CRIME DETECTION AND INVESTIGATION 4

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING

Mark Angelo H. Marquez, RCrim.

TRAFFIC

 it refers to the system of movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by

combustion system or animal drawn vehicle, from one place to another for the purpose of safe
travel.

TRANSPORTATION

 is the act or process of conveying persons and goods from one location to another for the
purpose of travel.

Roadway

 Refers to that part of the traffic way over which motor vehicle pass.

Shoulder

 It refers to either side of the roadway, especially along highways.

Traffic Congestion

Is a condition in transport that is characterized by:

• slower speeds,

• longer trip times,

• and increased vehicular queueing.

Traffic Jam

 A line of road traffic at or near standstill because of road construction, an accident, or heavy
congestion.

Bottleneck

 The narrow portion of the roadway due to traffic congestions or where “build up” usually occurs.

Crosswalks

 Are designed to keep pedestrians together where they can be seen by motorists, and where they
can cross most safely across the flow of vehicular traffic.

Intersection
  As applied to a street or highway means the space occupied by two streets at the point where
they cross each other.

Agencies Involved In Traffic Management

Department of Transportation (DOTr)

 Is the executive department of the Philippine government responsible for the maintenance and
expansion of viable, efficient, and dependable transportation systems as effective instruments
for national recovery and economic progress.

It is responsible for the country’s

Land,

Air, and

Sea communication infrastructures.

Land Transportation Office (LTO)

 Is responsible for implementation of the Land Transportation Code of the Philippines (R.A. 4136)
particularly on the issuance of driver’s licenses, and registration of motor vehicles.

Land Transportation Franchising and Regulation Board (LTFRB)

 Approval of franchises for public conveyance and conducting traffic safety seminars.

Department of Public Works and Highway (DPWH).

 This is the main executive department which is responsible for planning, construction and
maintenance of traffic facilities particularly those categorized as national highways and other
major road arteries.

5 COMPONENTS OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT OR THE 5 E’S OF TRAFFIC

1. Traffic Engineering

 It is the science of measuring traffic and travel, the study of the basic laws relative to the traffic
law and generation and the application of this knowledge to the professional practice of
planning, deciding, and operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient transportation of
persons and goods.

2. Traffic Education

 It is the process of giving training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety
knowledge.

FOUR BASIC TYPES OF INSTRUCTION METHODS USED IN DRIVER EDUCATION PROGRAM

1. Comprehensive
  Place the student into the real life of driving situation from the beginning.

2. Traditional Instruction

 This type of instruction depends on instructor-student communication.

3. Commentary Driving Method

 The student will be accompanied by an instructor. As the student driver drives, the instructor has
to give comments on his driving.

4. Simulated Conditions and Off the Road Training

 Simulator

 It is a static machine with all the important features of a car used in driving method or driving
training.

3. Traffic Enforcement

 This field deals mostly on the implementation and enforcement of traffic laws and rules and
regulations.

KINDS OF ENFORCEMENT ACTIONS

1. Traffic Arrest

 takes place when a person was taken into custody for the purpose of holding or detaining him to
answer a charge of traffic law violation before a court.

 It is made when

• the offense is serious;

• detection is needed to avoid continued violation; and

• there is reasonable doubt that violators may not appear in court.

2. Traffic Citation

 Issuing citation in order to compel violators to appear in court in absence of arrest.

TYPES OF TRAFFIC CITATION

a. Temporary Operators Permit or TOP - used in the enforcement of traffic management measures by
DOTr and other special laws by the LTO and other deputized officers. It considered as a temporary drivers
permit within the jurisdiction of the issuing agency for 72 hours. (Entire Philippines)

b. Traffic Violations Receipt or TVR - used in the enforcement of traffic management measures by the
MMDA and other special laws and other deputized officers. It considered as a temporary drivers permit
within the jurisdiction of the issuing agency for 72 hours. (Metropolitan Manila)

c. Ordinance Violations Receipt or OVR - used in the enforcement of traffic management measure by
the City or Municipality (LGU's) and other special laws of the LGU and other deputized officers.
3. Traffic Warning

 An act reminding the driver of his violation in order for him to not do it again. No arrest or
citation is made.

