Section 3 — String Articulations &
Techniques
Every standard technique a string player can do, organised by family
Study notes compiled from the course slides by Karleen Heong (Udemy Orchestration Course). Each
topic is explained for a first-time learner with worked examples and references to the original slides
for visual context.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 1
3.1 Fingering — the left-hand basics
The right hand bows; the left hand presses strings down onto the fingerboard to make pitches. A
shorter vibrating length means a higher pitch (higher frequency).
Figure — Slide 5: Pressing the string shortens the vibrating length and raises the pitch.
Finger numbering
• 0 = open string (no finger touching it)
• 1 = index finger
• 2 = middle finger
• 3 = ring finger
• 4 = pinky finger
Positions
A position describes where the whole hand sits along the fingerboard, and therefore the span of
notes the four fingers can cover without shifting. 1st position is closest to the scroll; higher positions
move the hand toward the bridge to reach higher notes. 1st and 3rd positions are the most
common; advanced violinists routinely use 8+ positions.
Figure — Slide 6: Moving up positions to reach higher notes.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 2
Figure — Slide 7: 1st, 2nd and 3rd positions on the A string of a violin or viola.
Figure — Slide 8: The same positions with the corresponding finger numbers.
Score convention: Violin and viola fingerings are shown from the player's perspective. Cello and
bass fingerings are shown from the audience's perspective.
3.2 The three ways to make sound on a string
Everything that follows is a variation of these three actions:
• Bowing — dragging the bow across the string (the default).
• Plucking — pulling the string with a finger or nail (pizzicato family).
• Striking — hitting the string with the wood of the bow, the hand, or another object (col legno
battuto, percussion-style effects).
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 3
Figure — Slide 10: The three sound-production methods.
3.3 Bowing — arco, down-bow, up-bow, slurs
Arco
Arco simply means 'with the bow.' You write it to return to bowing after a pizzicato (plucked)
passage.
Down bow (■) and Up bow (V)
• Down bow — bow moves from the frog (heavy end, near the hand) to the tip (light end).
Naturally decrescendo. Strong at the start, so it's usually placed on downbeats / main beats.
• Up bow — bow moves from the tip back to the frog. Naturally crescendo. Weaker at the start,
so it suits anacruses (pickup notes) and weak beats.
Figure — Slide 17: Standard alternating down/up bowing.
In a notated score you only need to mark the first down-bow if standard alternation is expected;
players know the convention. Do not micromanage every bow direction unless it really matters —
professional players can disguise the natural volume difference.
Slurs
A slur tells the player to play multiple notes in a single bow stroke. In string music, slurs serve two
purposes: indicating bowing (a stroke of, say, four notes), or — if the slur is too long for one bow —
indicating phrasing.
Bow economy: Loud playing uses lots of bow pressure (and bow length), so fewer notes fit per slur.
Soft playing uses little pressure, so many notes can fit in one bow.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 4
3.4 Bowed articulations — détaché, legato, louré/portato
Détaché
The default bowing: alternating down/up bows, one note per stroke, with no special connection or
separation. This is what you get if you write nothing.
Legato
Legato = 'to join.' Smooth, connected notes with imperceptible bow changes. Notated with a slur —
but here the slur indicates phrasing, not necessarily one bow.
Figure — Slide 27: Legato — smoothly joined notes notated with a slur.
Louré / Portato (brush strokes)
Halfway between legato and staccato: multiple notes in one bow, but each gets a tiny push so the
listener can hear them as separate. Notated as a slur plus dots above each note. Louré is French,
portato is Italian — same thing, both mean 'to carry.'
Figure — Slide 30: Brush strokes — slur with dots.
3.5 Portamento vs Glissando
These two are constantly confused, even by professionals. They both involve a 'slide' between two
notes, but the technique and sound are different.
Portamento
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 5
An expressive slide. The finger stopping the first note slides up the string until it is just under the
second note, then the second finger drops on the second note. The slide is fast and continuous
(microtones, not chromatic steps). Rarely notated — players add it to taste in expressive passages.
