Unit V
Poultry - Structure of hen’s egg, composition and nutritive value, egg proteins, characteristics of
fresh egg, deterioration of egg quality, difference between broiler and layers. Milk and Milk
Products-Definition of milk, chemical composition of milk, its constituents, processing of milk,
pasteurization, homogenization. An overview of types of market milk and milk products.
Milk and Milk Products-Definition of milk, chemical composition of milk, its constituents,
processing of milk, pasteurization, [Link] overview of types of market milk and milk
products.
Introduction
Milk is a complex fluid containing many components in different states of dispersion. Understanding its
properties and the changes that occur in it requires knowledge of all the components and their interaction
with other constituents. An overview of the milk composition and their physical states of dispersion are
being dealt in this lesson.
Milk derived from cattle species is an important food. It has many nutrients and the precise nutrient
composition of raw milk varies by species and by a number of other factors. Cow milk is available for
marketing and utilization in the preparation of various products world over in a large proportion. Globally
milk from other species like ovine, caprine, is utilized in a very insignificant proportion. For millennia,
cow's milk has been processed into dairy products such as cream, butter, fermented milk products like
dahi & yogurt, ice cream, cheese etc.
Milk Definition
Milk in legal terms (PFA1954) may be defined as whole, fresh,clean, lacteal secretions, obtained by
complete milking of one or more healthy milch animals, excluding that obtained 15 days before or 5 days
after or such periods as may be necessary to render the milk practically colostrum free and containing
legally prescribed minimum percentage of fat and Solids-not-fat (SNF).
However in chemical terms milk may be defined as a complex chemical substance in which fat is present
in the form of an emulsion, protein and some mineral matter in the colloidal state and lactose with some
minerals and soluble proteins in the form of true solution.
All species of mammals secrete milk to provide nutrients required for the optimum growth of the new
born,apart from protecting it from some of the common diseases. The development of the young one in all
species of mammals is not uniform as such the composition of the milk secreted by these mammals will
also vary depending up on the nutritional needs of the young one.
A considerable variation in the composition of milk from various mammals is observed as evident from
the data presented in table 1. Buffalo milk and sheep milk has highest fat percentage while human milk
has highest lactose content. The casein content is low in human milk when compared with other milks.
Table [Link] composition of milk from different species of mammals.
Species Scientific name Composition (g/100g)
Water Fat Casein Whey Lactose Ash
proteins
Human Homo sapiens 87.1 4.5 0.4 0.5 7.1 0.2
Cow Bos Taurus 87.3 3.9 2.6 0.6 4.6 0.7
Zebu Bos indicus 86.5 4.7 2.6 0.6 4.7 0.7
Buffalo Bubalus bubalis 82.8 7.4 3.2 0.6 4.8 0.8
Goat Capr hircus 86.7 4.5 2.6 0.6 4.3 0.8
Sheep Ovis aries 82.0 7.2 3.9 0.7 4.8 0.9
Horse Equus caballus 88.8 1.9 1.3 1.2 6.2 0.5
Camel Camelus 86.5 4.0 2.7 0.9 5.0 0.8
dromedaries
(Source: Jenness and Sloan,1970, Dairy science abstracts,32,599-6
Major Constituents of Milk
The major constituents of milk are, water, fat, proteins, lactose, minerals and miscellaneous compounds.
Water
It is the medium in which all the milk constituents are dispersed. It is a universal vehicle and plays an
important role in the physical properties exhibited by the milk. It also assists in maintaining the much
desirable equilibrium and keeps the constituents of the milk in their native state. Water acts as a solvent in
keeping the constituents in soluble, colloidal or emulsion form and influences the collegative properties of
milk.
Fat
Fat is the costliest component of milk. It is characterized by its presence as an emulsion. The unique
feature of milk fat is its fatty acid composition. Milk fat is rich in saturated fatty acids and mono
unsaturated fatty acids and also acts as a carrier for the fat soluble vitamins. The unique feature of the
milk fat from ruminants is that they are having short chain saturated fatty acids in substantial quantities
and imparts the unique flavour to the milk and milk products. Presence of long chain unsaturated fatty
acids reduce the melting point of milk fat. In order to maintain the emulsion stability several surface
active substance are also associated with the milk fat and present in higher proportion in fat globule
membrane.