TYPES OF TRAFFIC WARNING

A. Visual Warning

 Usually used when you have observed a minor violation but are more importantly occupied at a
moment. It is indicated by gesture of the hand and/or of the head.

B. Verbal warning

 Tell the driver or violator that he violated a law and explain the hazards of such violations.

 Oral warning made when there is newly enacted law.

C. Written Warning

 Combination of verbal warning and citations. It gives the spirit of verbal warning and the form of
citation.

4. Traffic Ecology or Traffic Environment

 It includes the study of potentially disastrous population explosion, changes in urban

environment due to the scale and density of new urban concentration and new activities carried
out, air pollution, water pollution and crowding, especially transport congestion which result
therein.

5. Traffic Economy

 It deals with the benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy.
 Some major effects are increase in oil prices, rising prices of commodities, reduce individual
productivity due to traffic congestion.

R.A. No. 4136

AN ACT TO COMPILE THE LAWS RELATIVE TO LAND TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC RULES, TO CREATE A
LAND TRANSPORTATION COMMISSION AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

Short Title: Land Transportation and Traffic Code

What is Motor Vehicle?

Motor Vehicle (Sec. 3, Article II)

 shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other than muscular power using the public
highways, but excepting road rollers, trolley cars, street-sweepers, sprinklers, lawn mowers,
bulldozers, graders, fork-lifts, amphibian trucks, and cranes if not used on public highways,
vehicles which run only on rails or tracks, and tractors, trailers and traction engines of all kinds
used exclusively for agricultural purposes.

REGISTRATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES

DRIVER’S LICENSE

 A document issued to a qualified driver who possesses the statutory qualification.

 It is also a public document which has a legal presumption of genuineness.

TYPES OF DRIVER’S LICENSE

1. International Driver’s License

-for tourists

2. Student Driver's Permit (SP)

- Desire to learn how to drive

3. Non-Professional Driver's License (NPDL)

-owner for privately owned motor vehicle (not for hire or paid for driving)

4. Professional Driver's License (PDL)

-hired/paid for driving/operations (private vehicle/for hire to the public)

1. INTERNATIONAL DRIVER’S LICENSE

 Requirements: Bona fide tourist and similar transients who are duly licensed to operate motor
vehicles in their respective countries may be allowed to operate motor vehicles inside the
Philippines.

 Validity: NOT BEYOND 90 DAYS of their (tourists) sojourn in the Philippines. (Sec. 21, RA 4136)
2. STUDENT DRIVER'S PERMIT (SP)

 Is an authority embodied in a form prescribed by the Land Transportation Office (LTO) to a

person who desires to learn to operate a motor vehicle when accompanied by a duly licensed
driver, whether a Non-Professional or Professional, possessing the appropriate restriction code/s
for the type of motor vehicle driven.

Student Driver's Permit (SP)

Qualifications:

1. Must be at least seventeen (17) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle;

3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect;

4. Must have completed Theoretical Driving Course; and

5. In addition, for foreigners, the applicant must be eighteen (18) years old and must have been in the
Philippines for at least one (1) month with proof that he/she will stay in the country for at least one (1)
year from date of application.

Validity of Student Driver's Permit:

 An SP shall be valid for one (1) year from date of issuance and may no longer be revised,
modified or renewed.

3. NON-PROFESSIONAL DRIVER'S LICENSE (NPDL)

 is an authority embodied in a form prescribed by the LTO to a person to operate a private motor
vehicle. (not for hire or paid for driving)

Non-Professional Driver's License (NPDL)

Qualifications:

1. Must be at least eighteen (18) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle;

3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect;

4. Must be a holder of a valid SP issued at least thirty (30) days prior to the application.

5. Must have passed the written examination and the Practical Driving Test

6. In addition, for foreigners, the applicant must have been in the Philippines for at least one (1) month
with proof that he/she will stay in the country for at least one (1) year from date of application.

Validity (Sec. 2, RA 10930)

"Except for student permits, all drivers' licenses shall be valid for five (5) years reckoned from the
birthdate of the licensee, unless sooner revoked or suspended: Provided, however, That subject to
Section 26 hereof, any holder of a professional or nonprofessional driver's license who has not
committed any violation of Republic Act No. 4136 and other traffic laws, rules and regulations during
the five (5)-year period shall be entitled to a renewal of such license for ten (10) years, subject to the
restrictions as may be imposed by the LTO.

