Give a detailed description of the agronomy of an annual crop.

Agronomy. Refers to the science that integrates crop production and soil management.

Agronomy can also be defined as the manipulation of plant genetics and the biotic and abiotic
environment it interacts with to increase food productivity.

One of the agronomic terms includes annual crops. Annual plants are plants that complete their
life cycle in one year. They germinate, grow, bear fruits and dye off within a year. Examples of
annual crops include maize, beans, water melon, and lettuce among others.

Maize as an annual crop.

The botanical name of maize is Zea ‘mays

Maize is the most important cereal crop in Uganda providing over 40% of the calories consumed
in both rural and urban areas. The crop has increasingly become a staple food in many parts of
the country. Small scale farmers who constitute the bulk of the rural population also account for
the largest share of maize production.

Classification of maize.

Kingdom: plantae

Phylum: tracheophyta

Class: liliopsida

Order: poales.

Family: poaceae

Genus: zea

Species: zea mays

Types of maize

Dent corn. It is also called field corn. It is majorly grown in the United States .It is mainly used
for livestock feed. It is called Dent corn because it has a dent a dent in the kernel. This type of
corn is not eaten fresh and is hardened when the kernels are dry.
Sweet maize. It is picked while its not fully grown so that this way its higher in sugar, making it
taste sweet.

Flint maize. It has a hard outer layer resistant to pests and harsh conditions. It is used for foods
and also decorations.
Popcorn. It is a type of flint corn. It has a hard shell and a soft, moist center. When it is heated
the moisture causes pressure when eventually explodes.

Wavy maize. It is high in amylopectine starch used in food processing and adhesives.

Floor maize. Soft, has starch kernels for making flour e.g. blue corn.

Common hybrid and improved varieties include.

Long series: long 10H. A popular hybrid variety known for its good milling ability and field
performance.

Hybrid varieties. Bazooka. A hybrid variety known for its high yield potential and sustainability
for mid-altitude areas.
New drought-tolerant varieties.

SC301, SC513, SC403. White maize varieties known for their drought tolerance.

Vitamo 40 and 50. Newer yellow maize varieties.

Root systems of maize

Maize is a monocotyledonous plant that develops a fibrous root system comprised of embryonic
roots and post-embryonic roots.

The embryonic roots include the primary root which is the first root to emerge from the seed,
which is short-lived. It also has seminal roots which emerge from the base of the seedling and are
crucial for early water and nutrient absorption.

Maize also has post-embryonic roots which include;

Nodal roots and brace roots which are also called prop roots.

The nodal roots develop from the stem nodes above the soil and become the main roots for water
and nutrient up take in older plant.

Brace roots emerge from the lower nodes of the stem and grow into the soil, providing additional
support an anchorage to the plant, especially in windy conditions.

Growth conditions of the maize plant.

Soils. Maize grows best on deep, well-drained fertile soils, and where total seasonal rainfall
exceeds 50mm. maize is reasonably tolerant to soil acidity, but if then soil is very acidic, liming
will improve the soil and enhance maize yields. Maize is susceptible to both drought and water
logging. Thus poorly drained soils should be avoided, unless logging. Thus poorly drained soils
should be avoided, unless practice like ridge tillage, drainage and early planting are employed.

Water. Maize is susceptible to both drought and water logging therefore some form of water
conservation is important for example pot-holing, mulching, tied-ridges especially in the drier
areas.

Temperature. Maize seeds require a soil temperature of at least 50-600 Fahrenheit to germinate
through the ideal range is 65-85 degrees. Fahrenheit. Maize grows between 24-30 degrees
Celsius during day and 15-21 degrees Celsius at night.
Temperature above 38 degrees Celsius affect yield by affecting pollen variability while
temperatures below 10 degrees Celsius retards maize growth.

Agronomic practices carried out during maize production

Soil preparation.

Choose the right soil, maize thrives in well drained soils with a good supply of nutrients and
moisture. Avoid water logged or compacted soils. This is because water logged soils hinder root
development and nutrient uptake.