Proteins
Milk is rich in protein content and has a unique protein namely the casein. It is present in the form of
colloidal dispersion in milk and is responsible for several physical properties of milk. It also supplies all
the essential amino acids, hence a complete protein and is easily digestible. In addition to casein, milk
also contains (other) proteins which are known as whey proteins. Milk is a biological secretion of living
cells synthesized through several (enzyme mediated) biochemical reactions (which are often mediated
through enzymes). It is a well known fact that these enzymes are basically protein in nature and act as
biological catalysts. Milk is a good source for several enzymes which have both desirable and also
undesirable effect on preservation and processing of milk.
Lactose
Lactose is a major soluble component present in milk. Milk contains approximately 4.6% carbohydrate
that is predominately lactose with trace amounts of monosaccharides and oligosaccharides. Lactose is a
disaccharide of glucose and galactose. It is first carbon source for the microbes gaining entry into milk. It
is a reducing sugar and is present in soluble state. It is a good source of energy for the young ones. In
addition to lactose, milk also contain several other carbohydrates in trace levels (negligible).
Minerals
Minerals in milk are mainly inorganic salts, partly ionized and partly present as complex salts. Some
inorganic matter is bound covalently such as calcium phosphate groups in casein. They are responsible for
the ionic balance of milk and helps in maintaining the equilibrium between the soluble and colloidal state.
Vitamins
Milk contains almost all the essential vitamins which include fat soluble and water soluble vitamins. It is
a very good source for the most essential fat soluble vitamin namely the Vitamin A. It is also interesting
to observe that this vitamin is existing in the cow milk in its precursor form i.e. carotene a provitamin A
imparts golden yellow colour to milk. Milk is not a good source of Vitamin K and Vitamin C.
Miscellaneous compounds
Milk contains many components which are in low concentrations (less than 100 mg/liter) which do not
fall into any of the above categories. These compounds may be considered as natural if they present in
freshly drawn milk and have been detected in most samples tested for that component. The compounds
considered in this category are gases, alcohols, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids, conjugated
compounds, non protein nitrogenous compounds, phosphate esters, nucleotides, nucleic acids, sulfur
containing compounds, hormones etc.
Physical States of Constituents of milk
The main constituents of milk, namely, fat, sugar, protein, minerals, vitamins and other minor constituents
are present in three states. The three physical states are true solution, colloidal dispersion and fat in
oil-type emulsion follows:
There are always a state of equilibrium between colloidal state and true solution in normal milk.
Milk Proteins
Proteins are present in milk in colloidial state. Important proteins found in milk are casein and whey
proteins. Description of these proteins is presented here:
i) Casein: Casein is the major proteins which contribution at 80% protein. It is present in milk in colloidal
state in the form of Calcium caseinate phosphate complex. The micellar particles of casein are spherical in
nature and exist in milk as distinct particles. Each micelle of casein is bridged with various submicelles.
The submicelles within casein micelle are held together by calcium phosphate by an ester linkage with the
serine hydroxyl group. The calcium phosphocaseinate are rather large in size, as seen by electron
microscope ranging in size between 30-300 millimicrons in diameter.
Definition of Casein: Casein may be defined as phosphoprotein obtained from raw milk at pH 4.6 at 200
C. Casein is made up of amino acids forming a polymeric chain through a peptide bond. This linkage is
established by reaction of an amino and a carboxyl group.
Heterogeneity of Casein : Based on its primary structure, electrophoresis, chromatography and solubility
in salts such as urea, casein is classified in the form of its fractions namely,
• αS1-casein - 38 %
• αS2-casein - 10%
• β- casein -36%
• κ-casein -13%
Elementary Composition: Casein contains the following elements (in percent) – Carbon 52.6-54.0,
Hydrogen 6.75-7.10, Nitrogen 15.51-15.91, Sulphur 0.71-0.83 and Phosphorus 0.71-0.85. Since casein is
a phosphoprotein the phosphorus is bound chiefly if not entirely in ester linkge with the - OH group of
amino acid serine or threonine.
