Syllabus

• Quantization of Signals
• Quantization error
• Uniform & Non-Uniform types of Quantization
• Mid-rise & Mid-tread Quantizer.
• Companding : A-law & µ-law.
• Pulse Code Modulation system: Generation & Reconstruction,
• Differential Pulse code modulation
• Delta Modulation
• Adaptive Delta Modulation.
Analog Vs. Digital Communication
 Analog Signal Digital Signal
1. An analog signal represents a continuous wave that 1. Digital signal represents a noncontinuous wave that
keeps changing over a time period carries information in a binary format and has discrete
values.
2. An analog signal is always represented by the 2. A digital signal is represented by square waves.
continuous sine wave
3. Analog signal describe the behavior of the wave in 3. Digital signals the behavior of the wave in respect of bit
respect of amplitude, period or frequency, and phase of rate and bit interval.
the wave
4. The range of an analog signal is not fixed 4. Range of the digital signal is finite , 0 or 1.
5. An analog signal is more prone to distortion in 5. a digital signal has immunity in response to noise hence it
response to noise rarely faces any distortion.
[Link] to multiplex several analog signals 6. Easier to multiplex several digital signals
7. Reproduction of analog data is less reliable 7. Reproduction of digital data is more reliable without
deterioration.
8. Analog signals are difficult to encrypt for security 8. Digital signals are easily encrypted for security purposes.
purpose.
9. e.g. An analog signal is a human voice 9. Example of a digital signal is the transmission of data in
a computer.
Analog to Digital Conversion
 Quantization of Signals
• The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a
number of quantization levels.
• Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite
set of levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a
discrete-time signal.
• Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information. The quality
of a Quantizer output depends upon the number of quantization levels used.
• The discrete amplitudes of the quantized output are called as representation
levels or reconstruction levels.
• The spacing between the two adjacent representation levels is called
a quantum or step-size.
Quantization of Signals
 Quantization of Signals
• An N-bit A/D converter has 2^N quantization levels and outputs binary
words of length N i.e. its outputs has N-bit values for every sample.
• For example, a 3-bit A/D system has 2^3 = 8 quantization levels, so all
samples of a 1V analog signal that is input to this A/D will be quantized
into one of only 8 possible quantization levels and each sample will be
represented by a 3-bit digital word.
• In general, the A/D converter will partition a range of voltage from Vmin
to Vmax into 2^N voltage intervals, each of size q volts,
q=(Vmax-Vmin) / 2^N
 Quantization error
• The difference between an input value and its quantized value is called
a Quantization Error.
• It is a type of quantization error, which usually occurs in analog audio
signal, while quantizing it to digital.
• For example, in music, the signals keep changing continuously, where a
regularity is not found in errors.
• Such errors create a wideband noise called as Quantization Noise.
Quantization error
Types of Quantization

Quantization

Uniform Non Uniform

Quantization Quantization
 Uniform Quantization
• The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly
spaced is termed as a Uniform Quantization.