Soil testing. Determine the soil PH and nutrient levels to identify any deficiencies and estimate
fertilizer needs.

Observe indicator plants. In the absence of a soil test, observe the presence of indicator plants
that show fertility such as elephant grass, Guinea grass, Commelina spp among others.

Land preparation.

Bush clearing and debris removal clear the land of weeds, trees and stumps.

Tilling. Turn the soil to a depth of 30cm, using manual labor, animal traction or tractors

Ensure good drainage. Make sure that the soil is well-drained to prevent water logging.

Weed control. Apply herbicides or remove weeds before planting to prevent competition for
resources.

Fine tilth. Create a fine tilth caloose, crumbly soil structure for better seed-soil contact water
inclination.

Seed selection. Choose high quality, disease free maize seeds adapted to local growing
conditions.

Seed treatment. Before planting, treat seeds with appropriate chemicals to protect them against
pests and diseases.

Planting depth and spacing

Plant seeds at a depth of 2-3 inches (5.7.5cm) and maintain adequate spacing between lows and
[plants.(e.g. 60cm between plant, 75cm between rows)
Timing

Plant maize during the rainy season to ensure adequate moisture for germination and growth.

Field management.

Weed control. Implement effective weed control measures for example chemical weed control.
(Use of herbicides).

The herbicides are divided into pre-emergency herbicides, post-emergency herbicides and
elyphosate.

Pre-emergence herbicides.

Apply herbicides like Lumax (containing terbuthylazine, mesotrione, and [Link] ) before
maize seeds emerge.

Pest and disease management. Monitor plants regularly for pests and diseases and take
appropriate control measures focusing on nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Water management. Ensure adequate moisture, especially during critical growth stages flowering
and grain filling.

Top dressing. Apply top dressing fertilizers e.g. urea at the knee height stage (35-40 days)

Harvesting

Maturity. Harvest maize when the kernel are mature and dry, indicated by the drying of the husk
and kernel.

Storage. Store harvested maize in a dry, well, ventilated place to prevent spoilage.

Germination of the maize plant.

Germination is the process where a seed or spore begins to grow and develop into a new plant.

Conditions necessary for germination to take place in maize plants.

Water. Water is essential for seeds swelling, breaking down the maize seed coat and activating
enzymes that initiate growth.

Oxygen. Oxygen is necessary for aerobic respiration which provides the energy the embryo
needs to carryout cell division and grow.
Temperature. Seeds normally germinate within a wide temperature range but freshly harvested
seeds of several plants germinate only within a narrow temperature range.

Light maize seeds require light to germinate.

Imbibition. The process starts with the seed adsorbing water, which causes the seed coat to swell
and soften.

Enzyme activation, water activates enzymes within the seed, initiating metabolic processes that
fuel growth.

Radicle emergency.

The radicle, the primary root, emerges from the seed, splitting the seed coat and growing down
wards.

Coleoptile emergence.

A few days after the radicle emerges, the coleoptile, a sheath that protects the embryo shoot
grows upward.

Mesocotyl elongation

The coleoptile is pushed through the soil by the elongation of the Mesocotyl. A part of the
embryonic stem.

Seminal root emergence

Seminal roots, which develop on the embryo above the radicle from the kernel.

Importance of maize production

For human nutrition.

Staple food. Maize is a staple food for over 1.2 million people in sub-Sahara Africa and Latin
America.

Nutrition value. It is a good source of carbohydrates, dietary fiber and other nutrients.

Versatile uses.

Maize is processed into various products like corn meal, grits, flour, tortillas and snacks.
Cultural significance. Maize plays a significant role cultural role in many regions, with various
traditional dishes and preparations.

For animal feed.

Livestock. Maize is a primary ingredient in animal feed, providing energy and protein.

Silage. The green maize plant can be made into silage, a valuable feed for livestock, especially
during seasons.

For economic development.

Income source. Maize production is a significant source of income for farmers, particularly in
developing countries.

Trade and industry. Maize is a major traded commodity, supporting local and international trade
and industries.

