P.

5 SCIENCE LESSON NOTES FOR TERM II

THEME : THE ENVIRONMENT

SUB THEME : SOIL

TOPIC : SOIL AND ITS TYPES

CONTENT

SOIL
Soil is the top most loose layer of the earth’s surface.

Importance of soil
 Soil is a home for organisms eg earth worms and squirrels
 For crop growing
 For building houses

Importance of soil to crops

 Provides nutrients to growing crops

 Holds water for the crops

Composition of soil (components of soil/ Parts of soil)

 Air – 25%
 Water- 25%
 Humus – 5%
 Rock particle- 45%s
 Bacteria and fungi- varied

Organisms in the soil

 Earth worms
 Rats
 Snakes
 Squirrels
 Termites
 Moles
 Mice

A nest for a squirrel is A drey

1
HOW SOIL IS FORMED

i) weathering
ii) decomposition
a) Weathering: this is the process by which rocks are broken down into smaller particles to
form soil.
b) Decomposition of dead` matter: They rot and form humus/ soil by the action of bacteria.

Exercises

1. Name two living components of soil.

2. How is soil useful to plants?
3. Which component of soil is used by plants to make food?
4. Name two non-living components of soil.
5. Which type of soil formation results into humus?

LESSON II

Importance of humus in the soil

 Humus holds soil particles together.
 Humus balance soil temperature
 Humus gives soil its colour dark which absorbs heat from the sun.
 Improves soil aeration.

Note:

 How is humus formed?

 Decomposition of dead matter.

Water:

Importance of water

 It dissolves mineral salts in the soil to be absorbed by plants

 It is absorbed by plants to make food during photosynthesis
 It dissolves food in the seeds during germination.
 It softens soil particles

Air:
Both air and water are found in soil particles called pore spaces.
Importance of air in the soil.
 Oxygen is used for respiration by organisms in the soil.
 Nitrogen improves soil fertility

Note
2
  During germination oxygen is used by the embryo for respiration
 Nitrogen is used by plants to make plant proteins

EVALUATION:

1. Why is humus important to plant growth?

2. State the two ways in which soil is formed.
3. How is weathering different from decomposition in soil formation?
4. State the use of oxygen in soil.

LESSON III

Experiments

PRACTICAL 2 – To show that soil contains air.

 Get water and pour it in a beaker

 Get a lump of dirty soil and lower it into water in the beaker.

water

air bubbles

lump of soil

.Practical III – To show that soil contains humus

 Get a lump of soil and put in a beaker

 Add water to the lump of soil
 Stir and leave it to settle

humus

water

lump of soil

3
Observation
Bubbles of air seen coming out
Conclusion
Bubbles of air seen coming out represent air in the soil and therefore soil contains air.

PRACTICAL II – To show that soil contains water

Procedure

 Get a lump of soil and put it in a beaker

 Put the beak on fire while covering it

lid

water bubbles

vapour

lump of soil

Observation
Water droplets will be seen at the sides of the beaker.

Conclusion
Water droplets seen represent the water (moisture) evaporating from soil in form of water vapour
and therefore soil contains water (moisture).

PRACTICAL A
Soil drainage
Soil drainage is the ability of soil to lose water.
An experiment to find out the drainage or permeability of water through different soil procedure.
Get three glass jars
Get three glass funnels
Put loose cotton wool in each glass funnel

4
Half fill the funnels with equal volumes of dry sand soil, clay soil and loam soil as shown below.

A B C

loam sandy clay

Now pour equal volume of water in each funnel as shown above.

Observation

After an hour, more water is collected in the jar containing sandy soil followed by loam soil and
little water is collected in clay soil.

Conclusion

 Sand, soil allows water to pass through easily(has a high drainage)

 Clay soil has the lowest drainage because its particles are close to each other.

EVALUATION

 Why does sandy soil allow water to pass through it easily?

PRACTICAL B

Soil capillarity

An experiment to find out capillarity of different soil type.

Fill three long glass tubes (with open ends) with highly packed sandy, clay and loam soil and
plug (cover) the lower ends with cotton wool.

5
Stand tubes in about 3cm of water in a trough or basin as shown.

loam soil

X Y Z

clay soil sandy soil

water

cotton wool

Observation
After a few hours, it is found that water rises to be higher height in clay soil medium in loam soil
and lowest in sandy soil.

Conclusion
- The rate by which water rises up is fastest in sandy soil.
- Clay soil has the highest capillarity
- Sandy soil has the tastest capillarity

Soil exhaustion
Soil exhaustion
This is the loss of soil fertility

Causes of soil exhaustion

 Mono cropping
 Bush burning
 Leaching
 Soil erosion
 Deforestation
 Over grazing
 Over stocking
 Over cultivation
Note
1. Leaching of mineral salts

6
  Leaching is the sinking of plant nutrient to deeper soil layers where plant roots cannot
reach.
 It is caused by floods and stagnant water on the soil.

