Jack rafter

3.3.1: TYPES OF ROOF

i. Pitch roof: A pitch roof has one or more roof slopes at a pitch or slop of more than 10° to
horizontal. The most common roof shape is the symmetrical pitch roof, pitched to central
ridge with equal slope. A mono pitched roof has only one slope free standing vision lean
to roof. A pitched roof is stable in most weather and its slope disposes of rainwater quickly.
The main supporting structure is timber, which is easy to work and transport. Pitched roof
can be built in different ways depending on the loads and sizes. Below are the lists of
pitched roof that use different methods of construction:
 Lean-to roof 

 Couple roof 

 Closed couple roof 

 Collar roof 

 Trussed rafters roof

ii. Flat Roof: A flat roof is basically a low-pitched roof and is defined as a pitch of 10° or
less to the horizontal. The angle of pitch is governed by the type of finish which is to be
applied to the roof. Flat roofs can be timber or reinforced concrete and are popular forms
of roofing for houses. Points to consider when constructing a flat roof:
 It requires a deck or slab
 It must have some insulation
 A method of disposing rainwater etc

3.3.2: PROPERTIES AND FIXING DETAILS OF ROOF COVERINGS

 Tile covering: Roof tiles are usually made from clay or concrete that is moulded into
suitable shapes. The tiles are overlapped so that the rainwater flows down the slope of the
roof and the roof structure underneath remains dry. Fixing details of tile covering includes:
 Fix the battens to the correct gauge position
 Begin laying tiles at the eaves
 Make sure that each tile interlocks with the tile next to it
 Finish laying the tiles at the ridge.
  Roof sheets covering: This is covering the roof with sheeting materials like corrugated
fibre cement and corrugated galvanized steel. Fixing detail includes:
 Position the first sheet in the bottom corner of the roof framework
 Drill through a sheet on top of the corrugations.
 Fix it to the purlins with galvanized iron drive screws and supped washers
 Lay the next sheet so that it overlaps the first sheet by one corrugation
 Fix a special ridge member that is in two parts.

3.4: CONCRETE PRODUCTION:

Concrete is an artificial material, obtained by mixing cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and
water, in suitable proportions. These ingredients, when freshly mixed, produce a plastic mass
which can be poured into suitable forms or moulds, to give the desired shape to the resulting solid
mass. The plastic mass gets converted into a solid stone-like hard mass with the passage of time,
as a result of the chemical reaction taking place between cement and water. The aggregates do not
undergo any chemical change. They simply act to give mass volume to the concrete and reduce
shrinkage effects. Hardened concrete resemble stone in weight, strength, and hardness.
Concrete is an important and versatile material, and extensively used building material that can be
easily manufactured on site. Concrete while in plastic state can be moulded into almost any shape;
and when set (dry) it possesses great strength and durability. Concrete as produced, achieves a
great strength depending on the quality and quantity of cement in it. The richer the concrete is in
cement, the greater the strength of the concrete. So also a dense and stronger concrete is obtained
depending on how dense and tough the coarse aggregate is. Concrete is divided into two types.
These are plain and reinforced concrete. When concrete is embedded with reinforcement to
increase its tensile strength, it is called reinforced concrete. Without the reinforcement it is called
plain concrete. Production of good concrete is based on the following use of the materials that
make it up:
 The particles of aggregates should be clean and free from coatings of dust and clay if the
full bond is to be developed.
 All aggregates should be inert in water and should not contain constituents that are likely
to decompose or change in volume through exposure to the atmosphere.
 They should be free from organic impurities which may affect the setting and hardening of
 cement.
 They should have a low absorption value, if used for concrete exposed to the weather or in
contact with liquid.
3.4.1: PRODUCTION PROCESS OF CONCRETE:
i. BATCHING: Batching is the process of measuring the desired quantity of the various
constituents of concrete to obtain the desired mix for the concrete. Batching can be by
weight or by volume.
 Batching by Volume: In this method an open top box called a gauge box is used to
measure the quantity of the various materials. Cement is most times supplied for use in a
unit 50 kg bag and has a volume of about 0.035 m3. For a 1:2:4 mix ratio, the gauge box
is filled once with cement, two times with fine aggregate and four times with coarse
aggregate. At all times the top of the gauge box is struck off level each time. If the fine
aggregate is damp or wet its volume will increase by up to 25% and therefore the amount
of fine aggregate should be increased by this amount. This increase in volume is called
bulking. Batching by volume is not a very accurate method. This is because the weight of
cement per unit volume varies depending on the degree of compaction during loading into
the gauge box. This method is therefore not suitable for high quality work. It is however
adequate for most small size jobs.
 Batching by Weight: This method entails measuring out the exact quantities of the various
materials using any suitable weighing method depending on the quantity of the materials
to be batched. This is the better method since it has a greater accuracy and the weighing
balance can be attached to the mixing machine. It water is usually measured by volume
and specified as to the number of litres per bag of cement to be mixed.