Uniform
Quantization

Mid –rise Mid-Tread

Mid-rise Quantizer
• The Mid-Rise type is so called
because the origin lies in the
middle of a raising part of the
stair-case like graph.
• The quantization levels in this
type are even in number.
Mid-tread Quantizer
• The Mid-tread type is so called
because the origin lies in the
middle of a tread of the stair-case
like graph.
• The quantization levels in this
type are odd in number.
 Non-Uniform types of Quantization
• The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and
mostly the relation between them is logarithmic, is termed as a Non-uniform
Quantization.
• In uniform quantization, the step size is equal. Therefore, in case of small
signal amplitude quantization error will be more.
• In non-uniform quantization, the step size varies according to the signal level.
• If the signal level is low then step size will be small. So, the step size will be low
for weak signal. Thus the quantization noise will also be low.
• In order to maintain proper signal to quantization noise ratio, the step size
must be variable according to the signal level.
Uniform & Non-Uniform Quantization
 Companding
• Non uniform quantization can be achieved by Companding.
• Companding refers to a technique for compressing and then expanding
an analog or digital signal. It is a combination of the words
"compressing" and "expanding."
Companding
 Companding
• A-law Companding Technique
• Uniform quantization is achieved at A = 1, where the characteristic curve is linear
and no compression is done.
• A-law has mid-rise at the origin. Hence, it contains a non-zero value.
• A-law companding is used for PCM telephone systems.
• µ-law Companding Technique
• Uniform quantization is achieved at µ = 0, where the characteristic curve is linear
and no compression is done.
• µ-law has mid-tread at the origin. Hence, it contains a zero value.
• µ-law companding is used for speech and music signals.
Companding: A-law & µ-law
 Companding: A-law & µ-law
An A-law algorithm is a standard companding algorithm, used in European 8-bit PCM digital communications
systems to optimize, i.e. modify, the dynamic range of an analog signal for digitizing.
 Companding: A-law & µ-law
µ-law is a companding standard commonly used in the United. States. It takes 14-bit data values and
compresses them to eight- bit values. A-law is the standard used in Europe. It takes 13-bit data values
and compresses them to eight-bit values.
Companding: A-law & µ-law
Pulse Code Modulation system:
Generation & Reconstruction
 Differential Pulse code modulation
• PCM is not really efficient because it generates so many bits taking up a
lot of bandwidth.
• Then we can express the difference between two adjacent samples as d[k]
= m[k] – m[k-1]
• At the receiver knowing d[k] and the previous value of m[k-1] allows us
to construct the value of m[k].
DPCM Transmitter
The signals at each point are named as −
• x(nTs)is the sampled input
• xˆ(nTs) is the predicted sample
• e(nTs)) is the difference of sampled input
and predicted output, often called as
prediction error
• v(nTs) is the quantized output
• u(nTs) is the predictor input which is
actually the summer output of the
predictor output and the quantizer output
 DPCM Transmitter
The predictor produces the assumed samples from the previous outputs of the
transmitter circuit. The input to this predictor is the quantized versions of the
input signal x(nTs).
Quantizer Output is represented as −
v(nTs)=Q[e(nTs)]=e(nTs)+q(nTs)
• Where q (nTs) is the quantization error

• Predictor input is the sum of quantizer output and predictor output,

u(nTs)=xˆ(nTs)+v(nTs)
u(nTs)=xˆ(nTs)+e(nTs)+q(nTs)
u(nTs)=x(nTs)+q(nTs)
DPCM Receiver
• The block diagram of DPCM
Receiver consists of a decoder, a
predictor, and a summer circuit.
• The predictor assumes a value, based
on the previous outputs. The input
given to the decoder is processed and
that output is summed up with the
output of the predictor, to obtain a
better output.
 Delta Modulation
• The sampling rate of a signal should be higher than the Nyquist rate, to achieve better sampling.

• In PCM the signaling rate and transmission channel bandwidth are quite large since it transmits all
the bits which are used to code a sample. To overcome this problem, Delta modulation is used.

• Delta modulation transmits only one bit per sample. Here, the present sample value is compared
with the previous sample value and this result whether the amplitude is increased or decreased is
transmitted.

• Input signal x(t) is approximated to step signal by the delta modulator. This step size is kept fixed.

• The difference between the input signal x(t) and staircase approximated signal is confined to two
levels, i.e., +Δ and -Δ.
 Delta Modulation

• Now, if the difference is positive, then approximated signal is increased by one

step, i.e., ‘Δ’. If the difference is negative, then approximated signal is reduced
by ‘Δ’ .

• When the step is reduced, ‘0’ is transmitted and if the step is increased, ‘1’ is
transmitted.

• Hence, for each sample, only one binary bit is transmitted.

Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation: Transmitter

Where e( nTs) = error at present

sample
x(nTs) = sampled signal of x(t)
Delta Modulation: Receiver
• Receiver or delta demodulator,
it comprises of a low pass filter(LPF), a
summer, and a delay circuit.
• The accumulator generates the staircase
approximated signal output and is
delayed by one sampling period Ts.
• It is then added to the input signal.
• If the input is binary ‘1’ then it adds +Δ
step to the previous output (which is
delayed).
• If the input is binary ‘0’ then one step ‘Δ’
is subtracted from the delayed signal.
 Delta Modulation
• Advantages of DM
• 1-bit quantizer
• Very easy design of the modulator and the demodulator

• However, there exists some noise in DM.

• Slope Over load distortion (when Δ is small)
• Granular noise (when Δ is large)
Delta Modulation
 Adaptive Delta Modulation
• In digital modulation, we have come across certain problem of
determining the step-size, which influences the quality of the output
wave.
• A larger step-size is needed in the steep slope of modulating signal and a
smaller step size is needed where the message has a small slope.
• The minute details get missed in the process. So, it would be better if we
can control the adjustment of step-size, according to our requirement in
order to obtain the sampling in a desired fashion.
 Adaptive Delta Modulation
• In order to overcome the quantization errors due to slope
overload and granular noise, the step size (Δ) is made adaptive to
variations in the input signal x(t).
• Particularly in the steep segment of the signal x(t), the step size is
increased. And the step is decreased when the input is varying slowly.
• This method is known as Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM).
Adaptive Delta Modulation
Adaptive Delta Modulation: Transmitter
• The transmitter circuit consists of a summer,
quantizer, Delay circuit, and a logic circuit for step
size control.
• The baseband signal X(nTs) is given as input to the
circuit. The feedback circuit present in the transmitter
is an Integrator.
• The integrator generates the staircase approximation
of the previous sample.
• At the summer circuit, the difference between the
present sample and staircase approximation of
previous sample e(nTs) is calculated.
• This error signal is passed to the quantizer, where a
quantized value is generated.
• The step size control block controls the step size of
the next approximation based on either the quantized
value is high or low.
 Adaptive Delta Modulation: Receiver

• At the receiver end Demodulation takes place. The receiver has two parts. First part is the
step size control. Here the received signal is passed through a logic step size control
block, where the step size is produced from each incoming bit.
• Step size is decided based on present and previous input. In the second part of the
receiver, the accumulator circuit recreates the staircase signal. This waveform is then
applied to a low pass filter which smoothens the waveform and recreates the original
signal.
 Adaptive Delta Modulation
• Advantages
• During demodulation, it uses a low pass filter which removes the quantized
noise.
• The slope overload error and granular error present in delta modulation are
solved using this modulation. Because of this, the signal to noise ratio of this
modulation is better than delta modulation.
• In the presence of bit errors, this modulation provides robust performance.
This reduces the need for error detection and correction circuits in radio
design.
• The dynamic range of Adaptive delta modulation is large as the variable step
size covers large range of values.
 Difference Between
PCM, DM, ADM and DPCM
BASIS OF
PCM DM ADM DPCM
COMPARISON
It can use 4,8 or 16 bits per It uses one bit for one It uses only one bit for one Bits can be more than one
Number of Bits
sample. sample. sample. but are less than PCM.
The number of levels
Levels And Step Step size is kept fixed and Step size varies according
depends on number of Number of levels is fixed.
Size cannot be varied. to the signal variation.
bits. Level size is fixed.
Quantization Slope overload distortion
Quantization error depends Slope-overload distortion Quantization noise is
Error & and quantization noise is
Distortion on the number of levels. is present. present but no other errors.
present.
Highest bandwidth is
Lowest bandwidth is Lowest bandwidth is Bandwidth required is less
Bandwidth required since the number
required. required. than PCM.
of bits is high.
There is no feedback in Feedback exists in the Feedback exists in the Feedback exists in the
Feedback
transmitter or receiver. transmitter. transmitter. transmitter.
Complex system to
Complexity Simple to implement Simple to implement. Simple to implement.
implement.
Thank You