3. PROFESSIONAL DRIVER'S LICENSE (PDL)

 Is an authority embodied in a form prescribed by the LTO to a person to operate a private or

public utility vehicle.

 Hired/paid for driving (private vehicle/for hire to the public).

Professional Driver's License (PDL)

Qualifications:

1. Must be at least eighteen (18) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor

3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect;

4. For RC 1, 2, 4 and 6 —

• Must be a holder of a valid SP issued at least six (6) months prior to the application

For RC 3, 5, 7 and 8 —

• Must be a holder of a valid NPDL issued at least one (1) year prior to the application.

6. Must have passed the written examination and the Practical Driving Test;

7 . In addition, for foreigners, the applicant must have been in the Philippines for at least one (1) month
with proof that he/she will stay in the country for at least one (1) year from date of application and is
allowed to work herein.

Validity (Sec. 2, RA 10930)

"Except for student permits, all drivers' licenses shall be valid for five (5) years reckoned from the
birthdate of the licensee, unless sooner revoked or suspended: Provided, however, That subject to
Section 26 hereof, any holder of a professional or nonprofessional driver's license who has not
committed any violation of Republic Act No. 4136 and other traffic laws, rules and regulations during
the five (5)-year period shall be entitled to a renewal of such license for ten (10) years, subject to the
restrictions as may be imposed by the LTO.

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

1. TRAFFIC SIGNS OR ROAD SIGNS

 Refers to any device mounted on portable support whereby a message is conveyed by means of
words or symbols officially installed for the purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.

 Usually made of metallic plate

KINDS:

• Regulatory/Mandatory Signs

• Warning/Cautionary Signs

• Guide/Informative signs

KINDS OF TRAFFIC OR ROAD SIGNS

1. Regulatory/Mandatory Signs

• These include all signs which give notice of special obligation and prohibition.

• Usually round in shape and red in color

2. Warning/Cautionary Signs

• These signs are used to warn the road users of the existence of certain hazardous condition.

• These signs are usually designed with an upward triangle outlined in a red and yellow colors.

3. Guide/Informative signs

• These signs are used to guide road users along routes, inform them about destination and
distance.

• These signs are usually rectangular in shape and come in green and blue colors.

2. TRAFFIC LIGHTS

 A set of electrically (power) operated signal lights used to direct or control traffic at intersection.

STEADY RED

Stop at a designated line.

STEADY GREEN

Go

FLASHNG YELLOW

Prepare to stop.

FLASHING RED

This is the same as a stop sign.

Proceed when clear.

FLASHING YELLOW
This is the same as the yield sign.

Proceed with caution.

3. PAVEMENT MARKINGS

 These pertain to all lines, patterns, words, colors, or other markings on the roads and surfaces
whereby a message is conveyed by means of words or symbols, officially reflected for the
purpose of regulating, warning and guiding traffic.

Functions : As to Colors

WHITE – divides same-direction traffic

YELLOW – divides opposite-directions traffic.

Functions: As to Lines

• DOUBLE SOLID LINES - No overtaking and no crossing

Functions: As to Lines

• SINGLE SOLID LINE- Crossing is allowed but no overtaking

Functions: As to Lines

BROKEN LINE - Crossing and overtaking are allowed with necessary precaution.

Functions: As to Lines

SINGLE LINE WITH BROKEN LINE

• No overtaking but crossing is allowed on the side of the solid line.

• Overtaking and crossing are allowed on the side of the broken line.

Functions: As to Lines

EDGE LINE – used to separate the outside edge of the road from the shoulder.

Functions: As to Lines

• TRANSITION LINES – guide the traffic safely to pass obstructions on roadways such as islands,
median strips, bridge piers.

Functions: As to Lines

CONTINUITY LINE - Wider and closer together than regular broken lines

on the left side means the lane is ending and that the driver must change lanes.

on the right means that the lane will continue unaffected and that the driver must continue driving.

Functions: As to Lines

• Stop line – a single white line painted across the road at an intersection.
 • vehicles are required to stop before the white line.

