Engineering Physics I B.

Tech CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

[Link] (CSE/EEE/IT & ECE)

Engineering Physics Syllabus

UNIT-I
1. Crystal Structures: Lattice points, Space lattice, Basis, Bravais lattice, unit cell and lattice parameters,
Seven Crystal Systems with 14 Bravais lattices , Atomic Radius, Co-ordination Number and Packing
Factor of SC, BCC, FCC, Miller Indices, Inter planer spacing of Cubic crystal system.
2. Defects in Crystals: Classification of defects, Point Defects: Vacancies, Substitution, Interstitial,
Concentration of Vacancies, Frenkel and Schottky Defects, Edge and Screw Dislocations (Qualitative
treatment), Burger’s Vector.
3. Principles of Quantum Mechanics: Waves and Particles, de Broglie Hypothesis, Matter Waves,
Davisson and Germer’s Experiment, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, Schrodinger’s Time
Independent Wave Equation-Physical Significance of the wave Function-Particle in One Dimensional
Potential Box.
UNIT –II
1. Electron Theory of Metals: Classical free electron theory, Derivation of Ohm’s law, Mean free path,
Relaxation time and Drift velocity, Failures of Classical free electron theory, Quantum free electron
theory, Fermi-Dirac distribution, Fermi energy, Failures of Quantum free electron theory.
2. Band Theory of Solids: Electron in a periodic potential, Bloch Theorem, Kronig-Penny
Model(Qualitative Treatment), origin of Energy Band Formation in Solids, Classification of Materials
into Conductors, Semi Conductors & Insulators, Effective mass of an Electron.
3. Semiconductor Physics: Intrinsic Semiconductors and Carrier Concentration, Extrinsic Semiconductors
and Carrier Concentration, Fermi Level in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors, Hall Effect and
Applications.
UNIT – III
1. Dielectric Properties: Electric Dipole, Dipole Moment, Dielectric Constant, Polarizability, Electric
Susceptibility, Displacement Vector, Types of polarization: Electronic, Ionic and Orientation
Polarizations and Calculation of Polarizabilities (Electronic & Ionic) -Internal Fields in Solids, Clausius
-Mossotti Equation, Piezo-electricity and Ferro- electricity.
2. Magnetic Properties: Magnetic Permeability, Magnetic Field Intensity, Magnetic Field Induction,
Intensity of Magnetization, Magnetic Susceptibility, Origin of Magnetic Moment, Bohr Magnetron,
Classification of Dia, Para and Ferro Magnetic Materials on the basis of Magnetic Moment, Hysteresis
Curve on the basis of Domain Theory of Ferro Magnetism, Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials, Ferrites
and their Applications.
UNIT – IV
1. Lasers: Characteristics of Lasers, Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission of Radiation, Meta-stable State,
Population Inversion, Einstein’s Coefficients and Relation between them, Ruby Laser, Helium-Neon
Laser, Semiconductor Diode Laser, Applications of Lasers.
2. Fiber Optics: Structure and Principle of Optical Fiber, Acceptance Angle, Numerical Aperture, Types
of Optical Fibers (SMSI, MMSI, MMGI), Attenuation in Optical Fibers, Application of Optical Fibers,
Optical fiber Communication Link with block diagram.

UNIT –V
1. Nanotechnology: Origin of Nanotechnology, Nano Scale, Surface to Volume Ratio, Bottom-up
Fabrication: Sol-gel Process; Top-down Fabrication: Chemical Vapor Deposition, Physical, Chemical
and Optical properties of Nano materials, Characterization (SEM, EDAX), Applications.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

Unit -1:Crystal Structures,Crystal Defects & Principles of Quantum Mechanics

Part-A (SAQ-2Marks)

1) Define a) Space Lattice b) Basis c) Co-ordination number d) Packing factor e) Miller

Indices.
a) Space lattice: is defined as an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which every
point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the array.
b) Basis: Group of atoms or molecules identical in composition.
Lattice + basis = crystal structure
c) Co-ordination number: The no of equidistant neighbors that an atom has in the given
structure .Greater the co-ordination no, the atoms are said to be closely packed.
For Simple Cubic: 6, BCC: 8, FCC: 12
d) Packing factor (PF): It is the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms or molecule in unit
cell to the total volume of the unit cell.
Volume of all the atoms in Unit cell
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
For Simple Cubic: 52%, BCC: 68%, FCC: 74%
e) Miller Indices: are the reciprocals of intercepts made by the planes on the crystallographic
axis when reduced to smallest integers.

2) Describe seven crystal systems with lattice parameters and Bravais Lattice points.

S:No Name of the Primitives Interfacial angles Bravais Lattice

crystal systems points
1 Cubic a= b= c α=β=γ=90o 3(P,I,F)
2 Tetragonal a= b≠ c α=β=γ=90o 2(P,I)
3 Orthorhombic a≠ b≠ c α=β=γ=90o 4(P,C,I,F)
4 Monoclinic a≠ b≠ c α=β=90o≠ γ 2(P,C)
5 Triclinic a≠ b≠ c α≠β≠γ≠90o 1(P)
6 Trigonal a= b= c α=β=γ≠90o 1(P)
7 Hexagonal a= b≠ c α=β=90oand γ=120o 1(P)

3) Define a) Crystal Structure b) Lattice Parameters c) Unit Cell d) Atomic radius (r).

a) Crystal structure: periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules in 3D space.

b) Lattice parameters: the primitives (a,b,c) and interfacial angles (α,β,γ,) are the basic lattice
parameters which determine the actual size of unit cell.
c) Unit cell: is a minimum volume cell which on repetition gives actual crystal structure.

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d) Atomic radius (r) – The atomic radius is defined as half the distance between neighboring
atoms in a crystal of pure element.

4) What are properties of matter Waves.

De-Broglie proposed the concept of matter waves, according to which a material particle of
mass ’m’, moving with a velocity ’V’ should have an associated wavelength ‘𝜆′ called de-
Broglie wavelength.
h h
λ= =
mv p

Wavelength is associated with moving particle and independent of charge of the particles.
Greater the mass, velocity of the particle, lesser will be the wavelength.

Part- B (Descriptive- 10marks)

1) Calculate the Packing factor of SC, BCC, FCC (or) Show that FCC is the closest
packing of all the three cubic structures.

Simple cubic: There are 8 atoms at 8 corners of the cube. The corner atoms touch with each
other. If we take a corner atom as a reference, this atom is surrounded by 6 equidistant nearest
neighbors.

Co-ordination number: - (N) = 6:- is defined as number of equidistant nearest neighbors that
an atom has in the given structure.
Total number of atoms :- (n) =1:- each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells, the share of each
corner atom to a unit cell is 1/8 th of an atom (8×1/8 =1)
Nearest neighbor distance (2r):- the distance between centers of two nearest neighbor atoms
will be 2r if ‘r’ is the radius of the atom.
Atomic radius: - (r) = 2r:- is defined as the distance between nearest neighbors in a crystal.
Lattice constant: - a =2r
Volume of all the atoms in Unit cell
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

4
1 × 3 𝜋𝑟 3
= 𝟓𝟐%
𝑎3 = (2𝑟)3
Ex:-polonium at room temperature.
Body centered Cubic (BCC):
In a unit cell there are 8 atoms at 8 corners and another 1 atom at the body center. The 8 corner
atoms are shared by 8 unit cells, and as the center atom is entirely within the unit cell, it is not
shared by any surrounding unit cell.