2. Soil erosion
This is the removal of top soil by its agents.

Agents of soil erosion

These are the things that enable soil erosion to take place. They include:-
 Strong wind
 Flowing water
 moving animals

Types of soil erosion

 Sheet erosion
 Rill erosion
 Splash erosion
 Gully erosion
Sheet erosion: This is where soil is carried away uniformly without creating channels. It is
caused by over cultivation and over grazing. Agents are strong mind and flowing water.
Rill erosion: This is when top soil is carried away by flowing water forming shallow channels
(rills). It occurs in a ploughed field.
Gully erosion: This is when top soil is a carried away by flowing water creating deep channels
or trenches (Gullies).

Causes of soil erosion

 Deforestation
 Over grazing
 Bush burning
 Over cultivation (over tilling of land)
 Over stocking of animals
 Mono cropping

Dangers of soil erosion

 Leads to loss of soil fertility
 Destroys crops
 Destroys roads

Prevention of soil erosion

NB: The methods used to prevent soil erosion are the same methods used for soil conservation
and controlling soil exhaustion. These include:-terracing, contour ploughing, mulching, crop
rotation, strip cropping, intercropping, planting cover crop, planting trees.

7
Terracing:: this when the slope is cut into steps (terraces) to reduce tthe
he speed of running water.
1. Give the difference between soil exhaustion and soil conserved
2. Define soil erosion
3. How can soil be conserved?
4. State three agents of soil erosion.
5. Define deforestation

Soil conservation and fertility

Soil conservation - The way of kkeeping soil fertile
Soil fertility - Soil fertility is the ability of soil to support plant growth.

Ways of maintaining soil fertility

 terracing
 mulching
 crop rotation
 bush fallowing
 manuring
 afforestation
 strip cropping
 inter cropping

A diagram showing bench terraces.

8
Fertilizers
These are substances that make the soil fertile.

Types of fertilizers
i) Natural fertilizers / organic
ii) Artificial fertilizers / inorganic

Natural / organic fertilizers

These are fertilizers made from decomposing plants and animals.
Examples
i) Compost manure (got from house hold refuse/ rubbish)
ii) Farm yard manure (got from urine and dung of domestic animals)
iii) Green manure (got from rotting plants)
iv) Organic mulches

Activity
1. Define
a. Natural fertilizers
b. Compost manure
2. How is green manure different from organic manure?
3. Why is humus referred to as a natural fertilizer?

Advantages of natural fertilizers

i) They improve soil texture
ii) They improve the ability of soil to hold water
iii) They stay in the soil for a long time.
iv) They cannot spoil the soil.
NB: Soil texture. The different sizes of soil particles.

Disadvantages of natural fertilizers

i) They smell badly
ii) They are tiring to make
iii) Plant and animal wastes are not easily available

Artificial fertilizers
These are fertilizers made from factories.
Note: They contain large quantities of plant nutrient

Types of artificial fertilizers

 straight / single fertilizers

 compound fertilizers

9
Straight / single fertilizers
These are fertilizers that contain and supply only one major plant nutrient.

Examples of straight fertilizers

 nitrates (N)
 Phosphorus (P)
 Potassium (K)

Compound fertilizers
These are fertilizers that contain and supply more than one major plant nutrient.

Examples of compound fertilizers

 Combined Nitrates, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK)

 Calcium. Ammonium and Nitrates(CAN)

Advantages of artificial fertilizers

 They react very fast especially those that dissolve in water.

 They have directions for use.
 They are made for a particular crop whose nutrients are known.

Disadvantages of artificial fertilizers

 Some have bad smell

 They kill some important organisms in the soil
 They stay in the soil for a short time.

Methods of applying manure

 Top dressing
 Spraying
 Broad casting
 Placement

Harmful materials are substances which make the soil lose its fertility.

Examples of harmful materials

1. Broken glasses / tins
2. Polythene papers
3. Used oil from engines
4. Pesticides

10
 5. Artificial fertilizers
6. Scrap metals

Effects of harmful materials

i) Oils kill the micro organisms in the soil.
ii) Polythene papers prevent water and air from entering into the soil.
iii) Scrap prevent farmers from digging the soil
iv) Pesticides kill micro organisms in the soil

Revise
i) Differences between mass and weight

Topical tests
THEME: MATTER AND ENERGY
TOPIC: HEAT ENERGY
MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight

Examples of matter
Air, water, cooking gas, animals, pasture, plants etc.

Properties of matter
Matter occupies space
Matter has weight
Matter expands when heated
Matter exerts pressure

States of matter
Solid , liquid, gaseous state.

SOLID STATE
Properties

 Particles are very closely packed together

 It has a definite shape
 It has a high force of cohesion

Note:
An atom - The smallest particle of matter that takes part in a chemical reaction.
A molecule – The smallest physical unit of a substance that can exist on its own.