• Object Markings - These are markings place on objects on the road or beside the road like
humps, rocks, or similar hazardous objects on the side of the road.

• Reflectorized Markings - Gadgets designed to reflect and become luminous when hit by vehicles
light. Installed in middle or side of the roadways.

• Rumble strips

 Are a road safety feature to alert inattentive drivers of potential danger, by causing vibration and
audible rumbling.

PRINCIPLES OF DRIVING

WHAT IS RIGHT OF WAY?

 It is the right to proceed ahead of another vehicle or pedestrian.

RIGHT OF WAY (SEC.42, RA 4136)

FIRST RULE (INTERSECTION)

When two vehicles approach or enter an intersection at approximately the same time, the driver of the
vehicle on the left shall yield the right of way to the vehicle on the right.

RIGHT OF WAY (SEC.42, RA 4136)

SECOND RULE (INTERSECTION)

The driver of a vehicle approaching but not having entered an intersection, shall yield the right of way to
a vehicle within such.

THIRD RULE (CROSSWALK)

The driver of any vehicle upon a highway within a business or residential district shall yield the right of
way to a pedestrian crossing such highway within a crosswalk.

Every pedestrian crossing a highway within a business or residential district, at any point other than a
crosswalk shall yield the right of way to vehicles upon the highway.

FOURTH RULE (THROUGH HIGHWAY)

The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall bring to a full stop such vehicle before traversing any
"through highway" or railroad crossing:

Provided, That when it is apparent that no hazard exists, the vehicle may be slowed down to five miles
per hour instead of bringing it to a full stop.

PARKING RULES
Parking rules (SEC.46, RA 4136)

No driver shall park a vehicle, or permit it to stand, whether attended or unattended, upon a highway in
any of the following places:

a) Within an intersection

b) On a crosswalk

c) Within six meters of the intersection of curb lines.

d) Within four meters of the driveway entrance to and fire station.

e) Within four meters of fire hydrant

f) In front of a private driveway

g) On the roadway side of any vehicle stopped or parked at the curb or edge of the highway

h) At any place where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.

IMPORTANT LAWS

REPUBLIC ACT No. 10586

AN ACT PENALIZING PERSONS DRIVING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL, DANGEROUS DRUGS, AND
SIMILAR SUBSTANCES, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

Short Title – "Anti-Drunk and Drugged Driving Act of 2013″

Definition of Terms

Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)

Refers to the measure of amount of alcohol in a person’s blood.

Breath Analyzer also known as Alcohol Breath Analyzer (ABA)

Refers to the equipment which can determine the BAC level of a person through testing of his breath.

Alcohol Breath Analyzer (ABA)

Driving under the influence of alcohol (DUIA)

 For this purpose, a driver of a private motor vehicle with a gross vehicle weight not exceeding
4500 kg. a BAC of 0.05% or higher shall be conclusive proof that said driver is driving under the
influence of alcohol.

 For drivers of trucks, buses, motorcycles and public utility vehicles, a BAC of more than 0.0%
shall be conclusive proof that said driver is driving under the influence of alcohol.

Driving under the influence of dangerous drugs and other similar substances (DUID)
  Refers to the act of operating a motor vehicle while the driver, after being subjected to a
confirmatory test as mandated under this Act, is found to be positive for use of any dangerous
drug.

Drug Screening Test

 Refers to a rapid test performed to establish potential/presumptive positive result on the

presence of dangerous drugs in a person’s body.

Drug Confirmatory Test

 Refers to an analytical test using a Gas- Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GCMS) to validate

and confirm the result of a Drug Screening Test.

Field Sobriety Tests

 Refer to standardized tests to initially assess and determine intoxication, namely: the eye test
(horizontal gaze nystagmus), the walk-and-turn and the one-leg stand.

Field sobriety tests

1. The Eye Test (“horizontal gaze nystagmus”)

 Refers to horizontal or lateral jerking of the driver’s eyes as he or she gazes sideways following a
moving object such as a pen or the tip of a penlight held by the LEO from a distance of about
one (1) foot away from the face of the driver.

Field sobriety tests

2. The Walk-and-Turn

 Requires the driver to walk heel-to-toe along a straight line for nine (9) steps, turn at the end
and return to the point of origin without any difficulty.