Whey Proteins: Lactalbumin and globulin fractions of whey proteins are two proteins together which
form about one-eighth of the total protein of milk and are described as soluble protein. Both albumin and
globulin are soluble in milk/ whey but they differ in that while albumin is soluble in water, globulin is
insobule in water but soluble in dilute salt solutions. Both are coagulated by heat, the extent of which is
governed by temperature and time of holding, salt concentration and pH of the solution (e.g., pH 4.5).
Whey proteins are the native proteins present in whey or serum and are a constituent of whey, which is
prepared after removal of casein through acidification at pH 4.6 or by rennet action during preparation of
cheese. b-lactoglobulin is the major whey protein of milk. b-lactoglobulin is globular in nature. It has a
molecular weight of 36,000 daltons with an iso-electric point of 5.2. It is a heat labile protein and gets
denatured on heating. It is soluble in salt solution. It has a high nutritive value. It possess free – SH group
in its structure through amino acid Cysteine.
Biological value (B.V) of cow’s milk is 90, which is an index of nutritive value of milk proteins.
Biological value of milk proteins increases when it is mixed with cereals. Biological value refers to the
quality of protein or nitrogen protein that may have participated in tissue construction or the percentage of
nitrogen absorbed that is made use of by the body.
B.V of egg protein is 96, goat meat 76 and raw soyabean 57.
Immunoglobulin: Globulin of milk and blood are identical. In colostrum and milk both are present but
globulin in the form of immunoglobulin is found in much higher amounts in colostrum. In milk, globulin
is present to the extent of only 0.1 percent, while in the colostrum it is 6 per cent. This concentration is so
high that it causes coagulation of colostrums on heating. This property of colostrum being lost as the
globulin declines to the normal level in milk. Both albumin and globulin proteins possess a high nutritive
value and supply all essential amino acids.
Enzymes in Milk: Enzymes are organic catalyst, which are found in plant and animal cells. They bring
about most complex chemical reactions but they themselves do not enter into chemical change. They are
colloidal and proteinous. They are classified as per the chemical changes they bring about, such as
hydrolase (hydrolysing enzymes), oxidase (oxidizing enzymes), reductase (reducing enzymes). They are
also classified on the type of substrate they attack e.g., protease (protein splitting enzymes), lipase (fat
splitting enzymes), amylase (starch splitting enzymes) etc.
Milk Carbohydrates
The principal sugar of milk is lactose, which is present to the extent of 4.8-5.0 percent in milk. In addition
milk also contain traces of bound carbohydrates. Human milk is a rich source of lactose and
oligosaccharides. Human milk contains about 6.3-7.0 percent lactose and between 0.3-0.6 percent
oligosaccharides.
Lactose: Lactose is the sugar which is found exclusively in the milk of mammals. Lactose is present in
true solution. On crystallization lactose crystallizes with one molecule of water of crystallization. These
crystals are gritty in nature and sometime give a gritty or sandy taste to some milk products like
concentrated milk and ice-cream.
Structurally lactose consists of glucose and galactose molecule which together form the lactose molecule.
Thus lactose is a disaccharide because it is made up of two monosaccharides. On hydrolysis of lactose by
the enzyme lactase found in the small intestine, lactose splits into glucose and galactose.
Certain yeasts and enzymes have the ability to ferment lactose to alcohol and lactic acid which impart
acid or alcoholic taste to fermented milk [Link] conversion of lactose to lactic acid is favoured by
microorganisms as lactose is a good substrates for their activity. This causes sour taste in milk. At an
acidity of 0.18 to 0.20 percent milk curdles on heating. Lactose is faintly sweet, about one-sixth the
sweetness of cane sugar.
On heating above 150oC lactose turns yellow and at 175oC it turns brown and form caramel. Slight
burning and cooked milk odour is due to caramel, though milk and milk products are never treated to such
high temperatures under ordinary processes. Thus individual milk constituents have different property
rather than when they are present in a complex system like milk.
Lactose is involved in Maillard reaction with ammonia, amino acids or amines forming brown coloured
pigments as complexes. Lactose helps in assimilation of calcium and phosphorus from the small intestine
and has a beneficial effect.
Milk Fat
In milk, fat is present in the form of fat globules with an average size of 3 micron. If cool raw milk is kept
for sometime without mixing there is tendency for the fat globules to cluster and rise at the surface
forming cream layer. However, these globules are independent due to the presence of a protective fat
globule membrane layer. Fat is distributed in continuous aqueous phase as an oil-in-water type emulsion.