ii. MIXING: Mixing of concrete is done by two means. These are hand mixing and
machine mixing.
 Hand Mixing: Hand mixing should be carried out on a clean hard surface. The materials
should be thoroughly mixed in the dry state twice before the water is added. The water
should be added slowly and mixed at least three times.
 Machine mixing: Machine mixing is done in stationery or transit mixers. The mix should
 be turned over in the mixer for at least two minutes after adding the water in the stationery
mixer. The first batch from the mixer tends to be harsh since some of the mix will adhere
to the sides of the drum. This batch should be used for some less important work such as
filling in weak pockets in the bottom of the excavation. In the transit mixer, the batched
materials are charged into the mixer and the mixing takes place as the concrete is taken to
the point where it is to be used.
 Ready mixed: This is used for large batches with lorry transporters up to 6m3 capacity. It
has the advantage of eliminating site storage of materials mixing plant, with the guarantee
of concrete manufactured to quality – controlled standards. Placement is usually direct
from the lorry; therefore, site- handling facilities must be coordinated with deliveries.

iii. HANDLING: If concrete is to be transported for some distance over rough ground, the
runs should be kept as short as possible since vibration of this nature can cause
segregation of the materials in the mix. For the same reason concrete should not be
dropped from a height of more than 1m. If this is unavoidable a chute should be used.

3.4.2: SPECIFYING CONCRETE: Concrete can be specified by any of the following methods:
 Designed Mix: The mix is specified by a grade corresponding to required characteristic
compressive strength at [Link] are 12 grades from C7.5 to C60, the C indicates the
compressive strength in N/mm2 or MPa. Flexural (F) strength grades may also be specified
as F3, F4 or F5 i.e. 3, 4 or 5 N/mm2. Also the requirement must specify the cement and
aggregate content and maximum free water/ cement ratio.
 Prescribed Mix: This is a recipe of constituents with their properties and quantities used
to manufacture the concrete. The specification must be made for:
 The type of cement
 Type of aggregates and their maximum size
 Mix proportions by weight Degree of workability
Prescribed mixes are based on established data indicating conformity to strength, durability
and other characteristics. Examples of prescribed mix include the following:
1:3:6/40mm aggregate. 1:2:4/20mm aggregate. Suitable mixes for different jobs are: -
o 1: 3:6 - Mass concrete
 o 1:2:4 - Reinforced concrete

 Nominal mixes: This is the older method of proportioning concrete mixes and was widely
used in the past. For small jobs, the use of nominal mixes is still fairly adequate enough.
The method is very simple and fast. In this mix proportioning method, the proportion of
cement and aggregates are fixed, only the water-cement ratio is varied. Table 1(c) shows
some nominal mixes and where they could be used.
For these kinds of mixes to meet the necessary requirements of fresh and hardened
concrete, trial mixes should be made first. If after the trial a mix does not prove to be
satisfactory, one should change the ratios of the coarse to fine aggregates until a satisfactory
mix is arrived at. For instance, the ratios of coarse to fine aggregates could be varied
between the limits of 1½:1 and 3:1, but the sum of the proportions of the fine and coarse
aggregates of the selected prescribed mix should not be varied.
The best ratio of fine to coarse aggregate depends on:
o Grading of the fine aggregate
o Particle shape
o Surface particle texture of the coarse aggregate