Glissando
A more elaborate slide that rests very briefly on each semitone between the two pitches — it
sounds chromatic, like a fast scale. Must be notated, typically with a wavy line or the word gliss.
Other instruments do glissandi too (harp glissandi sweep across the strings; piano glissandi run the
thumb across the keys).
Figure — Slide 34: Keywords: portamento = microtones (smooth slide); glissando = semitones (chromatic).
Figure — Slide 35: Notation of portamento (curve/word) vs glissando (straight line, often with gliss.).
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 6
Figure — Slide 36: Side-by-side technique comparison.
3.6 On the string vs Off the string
• On the string — the bow hair stays in contact with the string; no bouncing.
• Off the string — the bow bounces; there is air between the hair and the string between notes.
Staccato
A short, detached note: the bow stops the string between notes. On bowed instruments staccato is
usually on the string at moderate tempi.
Staccatissimo
An exaggerated staccato — even shorter and more clipped. Notated with a small vertical wedge
instead of a dot.
Slurred staccato
Multiple staccato notes per bow stroke — the bow does not change direction between notes, but
there is still a gap of silence between each. Notated as a slur with dots.
Figure — Slide 44: Slurred staccato — slur plus dots, multiple short notes per bow.
3.7 Accents — accent, marcato, martelé
Accent (>)
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 7
A simple stress on a note. The attack is stronger; the rest of the note is normal length. Notated as an
open horizontal wedge ('greater-than' sign).
Marcato (^)
Italian for 'marked' — a stronger accent than a plain accent. Notated as an open vertical wedge.
Martelé
French for 'to hammer' — a sharp, biting attack: the bow is pressed into the string, then released
explosively, with a clear gap before the next note. Think of it as a staccato with a heavy accent built
in, or as a sforzando in miniature. Sometimes called 'on-the-string staccato.' Notated with the word
martelé or, ambiguously, with staccato/accent symbols interpreted by the player.
Marcato vs Martelé: Both are heavy accents and the definitions overlap. Useful distinction: marcato
= a stronger version of a regular accent; martelé = a staccato with a heavy accent (it carries an
associated technique). Think of martelé as living in the staccato family.
3.8 Off the string — the spiccato family
Spiccato
A light, bouncy off-the-string staccato. The player holds the bow loosely; the natural spring of the
wood plus the elasticity of the string make the bow bounce off the string in an arc. Spiccato is
notated the same as staccato (a dot) — performer or conductor chooses which one is appropriate
based on tempo.
Figure — Slide 59: The arc motion of spiccato — the bow meets the string only at the bottom of the arc.
Fast (natural / spontaneous) spiccato
At fast tempi, spiccato happens automatically: the wrist makes quick up-and-down motions and the
bow bounces on its own.
Slow (artificial / conscious) spiccato
At slow tempi, the player has to make the bounce deliberate: relax the grip, move the wrist in a small
semicircle so the middle of the bow lands and immediately lifts off the string.
Slurred spiccato
Multiple spiccato notes per bow stroke — notated like slurred staccato.
3.9 'Thrown' bow techniques and friends
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 8
Ricochet / Jeté
The bow is thrown onto the string and allowed to bounce in a controlled cluster, producing 2–6 rapid
notes in succession. Compare to a snare-drum 'press roll'. Usually written on a down-bow (possible
on an up-bow). The more bounces requested, the harder and messier it gets. Three bounces is the
practical maximum for full sections; solo strings can do more; cellos and basses have shorter bows
so cap at four.
Notated with the word jeté, or simply implied when you see many fast staccato notes under one
down-bow.
Arpeggiando
A rapid arpeggio sweeping across multiple strings — at high tempo the bow naturally bounces,
producing a glittery effect. Mostly found in solo writing.
Saltando
A form of spiccato where the bow is 'thrown' so that 2–6 notes sound in a single bow stroke (usually
down-bow), played on the upper third of the bow. The up-bow equivalent is called staccato volante
('flying staccato').