Bro fuel. Maize can be used to produce ethanol and other bio fuel, contributing to alternative
energy sources.

Starch and oil. Maize is a source of starch and oil, used in various food and non-food
applications.

Alcoholic beverages. Maize is used in the production of alcohol beverages.

Fences and walls. In some regions, maize stalks have been used to build fences and walls.

Nutrient requirement for maize.

Macro nutrients.

Nitrogen (N) A critical nutrient for overall plant growth and development, especially for leaf and
stem growth.

Potassium(K). Plays a crucial role in water balance, disease resistance and overall plant vigor.

Phosphorus(P). Essential for root development, flowering and seed formation.

Micronutrients.

Zinc (Zn). Important for enzyme activity and carbohydrate metabolism.

Manganese (Mn). Essential for chlorophyll synthesis and other metabolic processes.
Other micronutrients. Maize also requires other micronutrients like copper, magnesium in small
amounts.

Soil PH and nutrient availability.

Maize thrives in a soil PH range of 5.8 to 6.0.

Soil microbial activity is optimized at around PH 6.0 which is important for nutrient cycling and
biological activity.

When soil PH drops below S.S. the availability of magnesium, calcium, potassium and
molybdenum decrease.

A soil test before planting is recommended to determine whether line is needed to adjust soil PH.

Fertilizer application.

Nitrogen (N) Getting the right amount and timing of nitrogen is crucial. Livestock mature can be
a good source of nitrogen.

Phosphorus and potassium. These should be a problem, especially in soil tests and crop needs.

Magnesium. Magnesium deficiency can be a problem, especially in soils with low magnesium
levels, magnesium limestone or kiese rite can be used to address this.

Manganese

Manganese deficiency can occur, especially at high PH levels. Yield response are expected in
maize growing in soils of PH or more when the easily reduce Mn level falls below song 11.

Weeds that affect maize

These include field bindweed, melde foots.

Field bindweed. It is a perennial weed that can severely compete with maize for resources.

Melde. Competes with maize for nutrients reducing yield.

Goose foot (chenopodium album). It competes with maize for nutrients and water.

Other weeds include knot weed, speedwell among others.

Weed control

Chemical weed control (herbicides)

Apply herbicides like Lumax before maize seedlings emerge to prevent weed germination.

These herbicides offer broad-spectrum control of both grass and broad leaf weeds. Like Brome,
Ryegrass

Post emergency herbicides. These include Atrazine for broadleaf weed control.

Application. Apply post-emergency herbicides when weeds are young and actively growing, but
before the maize crop is too tall.

Glyphosate. It is a non-selective herbicide meaning it kills any plant it comes into contact with.

Application. Apply before planting or after planting but before maize emerges.

Safety. Ensure the glyphosate comes into contact with the weeds, not just the ground.

Mechanical and control

Hand weeding to remove weeds between rows and around maize plants.

Timing. Weeding should be done regularly especially in the early stages of maize growth.

Use animal-drawn cultivators to remove weeds between rows.

Mouldboard ploughing. Use a mould board plough to remove weeds in the field.

Crop rotation. This helps to break the weed cycle and reduce weed population.

Other considerations include;

Ensuring the soil is moist but not too wet or too dry when applying herbicides.

Diseases that affect maize

These include

Physoderma brown spot

Fungus: physoderma maydis

Symptoms

Lesions starts as small yellowish spots that turn dark-purple to black, oval spots usually occur on
the midribs of leaves.

Dark-purple, round spots may also occur on leaf sheaths, stalk and sometimes on the outer ear
husks and tassels of maize.

Northern corn leaf Blight (NCL/HL)

Causal organism

Fungus: Helminthosporium turcicum (syn. Evserohilum turcicum)

Long, elliptical, grayish-green or tan lesion ranging from 2.5 to 15 in length develop first on the
lower leaves.

Severe infection causes premature death and gray appearance that resembles frost or drought
injury.

Management and control

Grow seed co tolerant hybrids.

Apply folia fungicide sprays e.g. Abacus, Bravo wnen lesions occur on 1/3 of the leaves before
pollination.