3.4.3: Control for Concrete Mix

Workability: The quality of plastic concrete mix (fresh concrete) is assessed by workability test.
Workability is the fluidity of concrete. Generally, workability is defined as the ease with which a
given set of materials can be mixed into concrete and subsequently handled, transported and placed
with minimum loss of homogeneity. Thus, the term workability means compactibility, placeabilty,
pumpability, mobility, and stability. The degree of workability is selected based on the following
considerations:
 Method of mixing
 Method of transportation
 Method of placing
 Nature of the reinforcement (whether congested or not)
 Method of compaction.
Factors Affecting Workability: The workability of a concrete mix can be improved without
necessarily increasing the mix water content, raising the water content for workability could cause
segregation, bleeding, low strength and durability of the hardened concrete, etc. The workability
can be improved by changing the followings:
 Aggregates ‘grading
 Maximum aggregate size
 Water/cement ratio (cement and water content)
 Aggregate/cement ratio
 Aggregate shape
 Aggregate texture
Assessment of Workability: Workability cannot be measured. It can only be assessed indirectly
by measuring the slump or the compacting factor.
Slump Test: This test together with careful observation of the concrete is the best means of
assessing workability of a mix. The slump test assists in assessing the consistency of a mix. The
plasticity and harshness is best noted by observing the appearance of the slump specimen after the
mould has been removed. A plastic mix (workable mix) will tend to stick together and subsides
unbroken when the mould is removed, while a harsh mix breaks. Using the slump test a mix could
have:
 True slump: representing mix with low to medium workability
 Shear slump: representing harsh mix, low cement grading, improper shapes and textures
etc.
 Collapse slump: representing mix with high workability
Compacting Factor test: Slump test is satisfactory for medium and high workability. Where
concrete of very low workability is to be tested, the compacting factor test is more appropriate.
This test is done with a compacting factor apparatus. Compacting factor test measures the
degree of compaction achieved by a standard amount of work done. The compacting factor
is expressed to two decimal places. The value of C.F. ranges from 0.75 to 1.0.
Concretes with C.F. 0.75 cannot be compacted with hand. Table 21.0 compares
degrees of workability of concrete as assessed by compacting factor and slump tests.
Table 22 shows recommended workabilities for different types of constructions.

Table 21.0 Comparison between workability assessment methods

slump and compacting factor test

Slump Compacting Degree of Workability

(mm) Factor
0 –-25 0.78 Very low
 25-50 0.85 Low
50-100 0.92 Medium
100-175 0.95 High

3.5 USE OF FORM WORK IN FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

Concrete when first mixed is a fluid and therefore to form any concrete member the wet concrete
must be placed in a suitable mould to retain its shape, size and position as it sets. These moulds
are called formwork. Formwork provides a level platform to support the wet concrete until it
hardens enough to be self-supporting. The formwork is made from timber boards propped up from
the floor below by timber supports. The structure must take account of any beams, lintels and
openings. It should be strong and stable so that it can support the weight of people and plant as
well as the concrete.
Concrete for floor is basically a four sided box with provisions for beams that may be constructed
monolithically with the floor and propped in the correct position and to the desired level. It is
essential that all joints in the formwork are constructed to prevent the escape of grout which could
result in honeycombing and/or feather edging in the slab cast.
3.6: SCAFFORDING
3.6.1: Principles of Scaffolding: Scaffolds are temporary working structures made from poles of
wood or metal erected around the perimeter of a building or a structure to provide a safe working
place at a height that cannot be reached from the ground. They are usually required when the
working height or level is 1.500m or more above the ground level. All scaffolds must comply with
the minimum requirements and objectives of the constructions (Health Safety and Welfare)
Regulations 1996.
3.6.2: Parts of a Scaffold: The basic parts of a scaffold consist of the following and are:
Base boards are timber boards that support the base plate on soft or uneven ground.
Base plates are square metal plates that fit into the bottom of scaffold tubes to spread the load.
Braces are poles fixed diagonally to stiffen the scaffold by forming a triangle.
Standards are the vertical poles that carry the weight of the scaffold to the ground.
Toe boards are the boards along the edges of platforms which prevent materials from falling.
Transoms are cross pieces that rest on the ledgers and support the platform.
Ledgers are longitudinal horizontal components that are fixed to the standards.
Putlogs are transverse horizontal members fixed to the ledger.