Sautillé
French word, related to saltando. A very fast spiccato played near the tip where the bow does not
actually leave the string but sounds as if it does. The player puts in little effort; the bow's own
momentum causes the bouncing motion.
3.10 An interlude on notation and trust
The string family has an enormous number of articulations and a great deal of overlap. As an
orchestrator you should know what each term means, but trust the performers and conductor to
interpret. Many distinctions (staccato vs spiccato, ricochet, arpeggiando, portamento, vibrato amount)
are routinely left unnotated and the players choose based on tempo, register, dynamic and
emotional context.
Be specific only when it really matters. If you absolutely need off-the-string or jeté, write it explicitly;
otherwise let the players make the music.
3.11 Trills and Tremolo
Trill
A trill is a very fast alternation between the written note and the note immediately above (a semitone
or whole tone — the key signature decides). It can also use the note below if marked. Avoid trills on
open strings: an open string sounds very different from a stopped string, so the trill will be uneven.
Notated tr with a wavy line.
Bowed tremolo
Fast up/down bow strokes on a single pitch. Two flavours:
• Unmeasured — slashes through the note stem; the player tremolos as fast as possible. More
slashes = more strokes.
• Measured — the notes are written out (e.g. sixteenths), so the number of strokes is fixed.
Fingered tremolo
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 9
Fast alternation between two different pitches a second or larger apart, played by alternating
fingers (and possibly strings). Like a bowed tremolo it can be measured or unmeasured. Notated by
slashes between the two notes.
Trill vs fingered tremolo: A trill alternates a half or whole step and is written tr. A fingered tremolo
alternates an interval of a second or larger and is written with slashes between the two notes.
3.12 Plucking techniques
Pizzicato (pizz.)
The default plucked technique: the right-hand index finger plucks the string with its pad while the bow
rests in the remaining three fingers. For long pizzicato passages the bow is sometimes rested on the
player's lap. Notated pizz.; to go back to bowing, write arco.
Figure — Slide 88: Marking arco/pizz/arco transitions in a score.
Allow time for transitions: Switching arco ↔ pizz takes physical time. The easiest moment to
switch arco → pizz is at the end of an up-bow; pizz → arco is easiest when the next bow stroke is a
down-bow. Don't write pizzicato passages so long that the player's plucking hand gets sore.
Snap pizzicato (Bartók pizzicato / Bartók snap)
The string is pulled away from the fingerboard and released, so it snaps back against the fingerboard
with a percussive crack. Has its own symbol — you don't need to write pizz. as well.
Fingernail pizzicato
Plucked with the nail instead of the flesh. The sound is more metallic and harsh. Notated with a
half-moon symbol on the relevant notes, or with the words with the nail / with the flesh to switch back.
Left-hand pizzicato
One of the left-hand fingers (usually the pinky) plucks the string. Used on open strings most often.
Common in solo and chamber music. For consecutive notes: pluck with the finger that was just
stopping the previous note — it's already in position.
Pizzicato roll / tremolo
Like a bowed tremolo, but plucked. Multiple fingers alternate to keep the string ringing in rapid
succession. Use sparingly — it's physically tiring.
3.13 Mutes — con sordino / senza sordino
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 10
A mute is a small accessory (usually rubber, sometimes metal or a combination) that clips onto the
bridge. It dampens the bridge's vibration, reducing the volume and changing the tone.
Figure — Slide 99: An orchestral cello mute. Slide it onto the bridge to engage; slide it back along the strings to disengage.
• Con sordino = with mute. Soft, smooth, veiled tone.
• Senza sordino = without mute. Back to normal.
Use cases: Orchestral mute: for softer dynamics and a distinctive 'misty' colour (e.g. Grieg's Aase's
Death, the Sarabande from Holst's Saturn, Tchaikovsky's Arabian Dance). Con sordino can also be
combined with forte/fortissimo to give a tense, restrained quality. Allow the player a few seconds to
put a mute on or take it off.