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Co-ordination number =8
𝑎√3
Nearest neighbor distance = 2
4𝑟
Lattice constant = a=
√3
Number of atoms per unit cell = v= 1
Volume of all atoms in unit cell = v = 2 × 4/3 π r3
4𝑟
Volume of unit cell =V= a3=( )3
√3
4
2× 𝜋𝑟 3
3
Atomic Packing Factor is 4𝑟 3
= 0.68 = 68%
( )
√3
Ex: - Li, Na, K, and Cr.
Face centered structure (FCC)
In FCC there are 8 atoms at 8 corners of the unit cell and 6 atoms at 6 faces. Considering the
atoms at the face center as origin, it can be observed that this face is common to 2 unit cells
and there are 12 points surrounding it situated at a distance equal to half the face diagonal of
the unit cell.

Co- ordination number = N= 12

Number of atoms in unit cell = 8 ×1/8+ 6×1/2=4
√2𝑎
Lattice constant =a=2r = 2
4𝑟 3
Volume of the unit cell =V= a3=( )
√2
4
Volume of all atoms in unit cell = v= 4 × 3 𝜋𝑟 3
4
𝑣 4× 𝜋𝑟 3
3
Atomic Packing Factor = 𝑉 = 4𝑟 3
= 0.74 = 𝟕𝟒%
( )
√2
Ex:- Cu, Al, Pb, and Ag.
By the above values of Atomic packing factors we can say that FCC is the closest packed
structure of all the three cubic structures.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

2) Explain the significance of Miller indices and derive an expression for interplaner
distance in terms of Miller indices for a cubic Structure.

Miller indices: are the reciprocals of intercepts made by the crystal planes on the
crystallographic axes when reduced to smallest integers.
Important features of Miller indices:
 Miller indices represent a set of parallel equidistant planes.
 All the parallel equidistant planes have the same Miller indices.
 If a plane is parallel to any axis, then the plane intersects that axis at infinity and Miller
indices along that direction is zero.
 If the miller indices of the two planes have the same ratio (844,422,211), then the planes
are parallel to each other.
 If a plane cuts an axis on the –ve side of the origin, then the corresponding index is –
ve, and is indicated by placing a minus sign above the index.
Ex: if a plane cuts –ve y-axis, then the miller index of the plane is (h 𝑘̅ l)
Derivation:
 Consider a crystal in which the three axes are orthogonal and the intercepts are same.
Take ‘o’ as origin, and the reference plane passes through the origin i.e entirely lies on
the axis.
 The next plane ABC is to be compared with the reference plane which makes the
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
intercepts ℎ , 𝑘 , 𝑙 on x,y,z axes respectively.
 Let (h k l) be the miller indices.
 Let ON=d be a normal drawn to the plane ABC from origin ‘o’ which gives the distance
of separation between adjacent planes.
 Let the normal ON makes an angles α,β,γ with x,y,z axes respectively.
Angle α= NOA, angle β=NOB, angle c = NOC.

 Then form Δ le NOA

𝑂𝑁 𝑑 𝑑ℎ
Cos α = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎/ℎ = 𝑎
𝑂𝑁 𝑑 𝑑𝑘
 Similarly cos β = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑏/𝑘 = 𝑏
𝑂𝑁 𝑑 𝑑𝑙
 Cos γ = 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑐/𝑙 = 𝑐
 According to cosine law of directions, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 α + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 β +𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 γ = 1
𝑑ℎ 2 𝑑𝑘 2 𝑑𝑙 2
 Therefore ( 𝑎 ) + ( 𝑏 ) + ( 𝑐 ) = 1
ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑙2
 𝑑 2 [𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 ] = 1
 In a cubic crystal a = b = c,
 Therefore
ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑙2
𝑑 2 [𝑎 2 + 𝑎 2 + 𝑎 2 ] = 1

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE
𝑎2
 Therefore 𝑑2 = ℎ2 +𝑘 2 +𝑙2
𝒂
i.e 𝒅 =
√𝒉𝟐 +𝒌𝟐 +𝒍𝟐

3) Classify the defects and write a short note on Point defects.

 Defects are broadly classified into

defects

point line surface volume

lattice compo screw

site edge dis
sitional dis
location
vacancy/ interstitia location
schottky l/frankel substituti
interstitial
onal
Point defects: (zero dimensional defects) arises when an atom is absent from the regular
position, presence of impurity atom or atom in the wrong place during crystallization. These
are small defects which extends its influence in all directions but limited to a specific region of
small order (two or three atomic orders).
Vacancy: missing of an atom from its original lattice site. Generally arises due to thermal
vibrations during crystallization and influenced by external parameters. Vacancies may be
single, two or more depending on crystal type. For most of the crystals, in order to create one
vacancy thermal energy of 1.1 eV is required.
Interstitial: this defect arises when an atom of same kind or different kind occupies the void
space between the regular atomic sites.
Impurity atom: an atom that does not belong to the parent lattice (original crystal).
Substitution defects: this defect arises when an impurity atom replaces or substitutes parent
atom. Ex: in brass, zinc is a substitution atom in a copper lattice
Interstitial impurity: this defect arises when an impurity atom which is small in size is placed
between the regular atomic sites.
Ex: when pentavalent and trivalent impurities are added to pure Si or Ge, we get n- type
and P-type semiconductors.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

In case of ionic crystals imperfections appear in crystals while maintaining the electrical
neutrality. Two types of defects (point defects) occur in ionic crystals.
1. Frenkel defect [Link] defect.

Frenkel defect: When an ion is displaced from a regular lattice site to an interstitial site is
called Frenkel defect. Generally cations which are small in size are displaced to an interstitial
site as the interstitial space is small .A Frenkel imperfection does not change the overall
electrical neutrality of the crystal.
Schottky defect: A pair of one cation and one anion missing from the original lattice site on
to the surface of the crystal so that charge neutrality is maintained in the crystal is called
Schottky defect.

4) Write a short note on line defects. (or) What are edge and screw dislocations?

Line defects (or) dislocations (one dimensional defect) are defined as the disturbed region
between the two perfect parts of the crystal and these defects are formed in the process of
deformation.
Edge dislocation:
 A perfect crystal is composed of several parallel vertical planes which are extended
from top to bottom completely and parallel to side faces. The atoms are in equilibrium
positions and the bond lengths are in equilibrium value.
 If one of the vertical planes does not extend from top to bottom face of the crystal, but
ends in midway within the crystal, then crystal suffers with a dislocation called edge
dislocation.
 In imperfect crystal all the atoms above the dislocation plane are squeezed together and
compressed there by the bond length decreases. And all the atoms below the dislocation
plane are elongated by subjecting to the tension and thereby the bond length increases.
 There are two types of edge dislocation. They are [Link] edge dislocation
[Link] edge dislocation.
Positive edge dislocation: if the vertical plane starts from top of the crystal and never
reaches to the bottom.
Negative edge dislocation: if the vertical plane starts from bottom of the crystal and never
reaches top.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

Screw dislocation:
 Atoms are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular to each other or defects
forming a spiral around the dislocation line.
 A screw dislocation marks the boundary between slipped and unslipped parts of the
crystal that can be produced by cutting the crystal partway and then sheering down one
part relative to the other by atomic spacing horizontally.

5) What is a Burger’s vector? Explain the significance of Burger’s vector.

Burger’s vector: It gives the magnitude and direction of dislocation line.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

Construction of Burger’s vector:

 Starting from a point ‘p’ move same number of steps left, right, up and down in the
clockwise direction.
 If the starting point ‘p’ and ending point ‘pl’ coincide, then the region enclosed in the
Burger’s circuit is free from imperfection.
 If the starting point and ending point do not coincide i.e. ppl = b. b is the quantity
indicating magnitude.
 Burgers’ vector is perpendicular to edge dislocation plane and parallel to screw
dislocation plane.
6) Derive an expression for the number of vacancies at any temperature. Or derive an
expression for the energy formation of vacancy.