3.6.3: TYPES OF SCAFFORD

i. Putlog Scaffolds: These are scaffolds which have an outer row of standards joined
together by ledger which in turn support the transverse putlogs which are built into the
bed joints or perpends as the work proceeds. They are therefore only suitable for new
work in bricks
ii. Independent scaffolds: These are scaffolds which have two rows of standards each
row joined together with ledgers which in turn support the transverse transoms. The
scaffold is erected clear of the existing or proposed building but is tied to the building
or structure at suitable intervals.
iii. Mobile scaffolds: Mobile scaffolds sometimes called mobile tower scaffolds are
constructed to the basic principles as for independent tubular scaffolds and are used to
provide access to restricted or small area and or where mobility is required.
iv. Cantilever scaffolds: These are a form of independent tied scaffold erected on
cantilever beams and used where it is impracticable undesirable or uneconomic to use
a traditional scaffold requires special skills and should therefore always be carried out
by trained and experienced personal
v. Suspended scaffold: Suspended scaffold, these consist of a working platform in the
form of a cradle which is suspended from cantilever beams or out riggers from the roof
of a tall building to give access to the facade for carrying out light maintenance work
and cleaning activities. The cradle can have manual or power control and be in single
units or grouped together to form a continuous working platform. If grouped together
they are connected to one another at their allotment ends with hinges to form a gap of
not more than 25mm wide. Many high rise building gave a permanent cradle system
installed at roof and this is recommended for all building over 30 m high.
Ten commandments of scaffolding

i. Ensure loadings will not be exceeded.

ii. Bases are complete, firm, on level ground
iii. Diagonal bracing to be adequate
iv. Check ties, and mesh cloth, as part of regular inspection.
v. Lock wheels on mobile scaffold before using it.
 vi. Ladders MUST be secured at the top and bottom.
vii. Handrails and/or toe boards MUST be in place before anyone starts working.
viii. Planks should be secured.
ix. Scaffold is NOT a workbench. You don't grind, weld or straighten rebars with it.
x. IF IN DOUBT - ASK.

3.7 STAIRCASE
The most common form of vertical circulation in upstairs and access to the upper floors is the
stairway. One can define stair as a number of steps leading from one level to another, and its
function is to provide means of movement between floor to floor in storey building, and as well
serves, as means of escape from upper floors in case of fire accident. Functional requirements of
stair case
 Stability
 Fire resistance
 Sound insulation
 Strength
Safety requirements of staircase
 Durability
 Headroom
 Balustrades
 Ventilation and light window
 Handrail
 Uniform steps

TYPES OF STAIRS:
 Straight flight (not more than 15 steps) 

This is kind of stair that has only one or more flight in straights order and it has not more than
fifteen steps before landing. This is most suitable where space is limited and cannot
accommodate other types of stairs.
 Straight flights

 Open well stair (with 2/4 space landing) 


This is a kind of stair which has two quarter space of landing and space in between the two
flight. 

Two quarter space

Open well
landing

Open well stair

 Quarter turn stair case 

This is a kind of stair that one needs to turn through a quarter of circle from the first flight to
the second flight. 

Quarter
space landing

Quarter turn stair case

 Dogleg stair case (with ½ space landing) 

This is a kind of stair that has have space landing with no space in between the first and the
second flight, this means one ascending will have to turn half of a circle to be on the second
flight. 

Dogleg stair case

 Spiral staircase: This is a kind of stair that one ascending will have to turn to complete circle
before he could reach the floor above. 
 Spiral staircase

3.8: PARTITION WALLS

It is an internal wall which is constructed to divide the spaces in an enclosed building into rooms
or areas. It can be constructed using bricks, sandcrete blocks, timber, metal, glass or plastics.
3.8.1: Functions of Partition Walls: Partition walls perform the following functions
 Divide the inside of a building into rooms and spaces
 Divide a building into separate occupancies
 Separate adjoining properties
 Sometimes help to support loads if it is so designed.
3.8.2: Types of Partition Walls
 Party walls: is a wall separating adjoining building belonging to different owners or
occupied by different persons.
 Separating walls: is a wall separating different occupancies within the same building.
 Curtain wall: Is the self-supporting wall carrying no other vertical wall load, but subjected
to lateral forces.
3.9: FENESTRATION IN BUILDING
Fenestration refers to openings in a building which allow access for air (ventilation), light,
walkways and comfort. These openings are also part of building components. They are namely
doors, windows, chimneys, courtyard, screened walls etc

3.9.1 Functional requirement of opening in walls

Openings are made in walls to accommodate doors and windows, and also on some are made to
admit light and air into the building. But these openings forms weakness in walls, and if there
happens to be any settlement or shrinkage of materials in the structure, then cracking is most likely
to be seen where these openings are. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that care is taken when
making opening, in bricks work to achieve the greatest amount of strength and stability of the
walling surrounding them.