3.14 Other bow techniques
Sul ponticello
Bow very near or directly on the bridge. Produces extra dissonant harmonics: a glassy, scratchy,
eerie tone. Often combined with tremolo for sci-fi/horror colour.
Figure — Slide 104: Sul ponticello — bow placement near the bridge.
Sul tasto
Bow over the fingerboard. Produces a soft, hazy, unfocused tone. To play near but not directly over
the fingerboard (almost identical sound), write flautando.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 11
Figure — Slide 105: Sul tasto — bow placement over the fingerboard.
Col legno tratto / Col legno battuto
Col legno = 'with the wood' — the player flips the bow and uses the stick rather than the hair.
• Col legno tratto — drawn across the strings like a normal stroke. Whispery, eerie tone; great
with tremolo.
• Col legno battuto — struck on the strings. The bow bounces, producing a percussive, very
short, almost pitchless click. More common of the two.
Performer's note: Col legno is more popular with composers than with players because the stick
can be scratched. Some players keep a cheap second bow specifically for col legno passages. To
return to normal bowing write modo ordinario (or ordinario / ord. / naturale).
3.15 Harmonics — a short physics lesson
Harmonics are pitches produced not by stopping the string but by gently touching it at specific points
along its length. To understand why this works, it helps to know what's actually happening on a
vibrating string.
Stopping vs touching
• Open string — the full string vibrates from nut to bridge. You hear the fundamental pitch of that
string (the 1st harmonic).
• Stopped string — pressing the string firmly to the fingerboard shortens it, raising the pitch.
• Lightly touching the string at exactly its midpoint does not shorten the string — it prevents
that midpoint from moving. Both halves of the string vibrate independently, producing a note
an octave above the open string. This is a natural harmonic.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 12
Figure — Slide 112: An open (unstopped) string vibrating across its whole length.
Figure — Slide 113: A stopped string — shortened, higher pitch.
Figure — Slide 114: Touching the midpoint — both halves vibrate, pitch is an octave higher.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 13
Figure — Slide 115: Why it works — touching creates a node the string can't move at.
Overtones / partials
Any note on any instrument is actually a sum of frequencies: the fundamental (the pitch you name)
plus overtones (the partials, ringing at integer multiples of the fundamental). These overtones are
what give an instrument its timbre. Without them you'd get a pure sine wave — extremely dull.
Touching a string at 1/2 produces the 2nd partial (one octave up); at 1/3 or 2/3 produces the 3rd
partial (an octave plus a fifth); at 1/4 or 3/4 produces the 4th partial (two octaves up); and so on. The
touch creates nodes where the string is held still while the segments between nodes vibrate freely.
Figure — Slide 121: Touching at 1/3, 2/3 → 3rd harmonic. Touching at 1/4, 3/4 → 4th harmonic.
3.16 Natural Harmonics
Natural harmonics use the open strings as the fundamental, so the available pitches are limited to the
partial series of each open string. On the violin the open strings are G3 D4 A4 E5; the first six partials
of each are:
• G string — G, G, D, G, B, D
• D string — D, D, A, D, F■, A
• A string — A, A, E, A, C■, E
• E string — E, E, B, E, G■, B
Notice the harmonics outline the triad of the fundamental (root, octave, fifth, third). This is one of the
reasons triads sound so consonant — they are literally the notes that occur naturally in every string's
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 14
overtone series.
Sound and notation
Natural harmonics sound flutey, silvery, ethereal. They are notated two ways:
• Circle above the sounding pitch — the simplest notation; you write the pitch you want to hear
with a small circle ('o') above it.
• Diamond note-head at the node — the diamond shows where to touch the string; a normal
note at the actual sounding pitch is written alongside.
To force a harmonic on a specific string, write sul G (or sul D / A / E…).
Figure — Slide 125: The two natural-harmonic notation conventions.