Let ‘N’ be the number of atoms in a crystal, ‘Ev’ is the energy required to create ‘n’ vacancies.
The total energy required for the creation of ‘n’ number of vacancies is called enthalpy and is
given as u=nEv…………………………..(1)
The number of ways of selecting ‘N’ atoms to create ‘n’ vacancies is p
𝑁!
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑐𝑛 = 𝑛!(𝑁−𝑛)! --------------- (2), Here ‘p’ is disorder parameter.
In statistical mechanics, the relation between disorder parameter ‘p’ and entropy‘s’ is
s= k logp……………… (3), where K= Boltzmann constant.
Free energy (F) of the atoms in the crystal is given by 𝐹 = 𝑢 − 𝑇𝑠……………. (4)
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐸𝑉 − 𝐾𝑇 log 𝑝……. (5). From 1 and 3

𝑛!
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐸𝑣 − 𝐾𝑇 log (𝑁−𝑛)!𝑛!........... (6) , substitute 2 in 5
By applying sterling’s approximation, to eqn (6)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥! = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐸𝑉 − 𝐾𝑇(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁! − log(𝑁 − 𝑛)! − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛!)
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐸𝑣 = 𝐾𝑇(𝑁𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁 − 𝑁 − (𝑁 − 𝑛) log(𝑁 − 𝑛) + (𝑁 − 𝑁) − 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛 + 𝑛)

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𝐹 = 𝑛𝐸𝑣 − 𝐾𝑇(𝑁𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁 − (𝑁 − 𝑛) log(𝑁 − 𝑛) − 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)…. (7)

At thermal equilibrium, the free energy is minimum and constant .i.e.
𝑑𝐹
= 0 in (7)
𝑑𝑛
𝑑𝐹 1 1
= 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐾𝑇(0 − (𝑁 − 𝑛) (𝑁−𝑛) (−1)-log(𝑁 − 𝑛) (−1) − 𝑛 𝑛 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)
𝑑𝑛

0 = 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐾𝑇(1 + log(𝑁 − 𝑛) − 1 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)

𝑁−𝑛
0 = 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐾𝑇 [𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )]
𝑛
𝑁−𝑛
𝐸𝑣 = 𝐾𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝑛
𝐸𝑣 𝑁−𝑛
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝐾𝑇 𝑛
Taking exponential on both sides
𝑁−𝑛
𝑒 𝐸𝑣 /𝐾𝑇 =
𝑛
𝑛 −𝐸𝑣 /𝐾𝑇
=𝑒
𝑁−𝑛
The number of vacancies in a crystal is very small when compared with the number of
atoms.𝑁 ≫ 𝑛
𝑁−𝑛 ≅𝑁
𝑛
Therefore 𝑒 −𝐸𝑣 /𝐾𝑇 𝑁
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑒𝑥𝑝−𝐸𝑣/𝐾𝑇

7)Derive an expression for the energy required to create a Frenkel defect.(or) Derive an
expression for the no of Frenkel defects created in a crystal a at a given temperature.

Let ‘N’ be the number of atoms, ’Ni’ be the number of interstitial atoms, let ‘ Ei ’s the energy
required to create ‘n’ number of vacancies and the total energy required is u = nEi …..(1)
The total number of ways in which Frenkel defects can be formed is given by p = Nnc × Ni cn
N! i N!
p = (N−n)!n! × (N −n)!n!........ (2)
i
The increase in entropy (s) due to Frenkel defect is given by s = K logp
N! Ni !
S = Klog [n!(N−n)! × (N −n)!n!]....... (3)
I
This increase in entropy produces change in Free energy F = u − TS……….. (4)
Substitute (1),(3) in (4)
N! Ni !
F = nEi − KTlog [ × ]
n! (N − n)! (Ni − n)! n!
Using Sterling’s approximation,logx! = xlogx − x
N! Ni !
F = nEi − KT [log + log ]
n! (N − n)! (NI − n)! n!
F = nEi − KT[logN! − logn! − log(N − n) ! + logNi ! − log(Ni − n) ! − logn!]
F = nEi − KT[(NlogN − N) − (nlogn − n) − [(N − n) log(N − n) − (N − n)] + Ni logNi
− NI − [(Ni − n) log(Ni − n) − (Ni − n)] − (nlogn − n)]
𝐹 = nEi − KT[NlogN − N − nlogn + n − (N − n) log(N − n) + (N − n) + Ni logNI − Ni
− (Ni − n) log(Ni − n) + (Ni − n) − nlogn + n]
F = nEI − KT[NlogN + Ni logNi − (N − n) log(N − n) − (Ni − n) log(Ni − n) − 2nlogn]
Differentiating [Link] ‘n’, and equating to 0, we get

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dF 1
= Ei − KT [0 + 0 − [(N − n) (−1)) + log(N − n) (−1)]
dn (N − n)
1 1
− [(Ni − n) (−1) + log(Ni − n) (−1)] − 2 [n × + logn]]
(Ni − n) n
0 = Ei − KT[1 + log(N − n) + 1 + log(Ni − n) − 2 − 2logn]
(N − n)(Ni − n)
0 = Ei − KT [log ]
n2
(N − n)(Ni − n)
Ei = KT [log ]
n2
As n ≪ N, N − n ≅ N, similarly Ni − n ≅ Ni
NNi
Ei = KTlog ( 2 )
n
Thus Ei = KT[logNNi − 2logn]
Ei
= log(NNi ) − 2logn
KT
Ei
2logn = log(NNi ) −
KT
1 Ei
logn = log(NNi ) −
2 2KT
Taking exponentials on both sides
1 −Ei
n = (NNi )2 exp2KT
8)Derive an expression for the energy required to create a Schottky defect.(or) Derive an
expression for the no of Schottky defects created in a crystal a at a given temperature.

Let ‘N’ be the number of atoms, ’Ep’ is the energy required to create a pair of vacancies and
‘n’ be number of vacancies created. The total energy required to create vacancies is
U= nEp…………….(1)
The number of ways in which ‘n’ vacancies created is
p = Nnc × Nnc = (Nnc )2
2
N!
p=[ ]
(N − n)! n!
The relation between the disorder parameter ‘p’ and entropy ‘s’ is given by
N! 2
s = Klogp = klog [(N−n)!n!] ………….(2)
By applying Sterling’s approximation
2
N!
log [ ] = 2[logN! − log(N − n) ! − logn!]
(N − n)! n!
= 2[NlogN − N − ((N − n) log(N − n) − (N − n)) − (nlogn − n)]
= 2[NlogN − N − (N − n) log(N − n) + N − n − nlogn + n]
= 2[NlogN − (N − n) log(N − n) − nlogn]
There fore s = 2K[NlogN − (N − n) log(N − n) − nlogn]…..(3)
Free energy of the atoms in the crystal is given by F = U − TS…..(4)
Substitute (1),(3) in (4)
F = nEp − 2KT[NlogN − (N − n) log(N − n) − nlogn]
Differentiating above equation [Link] ‘n’ and equating it to zero, we get
dF
= Ep − 2KT[log(N − n) + 1 − logn − 1 = 0]
dn
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N−n
Ep − 2KTlog ( )=0
n
Ep N−n
= log ( )
2KT n
Taking exponentials on both sides
N−n Ep
= exp2KT
n
Ep
As nn ≪ N, N = n exp2KT
−Ep
n = N exp 2KT

9) Describe De-Broglie’s hypothesis and provide an experimental validity for the De-
Broglie’s hypothesis. Or Explain the experimental verification of matter waves by
Davison and Germer’s experiment:

De-Broglie Hypothesis –Matter waves: An electromagnetic wave behaves like particles,

particles like electrons behave like waves called matter waves, also called de-Broglie matter
waves.
 The wave length of matter waves is derived on the analogy of radiation.
 Based on Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon is given by
hc
E = hϑ = λ ….. (1)
𝑐 = Velocity of light, 𝜆 = Wavelength of the photon, h= Planck’s constant
 According to Einstein’s mass energy relation, E = mc 2 …… (2)
m= mass of the photon
ℎ𝑐
 Equating equations (1) and (2), 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝜆
hc h h
 λ = mc2 = mc = p…… (3), P = momentum of photon
 De-Broglie proposed the concept of matter waves, according to which a material
particle of mass ’m’, moving with a velocity ’v’ should have an associated wavelength
‘𝜆′ called de-Broglie wavelength.
h h
 λ = mv = p… (4) is called de-Broglie’s wave equation.
 Wavelength is associated with moving particle and independent of charge of the
particles.
 Greater the mass, velocity of the particle, lesser will be the wavelength.
De-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron:
 If a velocity ‘v’ is given to an electron by accelerating it through a potential difference
‘V’, then the work done on the electron is ‘Ve’, and the work done is converted into the
kinetic energy of an electron.
1
𝑒𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

2𝑒𝑉
𝑣=√
𝑚
𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉…. (5) in (4)
h
λ= …… (6)
√2meV
h
 Ignoring relativistic corrections, m0= rest mass of electron, λ = ….. (7)
√2m0 eV

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

 By substituting the values of h=6.625× 10−34 𝐽𝑠𝑒𝑐, m0= 9.1× 10−31 𝐾𝑔 and c= charge
of electron=1.6× 10−19 C
12.27 0
λ= A …… (8), Where V= in volt and λ = in A0
√V
Experimental validity: Davison and Germer Experiment:
 The first experimental evidence of the wave nature of atomic particles was proved by
C.J Davison and L.H Germer in 1927.
 They were studying scattering of electrons by a metal target and measuring the density
of electrons scattered in different directions.

 From fig, the electron beam from electron gun which consists of a tungsten filament
‘F’ heated by a low tension battery ‘B1’ are accelerated to a desired velocity by applying
suitable potential from a high tension battery ‘B2’.
 The accelerated electrons are collimated into a fine beam by allowing them to pass
thorough a system of pinholes in the cylinder ‘C’.
 The fast moving electron beam is made to strike the target (nickel crystal) capable of
rotating about an axis perpendicular to the plane of diagram.
 The electrons are scattered in all directions by atomic planes of a crystal and intensity
of scattered electron beam in all directions can be measured by the electron collector
and can be rotated about the same axis as the target.
 The collector is connected to a sensitive galvanometer whose deflection is proportional
to the intensity of electron beam entering the collector.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

 When electron beam accelerated by 54 V was directed to strike the given nickel crystal,
a sharp max in the electron diffraction occurred at an angle of 500 with the incident
beam.
 The incident beam and the diffracted beam make an angle of 650 with the family of
Bragg’s planes. The whole instrument is kept in an evacuated chamber.
 The spacing of planes in Nickel crystal as determined by x-ray diffraction is 0.091nm
 From Bragg’s law 2dsinθ = n λ i.e 2 × 0.091 × 10−9 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛65° = 1 × λ
λ =0.615nm
 Therefore for a 54 V electron beam, the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the
12.27 °
electron is given by λ. = A = 0.166nm
√54
 This wavelength agrees well with the experimental value. Thus division experiment
provides a direct verification of de-Broglie hypothesis of wave nature of moving
particles.

10) Explain the Physical significance of 𝛙 (𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧).

 The wave function 𝛙 enables all possible information about the particle. 𝛙 is a
complex quantity and has no direct physical meaning. It is only a mathematical tool in
order to represent the variable physical quantities in quantum mechanics.
 Born suggested that, the value of wave function associated with a moving particle at
the position co-ordinates (x,y,z) in space, and at the time instant ‘t’ is related in finding
the particle at certain location and certain period of time ‘t’.
 If 𝛙 represents the probability of finding the particle, then it can have two cases.
Case 1: certainty of its Presence: +ve probability
Case 2: certainty of its absence: - ve probability, but –ve probability is meaningless,
Hence the wave function 𝛙 is complex number and is of the form a+ib
 Even though 𝛙 has no physical meaning, the square of its absolute magnitude |𝛙2 |
gives a definite meaning and is obtained by multiplying the complex number with its
complex conjugate then |𝛙2 | represents the probability density ‘p’ of locating the
particle at a place at a given instant of time. And has real and positive solutions.
𝛙 (𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳, 𝐭) = 𝐚 + 𝐢𝐛
𝛙∗ (𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳, 𝐭) = 𝐚 − 𝐢𝐛
𝐩 = 𝛙𝛙 = |𝛙2 | = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑠 𝑖 2 = −1
∗

Where ‘P’ is called the probability density of the wave function.

 If the particle is moving in a volume ‘V’, then the probability of finding the particle in
a volume element dv, surrounding the point x,y,z and at instant ‘t’ is Pdv
∞

∫|𝛙2 |𝑑𝑣 = 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡

−∞
. = 0 if particle does not exist

This is called normalization condition.

11) Describe Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle?

 According to Classical mechanics, a moving particle at any instant has fixed position
in space and definite momentum which can be determined simultaneously with any
desired accuracy. This assumption is true for objects of appreciable size, but fails in
particles of atomic dimensions.
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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

 Since a moving atomic particle has to be regarded as a de-Broglie wave group, there is
a limit to measure particle properties.
 According to Born probability interpretation, the particle may be found anywhere
within the wave group moving with group velocity.
 If the group is considered to be narrow, it is easier to locate its position, but the
uncertainty in calculating its velocity and momentum increases.
 If the group is wide, its momentum is estimated easily, but there is great uncertainty
about the exact location of the particle.

 Heisenberg a German scientist in 1927, gave uncertainty principle which states that
“The determination of exact position and momentum of a moving particle
simultaneously is impossible’’.

 In general, if △x represents the error in measurement of position of particle along x-

axis, and △p represents error in measurement of momentum, then
△ x.△ p = h
Or limitation to find the position and momentum of a particle is
h
(△ x). (△ p) ≥
4π
i.e. Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that both the position and momentum
Cannot be measured simultaneously with perfect accuracy.

12) Derive an expression for Schrodinger time independent wave equation.

 Schrodinger describes the wave nature of a particle in mathematical form and is

known as Schrodinger’s wave equation.
 Consider a plane wave moving along +ve x- direction with velocity ‘v’. The equation
2𝜋
of the wave is written in the from 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 λ (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)…(1)
Where λ = wavelength of the wave, a= amplitude of wave
y=displacement of wave in y- direction
x= displacement along x- axis at any instant of time ‘t’.
 Taking first order derivative [Link] ‘x’ on both sides of eqn (1)

𝑑𝑦 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝑎 cos (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)
𝑑𝑥 λ λ

𝑑2 𝑦 2𝜋 2 2𝜋
= −𝑎 ( λ ) sin ( λ ) (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)….(2)
𝑑𝑥 2

Substitute (1) in (2)

𝑑2 𝑦 2𝜋 2
+ ( λ ) 𝑦 = 0…(3)
𝑑𝑥 2

 This is known as differential plane wave equation.