11
Arrangement of molecules in a solid

Closely packed molecules (due to high cohesion)

Cohesion force
The force of attraction between molecules of this same substances

Application of cohesion force

- Brick making
- Making soft board
- Making books
- Making chalk

Examples of solids

 Wood
 Book
 Stone
 Iron
 Maize
Liquid state
Properties of a liquid
 It takes the shape of a container
 Its molecules are slightly packed
 It has a low rate of cohesion i.e. a force of holding molecules

Examples of liquids
 Water
 Paraffin
 Diesel
 Milk
 Petrol
Arrangement of molecules in a liquid

Slightly packed molecule

12
Note:
Adhesion force : The force of attraction between molecules of different substance

Application of adhesion force

- Glue sticking papers together
- Paint on the wall
- Water drops from a glass
- Writing on the chalkboard

Questions
1. Which force binds soft board parts together ?
Cohesion
2. Which force enables chalk to stick on the chalkboard?
Adhesion

Pressure in liquids
force
- Pressure is a force acting on a unit area. i.e pressure =
area
- The unit for pressure is pascal (pa)
Properties of liquids – continuation
Liquids or water exerts pressure
- Pressure in liquids increase with depth
Note
- This is because the farther down you go, the greater the weight of a liquid above

Illustrations
- Pressure at the bottom is greater

Water

Water flowing vot

- Pressure is the same in all directions at the same level

Water flowing out

13
 - Liquids find their own level
Illustration

Examples of liquids
 Water
 Milk
 Paraffin
 Petrol
 Diesel

Note
 Thick liquids are called viscous like mercury porridge, honey, glue and body lotion.

Gaseous state
Properties of a gas
 Its molecules move freely to different directions.
 Its molecules are far apart from each other.
 It does not take up the shape of the container.

Arrangement of molecules in a gas

Examples of gases
 oxygen
 nitrogen
 rare gases
 carbon dioxide

Examples of rare gases

 Helium
 Neon
 argon
 Krypton
 -xenon

14
Changes of states of matter.
This takes place when there is a slight change in temperature.
The following process are involved when matter is changing from one state to another:-
Melting: this is a process by which a solid changes to a liquid eg. When ice melt to water.

Ice (solid) water (liquid)

Melting

Heat

When ice (solid) is heated, it melts to water (liquid)

Evaporation: this is a process by which a liquid changes to a gas eg water when heated
evaporates to water vapour. (Steam)
Water (Liquid) water vapour

Evaporation

Heat

When liquids are heated, they charge to water vapour (steam) which is a gaseous state.

Freezing: this is a process by which a liquid changes to a solid eg when water is cooled to form
ice ( solid)

water (liquid) ice cold

Freezing cooling

Condensation: This is a process by which a gas changes to a liquid eg when water vapour is
cooled to form water (liquid).

Steam / gas water (liquid)

Condensation

15
Sublimation: this is a process by which a solid changes to a gas directly without passing
through liquid state eg. When Naphthalene (moss balls) are heated or cooled. This can be
summarized as shown below.

Summary table for changes of states of matter

Freezing Condensation

Solids Melting LIQUID Evaporation Gases

dposition

sublimation

MIXTURE
Mixture Practical 6
A mixtures is a combination of two or more substances.

Examples of mixtures

 Salt solution
 Salt and sand
 Beans and stones
 Flour and iron fillings
 Sugar solution
 Air

Solution
A solution is a uniform mixture of a solute and a solvent

Examples of solutions
- Salt solution
- Sugar solution
- Salt sugar solution

Types of solution
- Dilute solution
- Concentrated solution
- Saturated solution
- Super saturated solution

Dilute solution

16
This is a solution that contains a small amount of solute in a large amount of solvent.

Note:
Dilution is the process of making of a concentrated solution week by adding water.

Concentrated solution
This is a solution that contains a large amount of solute in a small amount of solvent.

Saturated solution
This is a solution which cannot dissolve any more solute on stirring but only on heating.

Supper saturated solution

This is a solution which cannot dissolve any one solute even after heating it.

Soluble substances
These are substances which dissolve in liquids (water)

Examples
- Salt
- Sugar
- Glucose
- Milk powder

Note
- All soluble substances are solutes.
- A solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent.

Insoluble substances
- These are substances that do not dissolve in liquids (water)
Examples
- Maize flour
- Cassava flour
- Tea leave
- Soil
Suspension
A suspension is a mixture of a solvent and an insoluble substance
Examples of suspension
- Mixture of maize flour and water
- Mixture of soil and water
- Mixture of cassava flour and water
Methods of separating mixtures
i) Using a magnet
ii) Decanting
iii) Filtration

17
 iv) Floatation
v) Hand picking / sorting
vi) Evaporation / boiling to dryness
dryness.
a) Decanting / Decantation : This is separation of solid particles from liquids by leaving a
residues to settle at the bottom of water
Diagram
Solids to settle at the bottom
Dirty water

Clean water (decant) )

b) Filtering / Filtration : This is separation of solids from liquids using a filter paper. i.e.
c) Solid particles remain on filter paper and the clear liquid passes through.