3.17 Artificial Harmonics
Natural harmonics are limited to a handful of pitches. Artificial harmonics let you get a harmonic-like
sound on any pitch by combining two left-hand fingers:
• One finger firmly stops a note (effectively creating a new 'open string' shorter than the real
one).
• Another finger (usually the pinky) lightly touches the node a perfect fourth above the
stopped note on the same string. The resulting pitch sounds two octaves above the stopped
note.
Figure — Slide 127: Artificial harmonic technique: stopped pitch + pinky at the node.
Notation (three ways)
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 15
• Stopped pitch (normal note) + diamond a 4th higher — the clearest method and the
standard.
• Same as above plus the sounding pitch in parentheses — even more explicit.
• Circle above a single note — convenient but ambiguous; avoids telling the player what to do.
Figure — Slide 130: Three notation conventions — the diamond-plus-stopped-note version is best.
Instrument considerations: On cello and bass the thumb can be used to stop the string (bigger
instrument = bigger stretch). On the double bass, artificial harmonics are very hard to play cleanly
because of its size — prefer natural harmonics on the bass.
3.18 Sul, Vibrato, Scordatura, Bariolage
Sul [string name]
Many pitches can be played on more than one string (e.g. violin's open D = the same D played
stopped on the G string). Different strings give different colours: thinner strings sound brighter, thicker
strings sound richer. Writing sul G forces the player to use the G string, even if another string would
be physically easier. Use sul markings to lock in a particular tone colour.
Vibrato
A small, fast rocking of the left-hand finger that pulses the pitch slightly up and down, giving long
notes warmth and life. Players add varying amounts by default; you only need to write molto vibrato
(lots) or senza vibrato (none) if you want something specific.
Vibrato on open strings: Vibrato is impossible on an open string — there's no finger on the string to
rock. If you must have vibrato on a pitch that would normally be an open string, write sul [next
thickest string] so the player uses a stopped position.
Scordatura
'Mistuning' — instructing the player to tune one or more strings to a non-standard pitch. Used to (a)
extend the range a little, (b) make particular multiple stops physically possible, or (c) produce a
distinctive tone colour. Keep deviations to a half- or whole-step where possible; tuning up is worse
than tuning down (extra tension on the string).
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 16
Figure — Slide 140: Scordatura: example of a violin tuned a semitone lower.
Bariolage
Rapidly alternating bowing across two (or more) strings, often using one open string repeatedly, to
produce the same pitch from different strings. Used either to make a tricky passage easier or for the
shimmering tonal effect itself.
3.19 Multiple Stops
Playing more than one note simultaneously on one instrument is called a multiple stop.
Types
• Double stop — two strings at once. Easy at any dynamic; trivial if at least one note is on an
open string.
• Triple stop — three strings. Needs moderate-to-loud dynamic to get enough bow pressure
across three strings.
• Quadruple stop — all four strings. Loud only (bow must bend to reach four strings). Usually
played arpeggiated — broken from bottom string to top. To force a non-broken chord write
senza arpeggio.
Figure — Slide 144: Double stop — bow angled to catch two strings.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 17
Figure — Slide 145: Triple stop — heavier bow pressure to reach a third string.
Figure — Slide 146: Quadruple stop — the wood of the bow actually bends.
Figure — Slide 147: Quick reference: difficulty of double/triple/quadruple stops.
Pizzicato multiple stops
Almost always arpeggiated low → high. To force simultaneous notes add a square bracket. To force
the arpeggio to go high → low, add a wavy vertical arrow with the direction.
In orchestral writing
In the strings of an orchestra, simple double stops are used routinely; triple and quadruple stops
are mostly reserved for solo or chamber music. The reason is purely practical: in an orchestra, a
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 18
'triple stop' can be divided — half the section plays the top note, half the bottom, and a clean chord
results without any player having to do something difficult. This is called divisi (often abbreviated
div.).
3.20 Contemporary / Extended Techniques
20th- and 21st-century composers have invented dozens of unusual ways to make sounds on string
instruments. A short non-exhaustive list:
• Plucking with a guitar pick / plectrum.