3.9.2 Treatment to Openings

An opening consists of a head, jambs and sill. The different methods and treatments which can be
used in their formation are many but are based on the same concepts.
All openings should be treated with anti-termite treatments, and anti-rust treatment; BSC most
materials used for doors and windows are either timber or steel.

Doors and windows are the main openings in brick walls. Their locations are shown on the working
drawings together with the head and sill height. These heights should relate to the datum or over
site slab level. If this is not the case, then the heights must be recalculated and decision taken as to
which courses will take the openings. The brick work is finished neatly on each side of the opening
with a stop-end. The method is similar to finishing off at a quoin. Insert a closer before the last
header in alternate courses in English and Flemish board.
The sill does not need special treatment but at the head there are alternative methods to carry the
brickwork across the opening. These are lintels and Arches
3.10 Lintels and Arches

Lintel
A lintel (figure 3.1) is a beam that spans across a horizontal opening and supports the load just
above the opening. Lintels can be timber or concrete. Timber is fine for short spans but is not
durable. For this reason, most lintels are built from reinforced concrete.

The lintel can be covered with skin decorative brickwork which needs support. This is done by:
 Bolting a galvanized steel angle to the concrete lintel. 

 building the decorative brickwork on the edge of the angle; 

 Tying the brick joints to the lintel with metal ties. 

Constructing concrete lintels

Structural engineers design lintels for larger buildings but the following basic guidelines could be
used to construct a lintel for domestic scale construction. Table 3.1 gives some basic requirements
for smaller lintels.

After designing the lintel, it should be cast (or made). Lintels can be in situ or precast. The span
will determine the height of the lintel, which should correspond to the height of full brick courses.

Table 3.1 Standard dimensions for lintels

Span (mm) Depth (mm) Reinforcement sizes (mm)
900 150 10
1200 150 12
1500 215 12
1800 215 16
The design of the lintel should use these additional requirements:
 one reinforcement bar for each 112mm width of lintel; 

 the width must be at least 1/20th of the span; 

 the bearing of the lintel must be more than 150mm; 
 at least 25mm of concrete must cover the bottom of the reinforcement bar; 

 at least 50mm of concrete must cover the ends of the bar. 

 FINISHES
Finishes are the treatments that are put on internal floors, internal and external walls ceilings and
soffits of suspended floors. They serve decorative and practical functions. They improve the
appearance of the structures underneath, and also prolong building life spans. The treatments called
finishes include:

 plastering 

 rendering 

 painting 

Plastering: Plastering is the application of a smooth coat of material to walls and ceilings. The
purpose of plastering is to provide a jointless, hygienic, easily decorated smooth finish to walls.
Plaster covers up the unevenness of bricks, blocks or concrete. Plaster is mixed with water to make
a plastic mixture, which can be spread directly on a surface in thin layers of about 10 mm thickness.
The surface absorbs the water in the mix by a process called suction. The suction process stiffens
the plaster rapidly so that it can be leveled while it sets and hardens. When the plaster dries it
leaves a hard, smooth finish for decoration. Plaster consists of powdered cement, sand and lime or
gypsum. All these materials except sand are supplied in bags.

Rendering: Rendering refers to the process of applying a cement and sand plaster coat to the
outside walls of a building. Rendering is applied to:
 Improve the appearance of concrete block walls 

 Provide a waterproof finish to porous blocks such as landcrete and sandcrete blocks 

 Provide a base for colour finish. 
Rendering is a mixture of cement and sand. Lime is sometimes added to improve its pliability.
Several kinds of finishes and textures are common to external rendering. They improve the
appearance of the cement and sand mix and help to control shrinking and cracking, which affects
the waterproof quality of render.

Painting: Painting is the application of a pigmented liquid that stretches thinly across a surface
when the liquid dries out. Walls, ceilings, woodwork and metalwork are painted to
 Provide a decorative appearance 

 Protect the surface from moisture penetration 

 Protect the surface from rusting. 
A standard paint consists of
 Thinners 

 Pigments 

 Binders. 