Application of filtration
i) To squeeze orange juice
ii) To squeeze passion juice
iii) To squeeze pineapple
ineapple juice
iv) To get clean water for washing clothes

Diagram

Clean water / filtrate

18
Note
Filtered water is not good for drinking because filtration does not kill germs.
d) Distillation: It is the process of separating a liquid from a solid by evaporation and
condensation.

Diagram

Separation of liquids
Two or more liquids mixed together can be separated by:
Fractional distillation: used to separate liquids of the same density but vapourize / evaporate
at different temperature eg. water and alcohol.
It can also be used to separate liquids of different densities which do not mix easily eg. oil
and water , petrol and paraffin.

SEPARATION OF SOLIDS
Two solids mixed together can be separated using the following methods:-
a) Floatation : This is separation of a mixture where one solid sinks and the other float eg. a
mixture of saw dust and sand, a mixture of good beans and bad beans.
b) Using a magnet: This method is used to separate mixture of two solids where one is
magnetic and the other is non-magnetic eg. a needle in as jar of maize, a nail in bricks.
c) Hand picking or sorting: It’s used to separate big pieces from small pieces eg. stones
from rice, soya, beans from peas.

Energy
Energy is ability to do work.

Types of energy

19
There are two types of energy these are:-
1. Potential energy
2. Kinetic energy

Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object at rest.

 A baby sleeping in a coat

 A car standing still at traffic light
 A pupil sitting still listening to the teacher.
 A stone, book, ruler resting on a table ground or cupboard

Note

D Block D has more potential energy

A Block A has least potential energy

Why

 Block D has more potential energy because it has more force of gravity acting on it than
others.

Kinetic energy
This is the energy possessed by moving objects. It is referred to as energy in motion.

Examples of kinetic energy

A girl running along the road
An arrow flying up in air
A leaf falling down from a tree.
NB: A girl who runs with either a stone, bottle or book balancing on her head posseses kinetic
energy while the stone bottle and book possesses potential; energy.

Forms of energy

20
  Light energy
 Heat energy
 Sound energy
 Electrical energy
 Mechanical energy
 Nuclear energy
 Chemical energy
 magnetic energy

Energy chances / interventions

An experiment

B D

A E

At; A - Potential energy

B - Kinetic energy
C - Potential energy
D - Kinetic energy
E - Potential energy

Changes: AB - Potential energy changes to kinetic energy

BC - Kinetic energy changes to potential energy
CD - Potential energy changes to Kinetic energy

21
 DE - Kinetic energy changes to potential energy

Forms of energy produced at E.

 Heat energy
 Sound energy
 Light energy

The swing

A B C

A - Potential energy
B - Kinetic energy
C - Potential energy
1. How is potential energy different from Kinetic energy
2. Give examples of each forms of energy

Force:
This is a pull or push of an object.

Examples of Force
- Friction
- Gravity
- Inertia
- Buoyancy
a) Friction
This is the force that opposes motion between two surfaces.
Advantages of friction
- Enables man to walk
- Helps us to write on paper
- Enabled early man to produce fire.
- Helps objects to move and stop
22
 Disadvantages of friction
- Produces heat in engines
- Causes
ses wear and tear in machines
- Causes noise in machines
- Retards movement and delays work.
b) Inertia
Inertia is a force that makes a body to rest in its state oof steady motion.

Types of inertia
i) Inertia at rest
ii) Inertia in motion
c) Buoyancy (up thrust force)
This is the upward force in water.

Heat energy
This is a form of energy that increases temperature of a body or an object. Calorimeter measures
heat energy.

Source of heat
These are things that produce heat eenergy. They include:-

 Stars
 Electricity
 The sun. This is the main source of heat
 Friction
 Candle flame
 Burning charcoal
 Volcanic eruption
The main source of heat (light) or energy is the sun.
Uses of heat energy
 For cooking food
 For drying harvested crops
 For drying washed clothes
 For killing germs
 For preserving food
 Helps in rain formation

23
 Dangers of heat
 Burns people
 Destroy property
 Dries crops
Effects of heat on matter
 It expands matter
 It rises temperature of matter
 It leads to change in the states of matter
Natural sources of heat

 Sun
 Stars
 Volcanic eruption

Artificial sources of heat

 Candle flame
 Burning charcoal
 Fire
 Electricity
 Friction

Heat transfer
Heat transfer is the movement of heat from one point to another.
Heat travels through 3 ways. These are
1. Conduction
2. Radiation
3. Convection
a. Conduction:: this is the process by which heat travel through solids

24
 Note:
a) Wax 1 melts first because heat reaches it first.
b) Wax 4 melts last because heat reaches it last.
c) Burning: heat will then travel through candle, the nail by conduction and the waxes will
melt according to their position as shown above.
b. Convection: This is a process by which heat travels through liquids or gases. Convection
in liquids or gases travels in form of convection current
c. Heat travels in liquids and gases because their molecules move while being heated.

Note
Why does heat travel through solids by conduction?
Molecules are closely packed which enables movement of heat from one point to another
easily.