 In complex wave, the displacement ‘y’ is replaced by ‘ψ’ and wavelength’ λ’ is
h
replaced by de-Broglie’s wavelength λ’ = mv in eqn (3)
𝑑2ψ 2𝜋 2
+ ( ) ψ=0
𝑑𝑥 2 λ
GRIET 15
Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

𝑑2 ψ 4𝜋 2 𝑚2 𝑣 2
+ ψ = 0…. (4)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

 For a moving particle, the\ total energy is 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑉 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑈 = 𝐸 − 𝑉 ….(5)

1
Where E= total energy, V= potential energy, U= kinetic energy = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
2𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚2 𝑣 2 …. (6), substitute (5) in (6)
2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) = 𝑚2 𝑣 2 …. (7) Substitute (7) in (4)
𝑑 2 ψ 4𝜋 2 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
2
+ 2
ψ=0
𝑑𝑥 ℎ
𝑑2 ψ 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
2
+ ψ = 0…. (8)
𝑑𝑥 ℎ2
 This equation is known as Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation in one
dimension.
 In three dimensions, it can be written as

8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
∇2 ψ + ψ = 0… (9)
ℎ2
2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
∇2 ψ + ψ=0
ℎ2
 For a free particle, the P.E is equal to zero i.e V=0 in equation (9)
 Therefore the Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation for a free particle is
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
∇2 ψ + ψ=0
ℎ2
13) Derive an expression for the energy states of a Particle trapped in 1-Dimensional
potential box:

 The wave nature of a moving particle leads to some remarkable consequences when the
particle is restricted to a certain region of space instead of being able to move freely .i.e
when a particle bounces back and forth between the walls of a box.
 If one –dimensional motion of a particle is assumed to take place with zero potential
energy over a fixed distance, and if the potential energy is assumed to become infinite
at the extremities of the distance, it is described as a particle in a 1-D box, and this is
the simplest example of all motions in a bound state.
 The Schrodinger wave equation will be applied to study the motion of a particle in 1-D
box to show how quantum numbers, discrete values of energy and zero point energy
arise.
 From a wave point of view, a particle trapped in a box is like a standing wave in a string
stretched between the box’s walls.
 Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving freely along x- axis and is confined between
x=0 and x= a by infinitely two hard walls, so that the particle has no chance of
penetrating them and bouncing back and forth between the walls of a 1-D box.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

 If the particle does not lose energy when it collides with such walls, then the total energy
remains constant.
 This box can be represented by a potential well of width ‘a’, where V is uniform inside
the box throughout the length ‘a’ i.e V= 0 inside the box or convenience and with
potential walls of infinite height at x=0 and x=a, so that the PE ‘V’ of a particle is
infinitely high V=∞ on both sides of the box.
 The boundary condition are
𝑣(𝑥) = 0 , 𝜓(𝑥) = 1𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎…. (1)
𝑣(𝑥) = ∞ , 𝜓(𝑥) = 0𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 ≥ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎… (2)
Where 𝜓(𝑥) is the probability of finding the particle.
 The Schrodinger wave equation for the particle in the potential well can be written as
𝑑2 ψ 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ ℎ2 E ψ = 0, as V = 0 for a free particle… (3)
𝑑𝑥 2
 In the simplest form eqn (3) can be written as
𝑑2 ψ 8П2 𝑚𝐸
+ 𝑘 2 ψ = 0…. (4) Where k= propagation constant and is given by 𝑘 = √ ….(5)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

The general solution of equation (4) is ψ(x) = Asinkx + Bcoskx… (6)
Where A and B are arbitrary constants, and the value of these constant can be obtained
by applying the boundary conditions.
 Substitute eqn(1) in (6)
0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘(0) + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘(0) → B=0 in eqn (6)
ψ(x) = Asinkx… (7)
Substituting eqn (2) in (7)
0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘(𝑎)
→ 𝐴 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎 = 0, But ‘A’ ≠ 0 as already B=0 & if A= 0, there is no solution at all.

 Therefore sinka=0( if sinθ=0,then general solution is θ=nП), i.e Ka=nП

𝑛𝜋
𝑘 = 𝑎 …….(8), Where n= 1,2,3,4,…and n≠0,because if n=0,k=0,E=0 everywhere
inside the box and the moving particle cannot have zero energy.

𝑛𝜋 2
From (8) 𝑘 2 = ( 𝑎 )

8П2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛2 𝜋 2
From (5) =
ℎ2 𝑎2

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸=
8𝑚𝑎2
𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝐸𝑛= 8𝑚𝑎2= the discrete energy level… (9)

ℎ2
 The lowest energy of a particle is given by putting n=1 in the eqn (9), 𝐸1= 8𝑚𝑎2 = lowest
energy, minimum energy, ground state energy or zero point energy of the system.

𝐸𝑛= 𝑛2 𝐸1

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

 The wave functions ψ𝑛 corresponding to E𝑛 are called Eigen functions of the particle,
.the integer ’n’ corresponding to the energy E𝑛 is called the quantum number of the
energy level E𝑛 .
𝑛𝜋𝑥
Substituting (8) in (7), 𝜓𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 ..(10)
 Normalization of wave function: The wave functions for the motion of the particle are

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎
𝑎
𝜓𝑛 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≥ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎

 According to normalization condition, the total probability that the particle is

somewhere in the box must be unity.
𝑎 𝑎
∫0 𝑝𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 |𝜓𝑛 |2dx=1

𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥
 From eqn(10), ∫0 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎
1 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
2
𝐴 ∫2 [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ] 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎
0
𝐴 2 𝑎 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
( ) [𝑥− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]=1
2 2𝜋𝑛 𝑎
 The second term of the integrand expression becomes zero at both the limits.
𝐴2
=1
2

2
𝐴=√
𝑎
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
 The normalized wave function is 𝜓𝑛 = √𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎

UNIT-2: ELECTRON THEORY, BAND THEORY & SEMI CONDUCTORS

Part-A (SAQ-2Marks)

1) What are the failures of Classical Free electron theory?

3
Heat Capacities: - The internal energy of a molar substance, U = 2 KTN
𝜕𝑉 3 3
Molar specific heat 𝐶𝑣 = 𝜕𝑇 = 2 𝐾𝑁 = 2 𝑅
‘N’ is the Avogadro number, K is Boltzmann constant and `R` is the universal gas constant.
The molar specific heat is 1.5 R theoretically, where as the experimental value obtained is too
low. This is due to the fact that all free electrons do not contribute significantly to thermal or
electrical conductivity. Therefore classical free eˉ theory can`t hold good.
Mean free path: - It is calculated using the formula:  = Cˉ x Tr
3kT 𝑚
= √ x 𝑛𝑒 2
m
√3𝑘𝑇𝑚
= .
𝑛𝑒 2

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

For cu at 20˚ c,  = 1.69x 10ˉ 8 ohm-𝑚−1,eˉ concentration n = 8.5 x1028  𝑚3.

 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝐦
The experimental value of ``was obtained nearly 10 times its theoretical value. So classical
theory could not explain the large variation in ‘' value.
Resistivity: - According to the classical free electron theory, the resistivity is given by the
√3𝑘𝑇𝑚
equation,  = 𝑛𝑒 2
Which means the resistivity is proportional to the square root of absolute temperature. But
according to theory at room temperature it does not change up to 10K and in intermediate range
of temperature  is proportional to T 5 .
 The conductivity of semiconductors and insulators cannot be explained by the free
electron theory.

2) What are the applications of Hall Effect?

Determination of the type of Semi-conductors:

The Hall coefficient 𝑅𝐻 is -ve for an n-type semiconductor and +ve for p-type semiconductor.
Thus the sign of Hall coefficient can be used to determine whether a given Semi-conductor is
n or p-type.
Calculation of carrier concentration:
I I
𝑅𝐻 =  = 𝑛𝑒 (for eˉ s)
I
𝑅𝐻 = (for holes)
𝑒
I I
=> n = 𝑒𝑅ᴎ =>  = 𝑒𝑅ᴎ
Determination of Mobility: σ = neμ
σ
μ = = σ 𝑅𝐻
ne
μ = σ 𝑅𝐻
Measurement of Magnetic Flux Density:
Hall Voltage is proportional to the magnetic flux density B for a given current I. So, Hall Effect
can be used as the basis for the design of a magnetic flux density metal.

3) Define Fermi energy level.

The highest energy level that can be occupied by an electron at 0 K is called Fermi energy
level. It is denoted by 𝐸𝐹 .

4) Distinguish between conductors, Insulator and Semiconductors.

Solids are classified into three types based on energy gap.