The membrane prevents the merging of fat globules and formation of a continuous
fat phase.
FGM:fat globule membrane
The physical properties of the milk fat are determined by the nature and proportion of its constituents. The
colour varies from yellow (due to carotene) to whitish light blue tinge due to bilirubin. The melting and
setting of the fat takes place over a considerable range of about 50 C. The ranges are 28-33oC and
24-29oC as the melting and setting points, respectively. This shows that fat is made up of several
components which is a mixture where different constituents at different temperatures have their own
melting point and other physical properties.
Milk fat has a specific gravity range of 0.936-0.946 at 15oC. Milk fat has a refractive index of 1.459-1.462
at 15oC. It is slightly soluble in ethanol but is readily soluble in hot amyl alcohol.
Chemical Properties of Milk Fat: True fats are glyceride esters of higher fatty Acids and Oleic, polmitic,
butyric, stearic and myristic acids are the five major fatty acids.. While many of these fatty acids are
odourless and almost tasteless some of them such as butyric acid possess strong odour. The libration of
butyric acid leads to rancidity of fat caused by hydrolysis.
Milk fat also contains oleic and palmitic acids like other fats representing one-third and one-fourth of total
fatty acids, respectively. However there are the minor constituents, which distinguish milk fat from other
fats.
Milk Salts
In milk, salts are represented by the “non-combustible matter” known as “ash”. The ash constitute the
mineral matter of milk which is present to the extent of 0.7 per cent. The ash content is normally constant
in milk. A higher value indicate an abnormal condition of the mammary gland. The important salt
constituent present in milk ash are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium chloride, citrate
and sulphur. Calcium and phosphorus are the pre-requisite for bone formation in the body. Milk is a very
rich source of calcium.
Milk Vitamins
Milk is a very rich source of most of the vitamins except vitamin C. Almost all the vitamins are present is
milk. Milk contains both fat soluble and water soluble vitamins
Role of constituents of milk and milk products
● Growth
● Supply of energy
● Maintenance of body
● Recovery from disease
● Reproduction
● Provide taste and appetite and palatability.
Processing of Milk
Raw milk as produced on the farm and transported to the collection centre or a dairy plant generally
contains varying amounts of visible, invisible impurities. This foreign matter includes straw and hair
pieces, dust particles, leukocytes (somatic cells or white blood cells), insects, etc. If not effectively
removed, such extraneous insoluble matter can result in deposits in milk handling equipment such as
cooler, etc., and, more importantly, cause unsightly appearance.
Relatively large pieces of such material e.g. straw, hair and insects, are usually removed by ‘straining’
(passing the milk through a fine metal–gauge strainer or metallic sieve on the farm, at the collection
centre or at the processing plant. Tubular sieves located in the milk inlet pipe to the processing unit (e.g.
pasteurizer) are also used.
However, finer foreign matter to be eliminated requires clarification using a special filter or a centrifuged
clarifier. These steps of aesthetic improvement of product are particularly useful for overcoming the
problem of sediments in fluid milk and liquid milk products in general, and homogenized milk in
particular.
Filtration
Filtration (or, clarification using a filter-bag) refers to making the milk pass through a filter-cloth or
filter-pad. The filtering medium has a pore size (25-100 mm) that permits most of the foreign matter to be
retained on it. The milk filter consists of a nylon filter-bag or a filter-pad supported on a perforated
stainless steel (SS) support held in an SS enclosure with a tight-fitting lid, milk distributor, and inlet- and
outlet- connections. Milk usually passes from top to bottom.
Filtration can be carried out either on cold milk (about 10o C) or warm milk (40-45 oC). Since warm milk
filtration is more rapid due to lower viscosity of warm milk, it is universally used. For cold filtration, the
filter is located in the line connecting the milk receiving tank or holding tank and the pasteurizer. Since
warm filtration requires preheating, the filter of this type is placed between the regenerator and the final
heating section of the HTST pasteurizer.