3.11.1 Floor Finishes: Floor finishes are usually applied to a structural base but may form part of
the floor structure as in the case of floor boards. Most finishes are chosen to fulfill a particular
function such as:
Resistance to wear: Some parts of a building receive more use than others or are in closer contact
with the dust or mud outside. The floor finish should match the type of wear that is normal in a
specific part of a building so that it lasts many years without replacement.
Resistance to grease and oil: The floor should not be damaged by grease and oil spills and they
should be easily wiped from the surface. Spills are a particular problem in kitchens
Resistance to water spills: The flooring in bathroom and kitchen needs to withstand water spills
from washing or plumbing leaks.
Ease of cleaning: Surfaces that allow dirt to easily penetrate are harder to keep clean. If ease of
cleaning is a priority, then a hard smooth finish is better than a soft open texture.
Warmth or coolness: Hard smooth surfaces are cool to walk on because they conduct heat away.
Soft textured finishes like carpet give a room a warmer feel which may be suitable for cooler
climates.
Noise: Hard surfaces do not absorb sound so they are noisier than soft surfaces
Cost: The costs vary enormously for the higher range of finishes. The cheapest finish is a cement
screed. The most expensive are carpet, wood block or special floor tiles.
3.11.2: Different types of floor finishes
The following are the most common types of floor finishes.
 Terrazzo tiles 

 PVC 

 Granolithic screeds 

 Cement and sand screed 

 Ceramic tiles finish 

 Wood floor finish 
Terrazzo tiles
The floor is floated once it has been soaked in ebonite (hardened PVC materials that is flexible to
a limit) is laid in modules floor is then cast with thickness of 20 mm and a grinding machine is
then used to grind the surface to finish after about 2-3 days of casting. The floor after grinding may
be 19mm thick. Detergent or washing solvent is used to wash the surface after grinding. The
surface is then polished to finish. Terrazzo floors are laid by applying a 25 mm cement and sand
screed which is followed by the cement and marble mixture (i.e. terrazzo) while the screed is still
fresh. An important feature of a terrazzo finish is the strip of metal, ebonite or plastic strips which
go through the screed to the subfloor to divide it into bays. The purpose of the strips is to limit the

bays to 1m2. This prevents shrinkage cracks and makes the floor finish particularly decorative if
different colours of terrazzo are used.

Pre-cast terrazzo tiles

This is the one that is prepared in the workshop or factories and brought to site and laid in position.
In the case of ebonite PVC, the gaps are filled with glamn. But we butter the bottom of the tile
with thick cement only.
PVC tiles
The PVC tiles have precise measurements (300 x 300 x 3mm). They must be laid on a perfectly
smooth screed because they are so thin and fixed with adhesive. However, they can be fitted so
closely that they do not have a gap in the joints. PVC tiles are usually resistant to grease and oil,
water proof and durable. Although they come in wide range of colours and textiles, PVC tiles are
one of the cheapest floor finishes that one can buy and lay. They are maintained by applying a
surface coating of wax and then washing with soapy water.

Granolithic screeds
This uses granite chippings in a cement and sand screed in 1:1:3 mixes to improve the wearing
qualities. The granite chips are graded from 5mm to dust. This screed can be laid on fresh concrete
so that it forms a 25mm monolithic bond in bays which are less than 10m2. If the screed is laid
after the concrete is dry, then the thickness of the screed must be 40-50mm. The top of the
granolithic screed must be leveled and compacted. It becomes firm when it sets. In this case you
must smooth it with a steel trowel at least three times in a 6 hour period to produce a hard, dense
surface without an accumulation of fine particles. The screed must be cured for seven days.

Cement and sand screed

This type of floor finish is laid if the concrete subfloor is not smooth or level enough for a floor
finish. The screed consists of a layer of mortar, which provides a good surface when leveled with
a steel trowel. The thickness of the mortar, which does not give any structural support, varies from
25 to 60 mm in a 1:3 cement and sand mix depending on the circumstances. As little water as
possible is used to minimize shrinkage.