 Conductors(metals)
 Insulators
 Semiconductors
 In case of conductors, valence band and conduction band almost overlap each other and
no significance for energy gap. The two allowed bands are separated by Fermi energy
level. Here there is no role in Eg, as a result conduction is high.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

CB CB CB

Eg =5.4 eV Eg =1.1 eV

VB VB VB

Conductors insulators Semiconductors

 In case of insulator, valence band and conduction band are separated by large energy
gap, hence conductivity is zero.
 In case of semiconductors, the valence band and conduction band are separated by
relatively narrow energy gap; hence the conductivity lies in between conductors and
insulators.

5) Define the following terms.

i. Collision time ii. Relaxation time iii. Mean free path iv .Drift velocity v. Mobility

i. Collision time: The time taken by the electron to complete one collision with the +ve ion
center.
[Link] time: The time taken by the electron to reduce its velocity to 1/e of its initial
velocity.
[Link] free path: The average distance covered by the electron between two successive
collisions.
[Link] velocity: The steady state velocity of the electrons in the presence of Electric field.
[Link]: The steady state velocity of the electrons per unit electric field.

Part- B (Descriptive- 10marks)

1) What are the salient features of classical free electron theory of metals? What are its
drawbacks?
Drude and Lorentz proposed free electron theory of on the basis of some assumptions.
 In conductors (metals), there are large number of free electrons moving freely within
the metal i.e. the free electrons or valence electrons are free to move in the metal like
gaseous molecules, because nuclei occupy only 15% metal space and the remaining
85% space is available for the electrons to move.
 Since free electrons behave like gaseous molecules, the laws of kinetic theory of gases
can be applied. The mean K.E of a free electron is equal to that of a gas molecule at
same temperature.
 In the absence of any electric field, the electrons move randomly while undergoing
scattering at +ve ion centers. The collisions are regarded as elastic (no loss of energy).
 The electron speeds are distributed according to the Maxwell- Boltzmann distribution
law.
 When an electric filed is applied, the free electrons are accelerated in a direction
opposite to that of the field.
 The free electrons are confined to the metal due to surface potential.
 The electrostatic force of attraction between the + ve ion cores and the free electrons is
assumed to be negligible.
Drawbacks:

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE
3
1. Heat capacities: - The internal energy of a molar substance, U = KTN
2
𝜕𝑉 3 3
Molar specific heat 𝐶𝑣 = 𝜕𝑇 = 2 𝐾𝑁 = 2 𝑅
‘N’ is the Avogadro number, K is Boltzmann constant and `R` is the universal gas constant.
The molar specific heat is 1.5 R theoretically, where as the experimental value obtained is too
low. This is due to the fact that all free electrons do not contribute significantly to thermal or
electrical conductivity. Therefore classical free eˉ theory can`t hold good.
2. Mean free path: - It is calculated using the formula,  = Cˉ x Tr
3kT 𝑚
= √ x 𝑛𝑒 2
m
√3𝑘𝑇𝑚
= .
𝑛𝑒 2
For cu at 20˚ c ,  = 1.69x 10ˉ 8 ohm-𝑚−1,eˉ concentration n = 8.5 x1028  𝑚3.
 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝐦
The experimental value of ``was obtained nearly 10 times its theoretical value. So classical
theory could not explain the large variation in ‘' value.
3. Resistivity: - According to the classical free electron theory, the resistivity is given by the
√3𝑘𝑇𝑚
equation. = 𝑛𝑒 2
Which means the resistivity is proportional to the square root of absolute temperature. But
according to theory at room temperature it does not change up to 10K and in intermediate range
of temperature  is proportional to T 5 .
4. The conductivity of semiconductors and insulators cannot be explained by the free electron
theory.
2) What are the assumptions of quantum free electron theory? State its drawbacks.

In 1929, Somerfield stated to apply quantum mechanics to explain conductivity phenomenon

in metal. He has improved the Drude - Lorentz theory by quantizing the free electron energy
and retained the classical concept of free motion of electron at a random.
ASSUMPTIONS:-
 The electrons are free to move within the metal like gaseous molecules. They are
confined to the metal due to surface potential.
 The velocity distribution of the free electrons is described by Fermi-Dirac Statistics
because electrons are spin half particles.
 The free electrons would go into the different energy levels by following Pauli’s
exclusion Principle which states that no two electrons have same set of Quantum
numbers.
 The motion of electrons is associated with a complex wave called matter wave,
according to De-Broglie hypothesis.
 The electrons cannot have all energies but will have discrete energies according to the
equation, E = n2 h2 / 8ma2.
Drawbacks:
Conductivity: According to Quantum free electron theory, the conductivity of a metal is σ =
µne, here ‘µ’ is the mobility of electrons, ‘n’ is the free electron concentration and ‘e’ is the
electron charge.
According to the above equation, polyvalent metals like Aluminum (Al) should be more
conductive than mono valent metals like copper (Cu). But experimentally it is not so.
Hall coefficient: According to the free electron theory, the hall coefficients for all metals is
negative where as there are certain metals like Be, Cd, Zn for which the Hall coefficient is +

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

ve. Free electron theory could not explain why certain substances behave as insulators and
some other substances as semiconductors; in spite of they have free electrons in them.

3. Define Fermi energy level. Explain Fermi Dirac distribution function.

Energy levels – Fermi Dirac Distribution:

According to the Quantum theory quantization leads to discrete energy levels. The electrons
are distributed among these energy levels according to Pauli’s exclusions principle i.e., it
allows a maximum number of two electrons with spins in opposite directions in any energy
level. The pair of electrons, one with sign up and the other with spin down occupy the lowest
energy level. The next pair occupies the next level. This process goes on until all the electrons
in the metal occupy their position.
 The highest energy level that can be occupied by an electron at 0 K is called Fermi
energy level. It is denoted by 𝐸𝐹 .
When the metal is not under the influence of an external field, all the levels above the Fermi
energy level are empty; those lying below are completely filled.
Fermi – Dirac Distribution:
When the material is at a temperature higher than OK, it receives thermal energy from
surroundings i.e. electrons are thermally excited. As a result, they move into the higher energy
levels which are unoccupied at OK. The occupation obeys a statistical distribution called Fermi
– Dirac distribution law.
According to this distribution law, the probability F(E) that a given energy state E is occupied
1
at a temperature T is given by exp(E−Ef)/KT
+1

Here F(E) is called Fermi – Dirac probability function. It indicates that the fraction of all energy
state (E) occupied under thermal equilibrium ‘K’ is Boltzmann constant.

4) Explain the motion of an electron in periodic potential using Bloch theorem? (or)
Explain Band theory of solids in detail. (or) Discuss the Kronig- penny model for the
motion of an electron in a periodic potential.

Electrons in a periodic potential –Bloch Theorem:

An electron moves through + ve ions, it experiences varying potential. The potential of the
electron at the +ve ions site is zero and is maximum in between two +ve ions sites.
The potential experienced by an eˉ, when it passes though +ve ions shown in fig.

eˉ (+) (+) (+) (+)

(+) (+) (+) (+)
(+) (+) (+) (+)
(+) (+) (+) (+)

i.e. The potential experienced by an eˉ, in shown in Fig known as real periodic potential
variation.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

V = Vo V=Vo V = Vo V= Vo
V
v=0
(+) v=0 (+) v=0 (+) v=0 (+) v= 0 (+)

To study the motion of eˉ in lattice and the energy states it can occupy, Schrodinger equation
is necessary. Kronig-penny introduced a simple model for the shape of potential variation. The
potential inside the crystal is approximated to the shape of rectangular steps.
KRONIG- PENNY MODEL:-
Kronig – penny consider a periodic arrangement of potential walls and barriers to represent
the potential variation exhibited by the eˉ, known as ideal-periodic square well potential as
shown in figure. New forms of boundary conditions are developed to obtain a simple solution
known as cyclic or periodic boundary conditions.