Clarification
As an alternative to filtration, clarification can also be employed to remove insoluble impurities especially
the finer ones. It involves the use of a centrifugal machine called ‘clarifier’. Thus, clarification is a
process of subjecting milk to a centrifugal force in order to eliminate the finer but heavier particles from
milk, somatic cells, dust particles, etc. Although part of bacteria are also removed along with the
extraneous matter, clarification cannot be considered an effective means of bacteria removal.
Separation
Milk contains fat and non-fat constituents, also called solids-not-fat (SNF). Fat is present as globules
whereas the SNF form an ionic solution (e.g. certain salts), true solution (e.g. lactose and whey proteins),
or a colloidal solution (e.g. casein micelles) in the water part of milk. Thus, milk represents an emulsion
in which the relatively large fat globules are dispersed in the continuous aqueous phase (serum). Since fat
globules are lighter as compared to other solids, they tend to readily separate out from the serum (or skim
milk), as can be seen in the formation of a ‘cream’ layer on the top of milk held undisturbed in a container
for a few hours. Cream is that portion of milk, which is rich in milk fat, but poorer in SNF. This suggests
that much of the fat can be easily separated in the form of cream from milk, leaving behind the skim milk
containing very little fat. Cream separation enables the processor to manufacture a variety of fat-rich dairy
products such as cream of various types, butter, ghee, etc. Cream separation also makes it possible to
adjust the composition of milk with respect to its fat and SNF contents.
Methods of Separation
Two methods of separation of cream from milk are commonly used: (i) gravity separation and (ii)
centrifugal separation. Both these methods rely on the basic principle of separation of two immiscible
liquids having different densities, under the influence of gravitational or centrifugal force.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization is a key process in modern dairy plant operations and forms an integral part of
manufacturing of various indigenous and western dairy products. Milk is a perfect medium for growth of
micro-organisms, and growth of pathogenic organisms can cause diseases such as tuberculosis and
typhus. Pasteurization kills the organisms responsible for spread of diseases through milk and makes it
safe for consumption.
The word ‘pasteurization’ has been named after an eminent French scientist, Louis Pasteur. In general
terms it is heating milk or its products to such a temperature, which destroys nearly all the
microorganisms present in it without affecting the composition or properties of the product. Thus it is
important to monitor the pasteurization process as improperly/under pasteurized milk can cause the
[Link] is one of the most important heat treatment processes. The term as applied to
market milk refers to the process of heating every particle of milk to a temperature of at least 63°C
(145.4°F) for 30 minutes or 71.7°C (161°F) for 15 seconds (or to the temp-time combination which is
equally efficient) in properly designed equipment. Milk is immediately cooled to 4°C and stored in cold
storage maintained at 4°+1°C.
As per definition of International Dairy Federation (IDF) “Pasteurization is a process applied to a product
with an objective of minimizing possible health hazard arising from pathogenic microorganisms
associated with milk by heat treatment, which is consistent with minimal chemical, physical and
organoleptic changes in the product”.
The heat treatments suggested by the IDF for the pasteurization of milk are 15 seconds at 71.7°C=161°F
or 30 minutes at 62.8°C=145°F can be regarded as “universal” reference treatments.
Three aspects emerging from the definition are:
(i) level and degree of heat treatment,
(ii) minimum chemical, physical and organoleptic changes, and
(iii) minimum health hazards.
i. Time-Temperature Combination
The time-temperature combinations normally used for pasteurization of fluid milk are as follows:
63°C (145.4°F) and held at that temperature for at least 30 minutes 72°C (161.6°F) and held at that
temperature for at least 15 seconds.
The milk is then immediately cooled to a temperature not greater than 4°C. The selected heat treatment
shall be applied only once. This means pasteurization includes heating to a specific time-temperature
combination followed by immediate cooling to 4°C.
ii. Purpose
Milk is pasteurized for two purposes:
❖ To make safe for human consumption by destroying pathogenic microorganisms present in milk.
❖ To improve its keeping quality.
