
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Wind Power Curves
The cut in speed (vc): below this wind speed, the power converted is not
sufficient to overcome the mechanical and electrical losses of the plant. If the
wind is below the cut in speed the rotor will stop, and no power will be
generated.
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Wind Power Curves
The rated wind speed (vR) is when the generator will deliver its rated power for which it is designed for.
The cut out (Furling) speed (vF) is when it is mechanically unsafe to operate the wind turbine beyond this
speed. This means the turbine will stop and no power will be produced beyond this speed.
vc<v<vR: the turbine will operate at the maximum possible efficiency to generate as much power as
possible. The angle of attack of the blades with reference to the wind will be at its optimum value. The
rotor speed will be varied to get the maximum efficiency, but some turbines will be operated at a
constant speed to reduce cost.
vR<v<vF: the output power is maintained at the rated value by controlling the angle of attack.
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Controlling the Angle of
Attack
There are many ways to do this:
• Pitch Control: angle of attack is reduced to reduce the power generated by
rotating the blades around their axes using hydraulics. This angle is
changed slowly in a few degrees at a time.
• Active-Stall Control: Angle of attack is slowly increased by rotating the
blades to introduce the stall effect. This reduces the efficiency.
• Passive-Stall Control: blades are designed to automatically introduce
stalling when the wind speed exceeds rated values. No rotation of the
blades is needed.
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Furling
In a pitch controlled or active-stall controlled turbine, furling is achievable by rotating the blades
to achieve a full stall. The rotor will come to a standstill in a few revolutions.
The blades are spring loaded so that is the hydraulic system were to fail the springs can be
released to turn the blades 90 degrees out of wind.
In the passive-stall controlled turbines the furling will automatically happened.
When the rotor is stalled, a mechanical brake will be applied to the rotor shaft. This is also
important for maintenance.
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The Tip-Speed Ratio
It is typical for the rotor efficiency of a turbine to be presented as a function of the Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR). It is
defined by:
𝐷
𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑝 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝜔 𝑡 𝜔𝑡 𝐷
2
𝑇𝑆𝑅 = = =
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣 2𝑣
The Blade Tip Speed is the linear speed at the outermost point of the blade.
A three-blade rotor can achieve its maximum efficiency at a TSR around 4 with an efficiency of 40-45%.
A two-blade rotor achieves its maximum efficiency of around 45-50% at a TSR of 5.5.
This shows that a lower number of blades actually leads to a higher operating speed however it has been
shown that a single blade turbine is not an attractive option.
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Speed Control for
Maximum Efficiency
A wind turbine will operate at its maximum efficiency at a fixed value of TSR.
In order to operate at maximum efficiency, the rotor rpm should be controlled in proportion to the wind speed
(as TSR is constant which means the rotor rpm is proportional to the wind speed).
If the continual control of the rotor rpm is difficult, it should at minimum be able to operate at a fixed number
of different speeds covering a full range.
This is achievable by; 1) using a different gear ratio, 2) using a generator whose rotor speed is variable.
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References
1. G. M. Masters and K. F. Hsu, Renewable and Efficient Electric Power
Systems, Wiley-IEEE Press, 3rd Edition, 2023.
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