Application / importance of conduction

- For baking bricks
- For baking bread
- For cooking food
- For ironing clothes
- For roasting meat

CONVECTION
This is a process by which heat travels through liquids and gases.

Note
Convection in liquids and gases travels in form of convection current.
Why does heat travel in liquids and gases through convection?
Heat travels in liquids and gases by convection because their molecules move while being
heated.

Diagram
The image cannot be display ed. Your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. Restart y our computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again.

25
Importance / application of convection

 Removes bad smell from VIP latrines through the vent pipe
 Removes smoke from kitchen through chimney
 Enables a lit cigarette to burn.
 Removes warm air through ventilators in a house
 Enables boiling of water
 Brings cool air into the house.

Ventilation in a house
These are doors, windows and ventilators in a house.

Importance of ventilation
It aids proper air circulation in a house

Diagram of a house showing ventilation

Warm air out

Ventilator

Cool air in

Door
window

Verandah
Uses of each part
Roof
- To protect people from rainfall and sunshine
Ventilators
- To take out warm less dense air
Windows and doors
- To take in cool air
- To allow in light
Verandah
- To prevent flowing water from entering the house
Dump proof course (DPC)
- To prevent water from rising up the wall
Radiation:
The process by which heat travels through space or vacuum.

26
Examples of radiation in nature
 Heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation
 Heat from fire place reaches a person seated by radiation
 Heat from the sun dries washed clothes by radiation.

Importance of radiation

 For drying clothes

 For drying harvested crops
 For warming the body

Comparison of heat transfer

 Heat travels fastest in solids and slowest in gases

 Heat travels fastest by radiation and slowest by convection

Note:

 In radiation, heat is transferred from a hotter place to a cooler place and it does not need
a medium.
 A medium is something that can carry heat from the place to another.
 Heat transferred by radiation is called radiant heat.

Exercise
1. In which state of matter does heat travel fastest?
2. State two applications of radiation in man’s life.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors are substances / objects that allow heat pass through them easily. Some objects/
substances allow heat pass through them quickly and are called good conductors of heat.

Examples of conductors
Iron, copper, steel, aluminium, silver.

Name the best conductor of heat

 Silver
INSULATORS
These are materials that don’t allow head to pass through them easily.

Examples of insulators

 Wood

27
  Rubber
 air
 Plastics etc.

Application of insulators in daily life

 Handles of pans eg frying pans, source pans, electric kettles flat iron etc are covered with
plastics or wood to prevent burning of users’ hands.
 Woolen clothes used in cold weather
 Protective gloves used by fireme
firemenn are made of asbestos which is a poor conductor of heat.
 Tea in a tea pot made from porcelain cools faster because of heat loss by convention
radiation.

A structure of a Iron box / flying pan

 Handles are made out of insulators to prevent heat from burning the user.
 Hole P allows warm air out
 Hole Q allows cool air in
 Part R is used for opening the iron box
 Part S is made out of iron to conduct heat.
Materials for making S.
 Aluminum
 Iron
 Steel

Materials for making insulator

 wood
 rubber
 plastic

28
 Diagram of a charcoal stove Diagram of a lantern lamp

Heat reflector
These are surfaces that bounce heart back

Examples of heat reflectors

 Shinny surfaces
 White surfaces

Heat absorbers

 These are surfaces that take in and retain heat for some time.

Examples of heat absorbers

 Dull surfaces
 Black surfaces

A thermos flask

 The main function (use) of thermos flask /vacuum flasks is to keep liquids at a constant
temperature.. It is not commonly used in villages because it is expensive.

Parts of the thermos (vacuum )flask.

29
Functions of its parts
1. Cork:: To prevent heat loss or gain by conduction (because
because it is an insulator)
insulator
2. Vacuum:: This is a place without air (matter)
This prevents heat loss in two ways ie.
a. It prevents heat loss by conduction because there is no heat conductors.
b. It also prevents heat loss or gain by convection because
ause there is neither a liquid nor
n gas
in the space
3. Silvered surface:: this prevents heat loss or gain by radiation. (It
It reflects heat back._
back.
4. Metal case:: this protects the double walled glass and the vacuum.
5. Vacuum seal: Prevents matter from occupying the vacuum space.
6. Cork case: Protects the vacuum glass from shocks by absorbing shocks.

Expansion and contraction

Expansion:: This is an increase in size or length of a substance when heated.
Contraction: this is a decrease
ase in size or length of substance when cooled.

Expansion of solids, liquids and gases

Gases expand greatest or fastest followed by liquids then solids.. This is because the molecules
m in
gases are further apart
part and are free to move.

Experiment to show expansion in solids

30
 1. The copper and brass ball
When the ball is cold it passes through the ring as shown in A above.
When the ball iss heated, it expands and it can
cannot
not pass through the ring as shown in B above.
THE BI-METALLIC STRIP

Copper expands quicker than iron, therefore the strip will bend towards iron
Note
Application of a bimetallic strip
 It is used in electrical breakers like kettles, water, heaters, flat irons.
 It is used in switches of fire alarms.