The most heat resistant pathogenic organism at pasteurization temperature is the Mycobacterium
tuberculosis and hence this has been made as an index organism to achieve complete safety of milk. Any
heat treatment, which will destroy this organism, can be relied upon to destroy all other pathogenic
organisms as well as other organisms involved in milk spoilage. Some bacteria, call thermodurics (heat
resisting) may survive during pasteurization but immediately cooling slows down their growth and thus
prevents them causing spoilage such as flavour taint or souring. Although, the main purpose of heat
treatment is to destroy all microorganisms capable of causing disease in humans but pasteurization has
two additional benefits, i.e. the destruction of a large number of spoilage microorganisms present in raw
milk and deactivation of some natural enzymes like lipases, which can adversely affect the quality of
manufactured products, i.e. lipolysis or breakdown of fat into glycerol and free fatty acid. However, we
must be clear that pasteurization is not a substitute for cleanliness during milk production. The
pasteurization process should only be applied to raw milk obtained from healthy cow, which is clean,
sweet and has a low bacterial count.
Definition of Homogenized Milk
The United State Public Health Service has proposed one of the most comprehensive definitions for
homogenized milk. This has been the most widely accepted and referred definition. It states that
“Homogenized milk is milk which has been treated in such manner as to ensure break-up of the fat
globules to such an extent that after 48 hours of quiescent storage no visible cream separation occurs in
the milk and the fat percentage of the milk in the top 100 ml of milk in a quart bottle (946ml), or of the
proportionate volumes in containers of other sizes, does not differ by more than 10 per cent of itself from
the fat percentage of the remaining milk as determined after thorough mixing.
Theories of Homogenization
The principle underlying the process of homogenization is to subject the fat globule to enough severe
conditions, which disrupts it into smaller globules. The newly formed fat globules are maintained in
dispersion for sufficient time to allow milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) to be formed at the fat-serum
interface. The following theories have been proposed to be responsible for the entire phenomenon.
Shearing or Grinding:
As milk is passed at high pressure (velocity ~ 200-300 m s-1 ) through the homogenizer valve (~ 100 mm
gap), fat globules undergo shearing action. The shear between fat globules and the surface of the
homogenizer wall coupled with wire drawing effect results in elongation of the fat globules which
progressively becomes unstable. These phenomenon result in subdivision of the fat globules.
Furthermore, the difference in velocity of the faster moving serum phase at the centre of the liquid stream
as compared to the liquid near the edge of the stream causes the fat globules to grind against each other.
The turbulence created by the difference in velocity and eddy currents of the liquid add to the shear
effects and thus enhance the process of disruption of the fat globules.
Exploding:
This theory suggests that during homogenization, there is build up of tremendous pressure. When this
pressure is suddenly released, the internal pressures within the fat globules pull the globule apart with
exploding effect. This results in disintegration or subdivision of fat globules into smaller globules.
Splashing/Shattering:
As the high homogenizing pressure is attained in the homogenizer, the homogenizing valve releases the
highly compressed milk at very high velocity. The liquid suddenly strikes a retaining wall/ perpendicular
surface. This causes a splashing or shattering effect on the fat globules resulting in break down of
globules into smaller sizes.
Acceleration and Deceleration:
This theory relates sudden change in velocity of milk as it passes through homogenizer to the
homogenization effect. When milk enters the homogenizer valve, velocity of milk changes from almost
static to very high velocity. As it comes out of the valve, there is sudden deceleration at a rate at which it
was accelerated. This sudden change in velocity results in shattering effect leading to division of fat
globules.
Cavitation:
It is postulated that as the milk passes through the homogenization valve, the initial homogenization
pressure decreases sharply due to sudden increase in the velocity of milk. Depending on the back pressure
that exists outside the homogenizer valve, the pressure can drop to as low as the saturated vapour pressure
of liquid. This leads to formation of vapour bubbles due to cavitation. Cavitation generates shock waves,
which could be in excess of 1600 kg/cm2 in intensity. Due to overlapping of these shock waves,
disintegration of the fat globules may occur.
Advantages
● Prevents removal of fat/cream from milk
● Homogenized milk results in softer curd and therefore easily digested by infants
● Churning of fat does not occur during bulk transportation
● Fat is uniformly distributed and therefore gives uniform consistency
● Homogenized milk is comparatively resistant to development of oxidized flavour defect
Disadvantages
● Homogenization offers possibility of incorporation of foreign fat into milk
● Homogenized milk is prone to development of ‘sunlight’ or ‘activated’ flavour defect
● Homogenized milk if returned unsold from the market is difficult to salvage as centrifugal
separation of fat is not possible
An overview of types of market milk and milk products
When natural constituents of whole milks have been altered by addition, removal, exchange and/or
treatment, the resultant milk is designated as special milk. Recent years have witnessed a large increase in
the market penetration of special types of milk into the total fluid milk market. In India, there is great
seasonal fluctuation in the production of milk on account of which many milk plants have to run below
their installed capacity, particularly during the lean season. Besides, the cost of whole milk generally
remains very high throughout the year. Production of recombined milk and low fat toned milk have
greatly helped in extending the market supply and reducing the cost of milk to the consumers. The
machinery and manpower of a market milk plant can be fully utilized all the year round by such
diversifications.