• Tapping or knocking the body of the instrument.
• Bowing very close to the nut (the tone resembles a viol; the fingering is reversed — very
difficult).
• Bowing on the other side of the bridge (between bridge and tailpiece).
• Bowing the tailpiece itself.
• Silent fingering — moving the left hand over the fingerboard without bowing, producing only the
soft tapping sound.
• Striking the strings with the palm.
• Tapping the bow on various objects (music stand, the instrument itself).
• Col legno on the wrong side of the bridge.
Famous example: Krzysztof Penderecki's Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima uses an entire
vocabulary of extended string techniques (sul ponticello tremolos, bowing behind the bridge,
percussive taps on the body) to produce its terrifying soundscape.
3.21 Grouped summary of techniques
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 19
Master cheat-sheet — grouped by family
Family Technique What it is / how to notate
Bowing direction Down bow (■) Frog → tip. Natural decrescendo, on strong beats.
Up bow (V) Tip → frog. Natural crescendo, on weak beats / anacrusis.
Slur Multiple notes per bow stroke.
Bowed style Détaché Default — alternating bows, one note per stroke.
Legato Smoothly joined notes; slur = phrasing.
Louré / Portato Brush strokes — slur + dot on each note.
Sliding Portamento Expressive microtonal slide.
Glissando Chromatic slide (semitones audible). Notated with wavy line /
gliss.
On-the-string short Staccato Short, detached. Notated with a dot.
Staccatissimo Even shorter. Wedge instead of dot.
Slurred staccato Multiple staccato per bow — slur + dots.
Accents Accent (>) Stress / emphasis on a note.
Marcato (^) Stronger accent.
Martelé Sharp biting attack; staccato + heavy accent.
Off-the-string short Spiccato Light bouncy staccato; notated like staccato.
Slurred spiccato Multiple spiccato per bow.
Ricochet / Jeté Bow thrown, 2–6 rapid bounces (usually down-bow).
Arpeggiando Fast arpeggios across strings; natural bounce.
Saltando Thrown spiccato of 2–6 notes per stroke.
Staccato volante Up-bow saltando (flying staccato).
Sautillé Very fast spiccato near tip; bow doesn't truly leave string.
Repetition Trill Fast alternation a step above.
Bowed tremolo Fast bow strokes on one pitch (measured/unmeasured).
Fingered tremolo Alternation between two notes a 2nd or larger apart.
Plucking Pizzicato Pluck with R-hand index pad. Mark pizz. / arco.
Snap / Bartók pizz Pull string up; snaps against fingerboard.
Fingernail pizz Pluck with nail; metallic.
Left-hand pizz Pluck with a left-hand finger (often pinky).
Pizz roll / tremolo Rapid alternating-finger plucking.
Mutes Con sordino With mute — soft, veiled tone.
Senza sordino Without mute.
Bow placement Sul ponticello Bow at bridge — glassy, eerie.
Sul tasto Bow over fingerboard — hazy, soft.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 20
Family Technique What it is / how to notate
Flautando Bow near (not over) fingerboard — flutey.
Col legno tratto Wood of bow drawn across strings.
Col legno battuto Wood of bow struck on strings.
Modo ordinario Return to normal bowing.
Harmonics Natural harmonic Touch open string at node → overtone.
Artificial harmonic Stop note + touch a 4th above with pinky → 2 octaves up.
Tonal / pitch Sul [string] Force use of a specific string.
Vibrato Rocking finger; molto / senza to specify.
Scordatura Alternative tuning.
Bariolage Rapid alternation across strings.
Multiple notes Double / Triple / 2 / 3 / 4 strings simultaneously. Triple+ usually arpeggiated.
Quadruple stop
Divisi Split a section so each part plays a different note (orchestral
alternative to stops).
Extended Contemporary Pick, body taps, behind-the-bridge bowing, silent fingering,
techniques percussion-style hits, etc.
Figure — Slide 154: Original course summary slide.
Section 3 — String Articulations & Techniques Page 21