Experiment to show expansion in gases

A bottle with a balloon

In A the balloon on the bottle is empty and the water is cold

In b after heating the water heated the bottle and aair inside it expands causing the balloon to
swell.

31
Expansion in liquids

empty space

soda

Note
- The space is left to leave room for expansion of soda during cooling
- The gas found inside the bottle is carbondioxide.
- Carbondioxide makes germs dormant

Effects of expansion and contraction

Gaps are left between railway lines to give room or space ffor
or expansion in hot weather this
prevents the rails from breaking or bending. Even the holes in the rails are ova
ovall in shape to allow
the rail linee slip easily during expansion.

32
Telephone and electricity wires

These sag, become loose or become longer during hot weather due to expansion and become
taut or tight in cold weather due to contraction. These wires are fixed loosely in order to allow
contraction to take place on cold days without wires will break.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or an object. It is measured using
an instrument called a thermometer in units’ called degrees.

Common temperature scales used

There are two types of temperature scales that are commonly used in thermometers.
These are:-
a. The centigrade or celsius scale
b. The Fahrenheit scale

The centigrade scale

On this scale the freezing point or lower fixed point is oo c and boiling point at 100oc.
The fahreriheit scale
On this scale the freezing point or the lowest boiling point is 32 0F and the boiling point or upper
fixed point 212 o F (180 equalparts)

TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
There are four types of thermometer V12

 The ordinary scientific thermometer

33
  The wall thermometer
 The clinical thermometer
 The six’s (maximum and minimum
minimum) thermometer
a. The ordinary thermometer
This is used for scientific experiments and it can also be used in incubation. It uses both
scales.

b. The wall thermometers

This is hung in houses or offices in order to measure the room temperature in that time. It
also uses both scales.

c. The clinical thermometer

It is used by doctors in hospitals to measure the human body temperature of a sick person.
The temperature of a human being is constant at 37 0 c or 98.40f except when the person is sick.

Special features of a clinical thermometer

 Its scale runs from 340C to 420C

 The bore is very narrow to have an accurate scale
 The kink prevents back flow of mercury before taking the reading.

Places (parts) where a clinical thermometer is placed for body temperature is taken

 In the mouth under the tongue to avoid biting or breaking.

 In the anus
 In the vagina
 Under the armpits
NB:: The thermometer must be disinfected or sterilized using the alcohol not by boiling because
b
boiling can burst it.
The doctors shake the thermometer to force mercury to go to the bulb in order to take the correct
temperature of a person.

Parts of a clinical thermometer

34
Functions of the parts

a. Kink /constrition / narrow bend:

This controls the backward flow of mercury before the reading is taken.

b. Bulb: This stores mercury

c. Bore: It is where mercury expands from.
d. Stem: This is demarcated in order to be able to take the reading.

The six’s thermometer (maximum and minimum thermometer)

 It records both the maximum and minimum temperature of the day.

 It is used by farmers and at weather stations.
 It uses both alcohol and mercury
 The left hand scale indicates the minimum temperature and right hand scale indicates the
maximum temperature.
 Alcohol measures the minimum temperature of the day.
 Mercury measures the highest temperature of the day.

Note

The six’s thermometer is reset using a magnet.

LIQUIDS USED IN A THERMOMETER

 Both mercury and alcohol can be used in a thermometer.

MERCURY

Reasons why mercury is used in a thermometer

 It is easily seen (Opaque)
 It does not wet / stick on the walls of the glass
 Mercury is a good conductor of heat.
 Mercury has a uniform expansion.

Advantages of using alcohol over mercury

 Alcohol does not solidify easily, like mercury.
 Alcohol has a higher rate of expansion than mercury

35
 Note
 Alcohol frees at 114.10C and boils at 78.370C
 Mercury frees at 38.830C and boils at 356.780C
 Alcohol expands by six times more than mercury

Why water is not used

 Water is colourless
 It wets /sticks on the walls of the glass
 It is a bad conductor of heat

Disadvantages of alcohol
 It is colourless
 It sticks on the walls of the glass
 It is a poor conductor of heat

Calculations / temperature conversions

Changing Fahrenheit degrees to centigrade’s 0c

There are five formulae used but you can choose only one you like . these include:-
i. 5 0
9 (F-32) = C
ii.
5(F-32) = 9C
iii.
5F -160 = 9C
iv. 9𝑐 + 160 = 5𝐹
v. 5 c 0
9 + 32 = F
All the formulae come from (F32) = 0c 100 0 comes from 100 parts in 0c and 100 comes

from 180 parts in of

Example
Change 2120F to 0c
Solution 5 9(F – 32) = 0c
5 (212 -32) = 0c
9
5 (180) = 0c
9
5 𝑥 180 = 0c
9
100 = 0c
36
 212 0F =1000c
Changing 0c to 0F
There are five formulae used there are
i. 9 0

ii.
5 𝑐 +32 = F
9c + 160 = 5F
iii.
5(F -32) = 9c
iv. 5𝑓 − 160 = 9𝑐
v. 5 0
9 (F-32)= c
𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
(+32 = 0F

Example
Convert 75 0c to 0f
Solution
9 c+32) = 0f
5
9 x75 +32 = 0f
5

135 + 32= 0f
167 = 0f
75 0c=1670c

Burning and Rusting

Burning is a chemical reaction in which heat and light are produced.