The wave functions associated with this model can be calculated by solving Schrödinger’s eq
for two regions 1 and 2.
𝑑2 φ 8𝜋 2 𝑚
ie + E φ = 0, 0 < x< a
𝑑𝑥 2 h2
𝑑2 φ 2 2 8𝜋 2 𝑚
2 + 𝛼 φ = 0, 𝛼 =
E
𝑑𝑥 h2
𝑑2 φ 8𝜋 2 𝑚
= (𝑣₀ − E)φ = 0, -b < x < o
𝑑𝑥 2 h2
𝑑2 8𝜋 2 𝑚
–β2 φ= 0, β2 = h2 (𝑣₀ - E)
𝑑𝑥 2
These two eqs are solved by using Bloch and Kronig-penny models, and applying boundary
conditions the solution is
𝑠𝑖𝑛 α𝑎
p + cos α𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎 1
α𝑎
m𝑣₀𝑏𝑎
Here p = h2 is scattering power
And ‘𝑣₀ b’ is known as barrier strength.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

Conclusion from Kronig –Penny Model:

1) The energy spectrum of eˉ consists of an infinite number of allowed energy bands separated
by intervals in which, there are no allowed energy levels. These are known as forbidden
regions.
2)When αa increase, the first term of eq(1) on LHS decrease , so that the width of the allowed
energy bands is increased and forbidden energy regions become narrow.
3) The width of the allowed band decrease with the increase of p value. When p  α, the
allowed energy regions become infinity narrow and the energy spectrum becomes line
spectrum.

5. Explain the origin of energy band formation in solids based on band theory.

Energy band Formation in solids:

In isolated atom, the eˉs are tightly bound and have discrete, sharp energy levels.

E1
When two identical atoms are brought closer the outermost orbits of these atoms overlap and
interacts with the wave functions of the eˉs of the different atoms, then the energy levels
corresponding to those wave functions split in to two.
𝐸₁
𝐸₂
If more atoms are brought together more levels are formed and for a solid of N atoms, each of
these energy levels of an atom splits into N levels of energy.

N atoms

N Energy levels

 The levels are so close together that they form almost continuous band.
 The eˉ first occupies lower energy bands and are of no importance in determining many
of the physical properties of solid.
 These eˉ present in higher energy bands are important in determining many of the
physical of solids.
 These two allowed energy bands are called as valence and conduction bands.
 The band corresponding to the outermost orbit is called conduction band and the gap
between those two allowed bands is called forbidden energy gap or band gap.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

6. What is effective mass of an electron? Derive an expression for the effective mass of
an electron.

Effective mass of the electron moving in a crystal lattice:

 Consider a crystal (metal) subjected to an electric field ‘E’, so the force experienced by
an electron of charge ‘e’ is Ee.
 Acceleration of the electron in the crystal is given by a = F/m = Ee/m
 But acceleration of the electron is not constant because of the velocity changes i.e., the
electron move faster near the +ve ions in the crystal. Since the electric field and charge
of the electron are invariant, the effective mass m∗ of the electron change accordingly.
i.e F = m∗a (1)
 Consider a particle velocity ‘v’ is equal to group velocity ‘𝑣𝑔 ’ of a wave packet, then
dw
V = 𝑣𝑔 = dk , w = angular frequency, k = wave propagation vector
W=2πv dw = 2πdv
Frequency of the complex wave v = E/h dv=1/hdE
dw=2π dE/h=dE/ђ
:. V= dw/dk=1/ђ dE/dk
dk 1 d2 E
SO, a = = ( ђ ) dk dt
dt
1 d2 E dk
a= ( dt )
ђ dk2
2𝜋
Wave propagation vector k = 𝜆
2𝜋 𝑝
k= P=
h ђ
`P` is momentum, `𝜆 ` is de-Broglie wavelength .
dk 1 dp F
∴ = ( )= .
dt ђ dt ђ

dp
Since is the rate of change of momentum, which is nothing but force `F`.
dt
1 d2 E 1
a= F
ђ dk2 ђ

F d2 E
a= 2 ( dk2 )
ђ

ђ2
i.e. F = d2 E
a (2)
dk2
Compare 1 & 2
ђ2
Effective mass m∗ = d2 E
dk2

7. Derive an expression for carrier concentration of intrinsic semiconductors?

Intrinsic Semi conductors:

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

 A semi conductor in which holes in the valance band and electrons in the conduction
band are solely created by thermal excitations is called intrinsic semiconductors i.e., A
pure semi-conductor is considered as intrinsic semiconductor.
 The no. of electrons moving into the conduction band is equal to the no. of holes created
in the valence band.
 The Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of forbidden energy gap.
 Intrinsic semi-conductors are not of practical use in view of their poor conductivity.
Carrier concentration in intrinsic semi-conductors:
 In the conduction band, the level density D (E) at an energy E is given by the expression.
4𝜋
𝐷(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ℎ3 (2m)3 ∕2 E ¹ ∕ ² dE
 The probability of an energy level filled with electrons is given by Fermi-Dirac
function.
1
F (E) = E−EF
1+exp( )
𝐾𝑇
 The no of electrons ‘n’ filling into energy level between the energies E and E+dE is

n = D(E) F(E) dE
4𝜋 1
 n= (2me) ³ ∕ ² E ¹ ∕ ² E−EF dE
ℎ³ 1+exp( )
𝐾𝑇
 In the above expression, mass of the electron ‘m’ is replaced with effective mass 𝑚𝑒∗
and factor ‘2’ for the two possible spins of the electrons.
 The number of electrons in the conduction band is obtained by making integration
between the limits Ec to ∞. Since minimum energy in the conduction band is Ec and at
the bottom of the conduction band we write E- Ec for E
1
4𝜋 ∞ (𝐸−𝐸𝑐 )2
n= (2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ³∕ ² ∫0 E−𝐸𝐹 𝑑𝐸
ℎ³ 1+exp( )
𝐾𝑇
For all possible temperatures E-𝐸𝐹 >>>> KT
(E−𝐸 ) 𝐸 −E)
Hence F (E) = exp - ( 𝐾𝑇 𝐹 ) = exp ( 𝐹𝐾𝑇 )
Equation 1 becomes
4𝜋 ∞ EF−E
n = ℎ³ (2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ³ ∕ ² ∫𝐸 (E − Ec)1/2 exp( 𝐾𝑇 )dE
𝑐
4𝜋 ∞ −E
n = ℎ³ (2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ³ ∕ ² exp (EF/KT)∫𝐸 (E − Ec)1/2 exp( 𝐾𝑇)dE
𝑐
To solve this Integral Part
E-Ec = x
E = Ec+x
dE = dX

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE
1
4𝜋 ∞ Ec+x
n= (2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ³ ∕ ² exp (EF/KT) ∫0 𝑥 2 exp −( )dx
ℎ³ 𝐾𝑇

1
4𝜋 EF−Ec ∞ x
n = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒∗ )3 ∕2 exp( ) ∫0 𝑥 2 exp −( 𝐾𝑇)
𝐾𝑇

Using gamma function, it can be shown that

1
∞ Ec+x 𝜋
∫0 𝑥 2 exp −( )= (KT) ³/2 2 ½
𝐾𝑇
4𝜋 EF−Ec 𝜋
Hence, n = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒∗ ) 3 ∕2 exp ( 𝐾𝑇 ) (KT)³/2 2 ½
No of electrons per unit volume is given by
2𝜋𝑚∗ KT 𝐸 −Ec
n= 2( ℎ²𝑒 ) exp ( 𝐹KT )
The expression for no of holes in the valance band is given by the expression
∗ ᵛKT
2𝜋𝑚𝑝 Ev−𝐸
P= 2( ℎ² ) exp ( KT 𝐹)
In Intrinsic semi conductor n=p then the Intrinsic carrier concentration is n=p=ni;
2𝜋KT Ev−Ec
ni2 = 4 ( ℎ² ) 3(𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚𝑝∗ ) 3/2 exp ( KT )
2𝜋KT −Eg
ni2= 4 ( ℎ² ) 3 (𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚𝑝∗ ) 3/2 exp ( KT )
Here Ec - Ev = Eg (forbidden energy gap )
2𝜋KT −Eg
Hence ni = 2 ( ℎ² ) 3/2 (𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚𝑝∗ ) ¾ exp (2KT)
Fermi Level: In Intrinsic semi conductor n=p and assuming the effective mass of e and hole to
be same, i.e. 𝑚𝑒∗ =𝑚𝑝∗
Ef−Ec Ev−Ef
Exp ( KT ) = exp ( KT )
EF –Ec = Ev- EF
2 EF = Ev+Ec
Ev+Ec
EF = 2
Thus the Fermi level is located half way between the valance band and conduction band and
its position is independent of the temperature.