Full cream milk
● Full cream milk means milk, or a combination of cow or buffalo milk or a product which has
been prepared by a combination of both, which has been standardized to fat percentage of 6.0 and
solids-not-fat (SNF) percentage of 9.0 by adjustment or addition of milk solids.
● Full cream milk must be pasteurized.
● It should show a negative phosphatase test.
● Upon pasteurization, it should be packaged in clean and sanitary containers and should be
properly sealed in order to prevent subsequent contamination.
Toned milk
● Toned milk means the milk obtained by the addition of water and skim milk powder to whole
milk.
● In practice, whole buffalo milk is admixed with reconstituted spray dried skim milk for its
production.
● Under the PFA Rules (1976), toned milk should contain a minimum of 3.0 per cent fat and 8.5 per
cent solids-not-fat throughout the country, whereas double toned milk should contain a
minimum of 1.5 per cent fat and 9.0 per cent solids-not-fat throughout India.
Standardized milk
● Standardized milk is a product, whose fat and/or solids-not-fat (SNF) content have been adjusted
to a certain pre-determined level.
● Under the PFA Rules (1976), the standardized milk for liquid consumption should contain a
minimum of 4.5% fat and 8.5% SNF throughout the country.
● The standardization can be done either by partially skimming the fat in the milk with a cream
separator, or by admixture with fresh or reconstituted skim milk in proper proportions.
Advantages
Standardized milk offers several advantages such as:
● It ensures a milk of practically uniform and constant composition and nutritive value to the
consumers.
● The surplus fat can be converted into butter and ghee.
● It becomes possible to supply cheaper milk as compared to the full cream milk.
● It is more easily digestible because of less fat content as compared to full cream milk
Skim milk
Skim milk is a by-product of cream separation process. It is mainly used for standardization of milk and
cream.
Constituent % (Average)
Water 90.6
Fat 0.1
Protein 3.6
Lactose 5.0
Ash 0.7
Recombined milk
● Recombined milk refers to the product obtained when butter oil (also called dry/ anhydrous milk
fat), skim milk powder and water are combined in the correct proportion to yield fluid milk.
● The milk fat may also be obtained from other sources, such as unsalted butter or plastic cream.
However, production of recombined milk is currently not in practice.
● Under PFA rules, recombined milk should contain a minimum of 3.0 per cent fat and 8.5 per cent
solids-not-fat throughout the country.
Advantages
● It helps in making up the shortage of fresh milk supplies in developing countries.
● Helps prevent price rise of liquid milk in cities.
Reconstituted milk
Reconstituted milk refers to milk prepared by dispersing whole milk powder in water (approximately in
the proportion of 1 part powder to 7-8 parts water). During the lean season, reconstituted milk is the main
source of milk supply in cities.
Advantages
● It helps in making up the shortage of fresh milk supplies.
● It is used by the military forces
Flavoured milk
Flavoured milk is milk to which some flavour has been added. When the ‘milk’ is used, the product
should contain a milk fat percentage at least equal to the minimum legal requirement for market milk. But
when the fat level is lower (1-2 per cent), the term ‘drink’ is used.
Types of Flavoured Milk
The main types of flavoured milk are as follows:
● chocolate milk/drink
● fruit flavoured milk/drink
● sterilized flavoured milk/drink
Flow chart of milk processing
Receiving water in pasteurizing vat
⬇
Pre-heating (38-43℃)
⬇
Addition of skim milk powder and mixing,
and addition of whole buffalo milk and mixing
⬇
Filtration
⬇
Pasteurization (63oC/ 30 min)
⬇
Cooling (5℃)
⬇
Packaging and Storage (5℃)