 Combustion is the scientific name for burning.

 The gas needed for burning to take place is oxygen.
 The gas given out during burning is carbondioxide

37
Experiment to show that oxygen supports burning

Water rises in B after the candle had gone off to occupy the space for oxygen.

38
Putting off / out fire

 Using fire extinguisher

 Using water not petrol fire
 Using sand

Reasons why water is not used to put out fire caused by petrol

 Petrol is less dense than water therefore it floats on water and fire continues burning.

Rusting

 Rusting is a chemical reaction which makes iron materials become reddish

red brown.
 Rust is a reddish brown coating on iron materials.

Requirements for rusting

 Oxygen
 Water / moisture

Experiments on rusting

 Oxygen is needed for rusting to take place.

 Water is needed for rusting to occur

39
 Disadvantages of rusting

 Rusting makes metals weak

 Rusting changes coulour of metals
 Rusting contaminates water in rusted containers
 It makes bolts hard to unscrew
 It makes keys fail to fit in padlocks
 It make cutting tools blunt
How to control rusting

 By painting
 By oiling and greasing
 By galvanizing (with zinc)
 By enameling (with enamel)
 Using tar
Similarities between burning and rusting

 They both require oxygen to take place

 Both are chemical reactions
Differences between burning and rusting

 Burning needs only oxygen while rusting needs both oxygen and moisture.
 Burning produces heat and light while rusting does not produce heat and light.
Topic 3
GROWING CROPS
Review exercise on crop growing of P.4 work
PLANNING A SCHOOL GARDEN
A school garden
A school garden is a piece of land where learners carry out activities related to growing of crops.

Importance of a school garden

 It enables the children to learn how to dig

 It is a source of food to the school
 Children learn about crops and grow them
 It enables the school to get money after selling the crops
 Children learn practical skills on gardening.

Factors to consider when planning a school garden

 You should have garden tools.

 You should have enough money/capital
 You should have a well drained fertile site

40
  You should also consider the land make up (topography) should be flat.
 You should also have seeds of high quality.

THEME: THE WORLD OF LIVING THINGS

TOPIC 4
BACTERIA AND FUNGI
BACTERIA
What are bacteria?
These are tinny organisms made up of one cell. They can not be seen using our naked eyes.
They can only be seen using a Microscope.
This instrument
ument has a lens that magnifies they that is why they are called Micro –organisms.

Conditions necessary for bacteria to reproduce

These include

 Warmth
 Food
 Moisture
 Air

THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIUM

41
Characteristics of bacteria

 They reproduce by binary fission.

 They exist as single cells
 They cannot be seen using our naked eyes/ they are microscopic

Habitats of bacteria / Where bacteria are found

 In water,
 In air
 In our bodies,
 In soil
 Living animals and plants
 In animal wastes such as faeces and urine
 Decaying organic matter such as dead plants and animals or rotting food.
 In latrines
 In compost pits

How bacteria reproduce

It reproduces by means of binary fission. This involves division of eggs of one cell into two
daughter cells which also grow faster and in turn divide into two new daughter cells as shown
below.

Structure
The image cannot be display ed. Your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. Restart y our computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again.

Types of bacteria
Bacteria are grouped according to shape. There are three types of bacteria namely:-
- Cocci
- Bacilli
- Spirilla
a) Cocci: Are spherical in shape

42
 Examples of cocci
i) paired (diplococcic)

Structure of diplococcic

Cause gonorrhea, pheumonia

umonia

ii) chained (strepto cocci)

Causes sore throat

iii) clustered (staphylococci)

Cause pus in wounds, boils

b) Spirilla: These are spiral shaped bacteria.
Examples of spirilla
i) Treponema pallidum – causes syphilis

43
 ii) Vibrio cholerae – causes cholera

It is comma shaped

j)
c) Bacilli.. These are rod shaped and cylindrical bacteria.
Examples of bacilli
i) Bacillus anthrasis
sis

It causes anthrax

ii) Salmonella typhi

It causes typhoid

NATURE OF BACTERIA
i) Useful bacteria
ii) Harmful bacteris
Useful bacteria
i) Bacteria break down faeces in toilets or latrines.
Note: It is therefore dangerous to pour any chemical into the toilet or latrine because it will
kill the bacteria and maggots
ii) Some bacteria are used in making of vitamin B and K
iii) Bacteria help in the making of cheese and yoghurt by fermentation of milk.
iv) Nitrogen fixing bacteria found in root nodules of legumes fix nitrogen in the soil
(rhizobium).
v) They help in decomposing dead matter to make humus (putrefying bacteria)
vi) Bacteria help in digestion of food.