Field sobriety tests

3. The One-Leg Stand

 Requires the driver to stand on either right or left leg with both arms on the side. The driver is
instructed to keep the foot raised about six (6) inches off the ground for thirty (30) seconds.

Section 5. Punishable Act.

 It shall be unlawful for any person to drive a motor vehicle while under the influence of alcohol,
dangerous drugs and/or other similar substances.

DRIVING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL

Section 6. Conduct of Field Sobriety, Chemical and Confirmatory Tests.

 A law enforcement officer who has probable cause to believe that a person is driving under the
influence of alcohol, dangerous drugs and/or other similar substances by apparent indications
and manifestations, including over speeding, weaving, lane straddling, sudden stops, swerving,
 poor coordination or the evident smell of alcohol in a person’s breath or signs of use of
dangerous drugs and other similar substances, shall conduct field sobriety tests.

 If the driver fails in the sobriety tests, it shall be the duty of the law enforcement officer to
implement the mandatory determination of the driver’s blood alcohol concentration level
through the use of a breath analyzer or similar measuring instrument.

Section 6. Conduct of Field Sobriety, Chemical and Confirmatory Tests.

 If the law enforcement officer has probable cause to believe that a person is driving under the
influence of dangerous drugs and/or other similar substances, it shall be the duty of the law
enforcement officer to bring the driver to the nearest police station to be subjected to a drug
screening test and, if necessary, a drug confirmatory test as mandated under Republic Act No.
9165.

DRIVING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF DANGEROUS DRUGS

REPUBLIC ACT No. 10913

An Act Defining and Penalizing Distracted Driving

Short Title. - "Anti-Distracted Driving Act".

Section 4 (IRR) - Distracted Driving.

Distracted driving refers to the performance by a motorist of any of the following acts in a motor vehicle
in motion, or temporarily stopped at a traffic light or any intersection, whether diplomatic, public or
private:

(a) Using a mobile communications device to write, send, or read a text-based communication or to
make or receive calls, and other similar acts; and

(b) Using an electronic entertainment or computing device to play games, watch movies, surf the
internet, compose messages, read e-books, perform calculations, and other similar acts.

Section 5. Extent of Coverage

a) The operation of a mobile communications device is not considered to be distracted driving if done
using the aid of a hands-free function or similar device such as, but not limited to, a speaker phone,
earphones and microphones or other similar devices which allow a person to make and receive calls
without having to hold the mobile communications device:

Section 5. Extent of Coverage

b) Wheeled agricultural machineries such as tractors and construction equipment such as graders,
rollers, backhoes, payloaders, cranes, bulldozers, mobile concrete mixers and the like, and other forms of
conveyances such as bicycles, pedicabs, "habal-habal", trolleys, "kuligligs", wagons, carriages, carts,
sledges, chariots or the like, whether animal or human-powered, are covered by the provisions of this
Act as long as the same are operated or driven in public thoroughfares, highways or streets or under
circumstances where public safety is under consideration.
REPUBLIC ACT No. 10666

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE SAFETY OF CHILDREN ABOARD MOTORCYLES

Short Title. – "Children’s Safety on Motorcycles Act of 2015".

Definition of Terms

• Motorcycle refers to any two (2)-wheeled motor vehicle having one (1) or two (2) riding saddles;

• Child refers to any person below eighteen (18) years of age;

• Foot peg refers to a flat form attached to the motorcycles on which to stand or brace the feet;

Section 4. Prohibition

 It shall be unlawful for any person to drive a two (2)-wheeled motorcycle with a child on board
on public roads where there is heavy volume of vehicles, there is a high density of fast-moving
vehicles or where a speed limit of more than 60/kph is imposed, unless:

• (a) The child passenger can comfortably reach his/her feet on the standard foot peg of the
motorcycle;

• (b) The child’s arms can reach around and grasp the waist of the motorcycle rider; and

• (c) The child is wearing a standard protective helmet referred to under Republic Act No. 10054,
otherwise known the "Motorcycle Helmet Act of 2009."

REPUBLIC ACT No. 11229

An Act Providing for the Special Protection of Child Passengers in Motor Vehicles and Appropriating
Funds Therefore

Short Title. - "Child Safety in Motor Vehicles Act".