Clean ploughing crop rotation, or both may reduce early season inoculum levels.

Grey leaf spot

Causal organization

Fungus: cercospora zea-maydis

Symptoms

Lessons are pale brown or grey to tan, long , narrow and rectangular, being characteristically
restricted by veins.

The lessons may merge forming large grey blotches with irregular margins killing the leaves.
Starts on lower leaves progressing upwards

Management and control

Grow seed co tolerant hybrids

Clean ploughing with crop rotation will reduce disease severity.

Apply foliar fungicide sprays e.g tilt, Amistan, Bravo

Pests affecting maize

Field pests

Stem bores. These are a major threat, with larvae tunneling into the stems, damaging the plant’s
ability to transport water and nutrients.

Examples include Bosseola fusca

Army worms, these caterpillars can defoliate maize plants, leading to significant yield losses.

Examples include fall army worm.

Shoot flies. These flies lay eggs on the maize shoots and the larvae can damage the developing
plant for example

Atherigona spp.

Black beetles . These beetles can chew into stems of maize plnat, causing damage.

Leaf shoppers. These insects can transmit diseases to maize plants

Storage pests.

Maize weevils. These weevils infest stored maize causing significant losses in grain quality and
quantity for example Sitophilus zeamais.

Lesser grain bores. These bores also damage stored maize. For example Rhyzopertha dominica.

Integrated pest management

Integrated pest managed is a holistic approach to pest populations at levels below those causing
economic damage, using a combination of strategies.
It’s a knowledge intensive, sustainable approach that combines compatible cultural, biological,
chemical and physical tools to minimize economic, health and environment risks.

Principles of integrated pest management in maize.

Prevention focus on preventing pests problems before they become significant.

Monitoring. Regularly scout fields to identify pests and their damage, and truck pest populations.

Decision-making. Use monitoring data to determine when and if pest control measures are
needed.

Non-chemical methods. Prioritize cultural practices, biological agents and physical methods for
pest control.

Pesticide selection. If pesticides are necessary, choose the least harmful options with the lowest
risk to humans and the environment.

Reduced pesticide use. Apply pesticides only when necessary and at the lowest effective rates.

Anti- resistance strategies. Implement strategies to prevent pest resistance to pesticides.

Evaluation. Regularly assess the effectiveness of integrated pest management practices and make
adjustments as needed.

Integrated pest management practices for maize

Cultural practices

Crop rotation. Rotate maize with other crops such as legumes to disrupt pest cycle and reduce
soil borne pests.

Weed management. Control weeds as they can harbor pests and provide alternative food sources.

Seed treatment. Use insecticide seed treatment to protect seedlings from early season pests.

Biological practices.

Natural predators. Encourage natural enemies of pests, such as predatory insects, birds by
maintaining diverse ecosystem.

Chemical practices

Insecticides
Use insecticides following label instructions carefully and considering the potential impact on
beneficial insects and the environment.

Reduced risk pesticides. Use pesticides with lower toxicity to humans and the environment.

References

Ahmad, A., Muhammad, A., & Khan, S. (2020). Agronomy: Principles and Practices. Springer.
Badu-Apraku, B., Fakorede, M. A. B., & Oyekunle, M. (2017). Maize improvement, production,
and utilization in sub-Saharan Africa. Academic Press.
FAO. (2018). Maize production and improvement strategies in Africa. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
Haque, M. E., Kim, S. Y., & Jo, J. H. (2021). Effect of environmental factors on maize growth
and productivity: A review. Agricultural Sciences, 12(5), 453-467.
Morris, M. L., Tripp, R., & Dankyi, A. A. (2018). Adoption and impact of improved maize
production technologies: A case study from Ghana. Food Policy, 41, 85-93.
National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO). (2020). Maize production guide for
Uganda: Best practices and recommendations. Kampala, Uganda.
Shiferaw, B., Prasanna, B. M., Hellin, J., & Bänziger, M. (2017). Crops that feed the world 7:
Maize (Zea mays L.). Food Security, 3(1), 307-327.