44
Question:
Name the two examples of useful bacteria
i) Rhizobium
ii) Putrefying

Harmful bacteria
a) Bacteria make our food go bad (which makes it toxic to our bodies.)
b) Bacteria causes diseases to people e.g. Gonorrhea, syphilis, anthrax. e.t.c.
c) Bacteria causes diseases to plants.
d) Bacteria make wounds become septic.

Ways of prevention and treatment of bacterial diseases.

 By immunization to prevent childhood immuniseable diseases.

 By eating clean and well cooked food
 Proper disposal of human wastes
 By washing hands with soap and clean water after visiting a latrine /toilet
 Washing hands before handling or preparing food.
 Washing fruits and vegetables before eating
 Re-heating leftover food before eating

Treatment
This is done by use of anti-biotics

FUNGI
Characteristics of fungi
i) They are unicellular or multi cellular organism
ii) They don t have chlorophyll
iii) They feed saprohytically or parasitically
iv) They have nuclei in the cells

Examples of fungi

 Yeast.
 Moulds
 Mush room.
 Toad stool
 Puffballs
 Moulds
 Bracket fungi

Importance of fungi

 Mushrooms are eaten.

 Yeast is used to ferment alcohol
 Moulds used to make penicillin medicine (penicillium moulds)

45
  Yeast is used in the making of bread and cake
Note
 Yeast raised dough
Disadvantages of fungi
 Some make food go bad.
 Some cause diseases to people e.g. ring worms (dhobi itch), candidiasis, jork itch,
athletes foot
 Some causes
auses diseases to plants eg. rust, blight
Mush room
These are common fungi that grow during rain season. They grow on piece
pieces of cow dung, and on
other dead matter.
The structure of a mush room

Function of the parts

i) Cap:: this protects the gills from damage
ii) Stalk:: conducts the absorbed food, water and mineral salts up the gills and cap.
iii) Mycelium: It absorb
absorbs water and mineral salts from the soil.
iv) Gills: Produce and store spores.
Reproduction
Mushroom reproduce by means of spo spores.

Feeding
Mushrooms feed saprophytic ally

Similarities between fungi and bacteria

 Both cause diseases to man and crops
 Both spoil food

Differences between fungi and bacteria

 Fungi have many cells while bacteria have one all.
 Fungi are seen while bacteria cannot be seen with naked eyes.

REVISION WORK
LESSON 4
Soil profile

46
This is natural vertical arrangement of soil layers (horizons). It is made up of 3 layers ie. Top
layer, sub layer and bed rock.

Top soil

Sub soil Gravel

Bed rock

Parent rock

Importance of top soil

 It has plant nutrients

 It is more fertile
 It has a lot of humus
Soil structure- the arrangement of soil particles

Types of soil:-

 Loam soil
 Clay soil
 Sand soil
1. Loam soil
Properties of loam soil

 It has a lot of humus

 It is more fertile
 It is well drained
 It has average water holding capacity
 It is well aerated.

Arrangement of particles in loam soil

Uses of loam soil

 For growing crops

2. Clay soil: this is an example of heavy soil

47
Characteristics/ properties

 It has fine particle

 It retains a lot of water
 It has poor drainage
 It is sticky and heavy when wet
 It has a high rate of capillarity
 It is poorly aerated
Use
 It is suitable for pottery and brick making
 For making ceramics

Arrangement of particles

Fine particles

3. Sand soil
Properties

 It has a very good drainage

 It feels rough when touched
 It has large particles of soil.
 It has large air spaces
Arrangement of particles in sandy soil

big airspaces

big soil particles

Uses of sandy soil

 for making glass

 for building houses

Activity

1. Which type of soil is for making ceramics|?

2. Why is clay soil not good for crop growing?
3. Why is sand soil not good for crop growing?

48
 Word bank
Soil
Weathering Aeration Germination
Loose Mineral salts Nutrients
Decomposition Absorbs Fertile
Components Softens Drained
Humus Respiration Particles
Moisture Fertility Capillarity
Modeling Rough Pottery
Erosion Gully Exhaustion
Cenervation Fertility Gulley
Bush following Afforestation Fertile
Organic Manure Fertilizer
Polythene Plastic

Matter and energy

Heat energy
Energy Viscious Suspension
Weight Xenon Concentration
Occupies Krypton Dilution
Exerts Sublimation Solution
Gaseous Freezing Solvent
Definite Condensation Solute
Cohesion Evaporation Magnet
Adhesion Immiscible Decantation
Quarks Gravity Flotation
Possess Nuclear Evaporation
Potential Friction Intertia
Kinetic Cocci Conduction,
Rhyzobuim Microscope convection,
Putrefying Jock itch radiation
Spirilla Dhobi itch Filtration
Treponema pallidum Vibrio cholerae Athletes foot

49