Ceramic floor tiles

This type of tiles is made from ceramics. This are product from refine natural clays which are
pressed after grinding and tempering into the desired shape before being fire at high temperature.
They are valuable in sizes ranging from 50 x 50 mm to 300 x 300 mm in thickness of 9.5mm to
[Link] are laid on mortar beds. Some tiles have wide joints which have to be filled separately,
while others are fitted so tightly that no joint filling is needed.
Wood floor finish
The most common wood floor finishes are
 Wood mosaic 

 Wood strip 

Wood Mosaic
Wood mosaic is a low-cost type of hardwood floor which uses off-cuts of hardwood. The wood is
shaped into pieces 150 x 300 x10 mm and assembled into 300 x 300 x 10 mm panels. The panels
are laid in groups of five in a basket weave pattern on a paper backing which holds them together
while they are transported. Each panel is laid separately on a completely dry cement and sand
screed which is first of all cleaned of all loose materials. They panels are stuck on the screed with
adhesive so that each panel fits tightly against the next. The installation is completed by removing
the paper backing.
Wood strip
Wood strip flooring is made from timber strips in softwood or hardwood fixed to battens on
concrete subfloor. The battens are secured by
 Casting galvanized metal clips into the concrete or screed. 

 Casting dovetail battens into the screed so they are anchored as the screed dries.
The process is completed by sanding or polishing to a fine finish.

3.11.3: WALL FINISHINGS

In wall finishes, the following can be applied
 Plastering 

 Rendering 

 Tiling 
Applying a plaster finish
One, two or three coats of plaster may be applied to achieve a smooth finish. Generally, two coats
need to be applied unless plasterboards are being used, in which case only one coat is needed.
Three coats are only used if the surface is extremely uneven. The first coat in a three-coat finish,
called a screed coat, is applied to level the surface and to ensure that the plaster is the correct
thickness. The background is first all prepared. Any depressions in the surface should be filled
with mortar or neat plaster. A cement and sand mixture (1:3 combined with minimal water) is
applied with a trowel. The sand should be well graded to reduce cracking from shrinkage after the
plaster dries. Before the first coat fully sets, it should be scratched to provide a key for the second
coat and leave to dry. A finishing coat of neat plaster is then applied with a steel float to produce
a thick, smooth finish.

External rendering: Several finishes and textures are common to external rendering such as;
Smooth render, roughcast render, scraped render, pebbledash render, Tyrolean render to improve
the appearance of cement and sand mix and help to control shrinking and cracking, which affects
the waterproof quality of render.

Wall tiling: Tiles are made from clays with special additives. Common sizes for wall tiles are
 150 x 150 x 5-6 mm 

 100 x100 x4-5 mm 

Their shapes and sizes may vary, but the method of fixing and pointing are the same for all tiles.
On an even surface, tiles are fixed using the thin bed method using a special adhesive 1-2 mm
thick to fix thin tiles to a smooth surface such as plaster. It can only be used on smooth surfaces
since the adhesive is the only anchor for the tiles. On an uneven surface, the thick bed method is
used to fix the wall tiles. A 1:4 cement sand mortar is prepared and spread over a wall as a wet bed
to push the tiles into. Battens of the same thickness as the tiles and mortar bed can be nailed to the
wall to act as a guide to the finished levels.

3.11.4: Ceiling finishes

The soffit of reinforced concrete slab that forms the ceiling should be level if the formwork was
well built. If the surface is very uneven, then you will need to apply three coats of plaster. The first
coat is the render coat, which creates a level surface with screeds. It should be about 10 mm thick.
The second coat called the float coat should be 6 mm thick, and the ceiling should be finished off
with a final 2 mm coat of neat plaster.

Plasterboards can make good ceilings timber suspended floors or pitched timber roof. The boards
are fixed so that their lengths are at right angles to the floor joist or ceiling joists at 400 mm centres.
The boards are usually large and heavy; about 2400 x 1200 mm and weigh 25 kg. Boards nailed
at 150 mm centres along the lines of the joists. The joints at the ends of the boards should be under
a joist, which may require cutting to fit. The process is finished by binding and filling the joints
before applying a skim coat of plaster.

Painting of ceiling
Ceilings are painted to make it attractive, protect the surface from moisture penetration and rust.
The following steps are taken in the plastering of ceilings:
 Remove all plaster splashes with a scraper 

 Fill in and rub down any holes, scratches or grooves 

 Remove dust with a soft brush 

 Dilute the emulsion with 10 per cent additional water and paint it on as a priming coat.

 Leave it about an hour

 Apply the full-strength emulsion

 Leave it for 2 or 3 hours

 Paint on the final coat of emulsion