REPUBLIC ACT No. 10666

 “Children’s Safety on Motorcycles Act of 2015".

REPUBLIC ACT No. 11229

 "Child Safety in Motor Vehicles Act".

Definition of Terms

• Child refers to any person twelve (12) years old and below

• Motor vehicle shall refer to both private and public motor vehicles. The term shall not include
the tricycle and motorcycle;

• Child Restraint System refers to a device, approved in accordance with Section 6 of this Act,
capable of accommodating a child occupant in a sitting or supine position. It is so designed as to
diminish the risk of injury to the wearer, in the event of a collision or of abrupt deceleration of
the vehicle, by limiting the mobility of the child’s body.
REPUBLIC ACT No. 10666

Child - refers to any person below eighteen (18) years of age;

Motorcycle refers to any two (2)-wheeled motor vehicle having one (1) or two (2) riding saddles;

REPUBLIC ACT No. 11229

Child - refers to any person twelve (12) years old and below

Motor vehicle shall refer to both private and public motor vehicles. The term shall not include the
tricycle and motorcycle;

Child Restraint System

Section 4. Mandatory Use of Child Restraint System in Motor Vehicles

It shall be unlawful for the driver of a covered vehicle not to properly secure at all times a child, in a child
restraint system while the engine is running or transporting such child on any road, street or highway

unless the child is at least one hundred fifty (150) centimeters or fifty-nine (59) inches in height and is
properly secured using the regular seat belt.

Section 5. Children in Rear Seats

• General Rule. — No child shall be allowed to sit in the front seat of a motor vehicle with a
running engine or while such child is being transported on any road, street, or highway.

• Exception. — A child who is at least one hundred fifty (150) centimeters or fifty-nine (59) inches
(or four feet and eleven inches (4'11) in height and is properly secured using the regular adult
seat belt may sit in the front seat.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Traffic Accident (Traffic Collision)

 Occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, road debris, or other
stationary obstruction, such as a tree or utility pole.

KEY EVENT

 An event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic
accident.

 Also known as “Chain of events”

Traffic accident investigation is basically determination of key events.

CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT:

1. Perception of hazard – is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or unexpected
movement or condition that could be taken as a sign of the accident about to happen.
2. Start of evasive action – is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision course or
otherwise avoid a hazard.

3. Initial Contact – is a first accidental touching of an objects involved in collision.

CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT:

4. Maximum Engagement – is a greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The force between the traffic
unit and the object collided with are the greatest at maximum engagement.

5. Disengagement – is separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it has collided.
Force between the object ceases at this time.

6. Stopping – is coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation.

7. Injury – is receiving bodily harm.

TIRE MARKS IMPRESSION

 Tire marks impressions are unique patterns left behind by tires, whether rolling or locked.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TIRE MARKS IMPRESSION

1. Skid mark

 A mark which a tire makes when a vehicle wheel stops rolling and slides or spins on the surface
of the road.

 Caused by sudden application of brakes.

Importance of Skid Mark In Traffic Accident Investigation

 Skid marks can be analyzed to find the maximum and minimum vehicle speed prior to an impact
or incident.

2. Scuff marks

 Scuff marks are left on the road by tires that are sliding or scrubbing while the wheel is still
turning.

3. Centrifugal Skid Marks

 A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire and a wheel of a speeding vehicle on a curve.

Centrifugal Skid Marks

4. Gap Skid

 A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication of brakes.

5. Skip Mark

 the skid mark made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning.
DEBRIS

 The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other materials left at the scene of the
accident caused by a collision.

LAST CLEAR CHANCE PRINCIPLE

 The last clear chance doctrine is a legal concept that holds a party responsible for an accident if
they had the last opportunity to prevent it but failed to do so, even if the other party
contributed to the accident.

JUSTIFYING CIRCUMSTANCES (ART. 11, PAR. 4)

STATE OF NECESSITY

Par. 4. Any person who, in order to avoid an evil or injury, does not act which causes damage to another,
provided that the following requisites are present;

1. the evil sought to be avoided actually exists;

2. the injury feared be greater than that done to avoid it;
3. that there is no other practical and less harmful means of preventing it.

THE END