8. Derive an expression for carrier concentration in n-type extrinsic semiconductors?

When pentavalent impurities like P, As, Sb is added to the intrinsic semi-conductors,

resultant semi conductor is called N-Type semi-conductor.
 The concentration of free electrons is more when compared to concentration of holes.
Expression for carriers’ concentration in N-type semi conductors:
 In this type of semi conductor, there will be donor levels formed at an energy Ed.
 𝑁𝑑 represents no. of impurities per unit volume of semi conductor.
 At low temperature all donor levels are filled with electrons, with increase of
temperature, more and more donor atoms get ionized and the density of electrons in the
conduction band increases.
 Density of electrons in the conduction band is given by
2𝜋𝑚∗ ᵛKT EF−Ec
n= 2( ℎ²𝑒 ) 3/2 exp ( KT ) 1
 The Fermi level (EF) lies in between Ed & Ec
 The density of empty donor levels is given by
Ed−Ec Ed−Ec
Nd [ 1-F(Ed)] ≈Nd [ 1-1+ exp( KT )] = Nd [ 1-F(Ed)] ≈ Nd exp( KT )

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

 At low temperature, there are no excitations of the electrons from donor level to the
conduction band.
 Hence, density of empty donors and the electron density in conduction band should be
same
2𝜋𝑚∗ KT Ef−Ec Ed−Ef
i.e. 2( ℎ²𝑒 ) 3/2 exp ( KT ) = Nd exp ( KT )
 Taking log on both the sides & rearranging
Ef−Ec Ed−Ef 2𝜋𝑚∗ KT
( KT ) - ( KT ) -log Nd – log 2( ℎ²𝑒 ) 3/2
Nd
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑑/𝐾𝑇 = log ( 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 ᵛKT
)
2( ) 3/2
ℎ²
Nd
2Ef – (𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝑑 ) KT log ( 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 ᵛKT
)2
2( ) 3/2
ℎ²
Ec+𝐸𝑑
 At absolute zero EF = 2
i.e. Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of donor level 𝐸𝑑 and the bottom of the
Conduction band 𝐸𝑐 .
Substituting equation 2 in eqn. 1 & re-arranging,
2𝜋𝑚∗ KT 𝐸 −Ec
N = (2Nd) ½ ( ℎ²𝑒 ) 3/4 exp ( 2KT𝑑
)
 Hence the density of the electrons in the conduction band is proportional to the square
root of the donor concentration.

9. Derive an expression for carrier concentration in p-type extrinsic semiconductors?

 P-type semi-conductors are fabricated by addition of trivalent atoms like Al as impurity

to the intrinsic semi-conductor.
 Hence, holes are majority charge carriers and free electrons are minority charge
carriers.
Expression for Carrier concentration in P type semi-conductors:
 In this type of semi-conductor, there will be there will be acceptor levels formed at an
energy Ea.
 Na represents no. of impurities per unit volume of semi-conductor.
 At low temperatures, all the acceptor levels are empty.
 With increase of temperature, acceptor atoms get ionized i.e. the electrons moves from
valance band and occupy the vacant sites in the acceptor energy levels, there by leaving
holes in the valence band
 Density of holes in the valance band is given by
∗ KT
2𝜋𝑚𝑝 Ev−Ef
P = 2 ( ℎ² ) 3/2 exp ( KT )
 Since Ef lies below the acceptor levels, the density of ionized acceptors is given by
Ef−Ea
Na F (Ea) = Na exp ( KT )
 Hence, density of holes in the valance band is equal to the density of ionized acceptors.
∗ KT
2𝜋𝑚𝑝 Ev−Ef Ef−Ea
2( ) 3/2 exp ( ) = Naexp ( )
ℎ² KT KT

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

𝐸𝑣−𝐸𝑓−𝐸𝑓+𝐸𝑎 𝑁𝑎
i.e. 2 = 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑝 KT
𝐾𝑇
2( )3/2
ℎ2
𝐸𝑣+𝐸𝑎−2𝐸𝑓 𝑁𝑎
 Taking log, = log ∗ KT
2𝜋𝑚𝑝
2
𝐾𝑇
2( )3/2
ℎ2
𝐸𝑣+𝐸𝑎
 At 0o K, E f = 2
i.e. At 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level and in the top
of the valance band.
∗ KT
2𝜋𝑚𝑝 Ev−Ea
 Sub. eqn. 2 in eqn. 1 & re-arranging, P=(2Na) ½ ( ℎ² ) 3/4 exp ( KT )
 Thus the density of the holes in the valance band is proportional to the square root of
the acceptor concentration.

10. Explain Hall Effect in detail? What are its applications?

Hall-Effect:
 When a material carrying current is subjected to a magnetic field in a direction
perpendicular to direction of current, an electric field is developed across the material
in a direction perpendicular to both the direction of magnetic field and current direction.
This phenomenon is called “Hall-effect”.
Explanation:
 Consider a semi-conductor, and current passes along the X-axis and a magnetic field
Bz is applied along the Z-direction, a field Ey is called the Hall field which is developed
in the Y-direction.

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Engineering Physics I [Link] CSE/EEE/IT & ECE

 In P-tpe semi-conductor, holes move with the velocity “V” in the “+”ve X-direction.
As they move across the semi conductor the holes experience a transverse force ‘Bev’
due to the magnetic field.
 This force drives the holes down to the lower face. As a result, the lower face becomes
+vely charged and –ve charge on the upper surface creating the hall field in the Y-
direction. The Hall field exerts an upward force on holes equal to Ee.
 In the steady sate, two forces just balance and as a result, no further increase of + ve
charge occurs on Face1.
 In N type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are electrons experiences a force
in the downward direction and lower face gets – vely charged. As a result, Hall field
will be in the Y – direction.
Demonstration:
 Consider a rectangular slab of n-type semi conductor carrying current in the + ve X-
direction.
 If magnetic field “B’ is acting in the Z-direction as shown then under the influence of
magnetic field, electrons experience a force given by 𝐹𝐿 = -Bev.
 As a result of force 𝐹𝐻 acting on the electrons in the Y – direction as a consequence the
lower face of the specimen gets – vely charged and upper surface is + vely charged.
 Hence a potential 𝑉𝐻 called the Hall Voltage present between the top and bottom faces
of the specimen.
 The Hall field𝐹𝐻 , exerts an upward force on the electrons given by F= -e𝐸𝐻
 The two opposing forces𝐹𝐿 and 𝐹𝐻 establish an equilibrium under which
|𝐹𝐿 | =|𝐹𝐻 | i.e -Bev =-e𝐸𝐻
𝐸𝐻 = BV

𝑉𝐻
 If ‘d’ is the thickness of the specimen, then 𝐸𝐻 = 𝑑
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 d
𝑉𝐻 = Bvd
I
 If ‘W’ is the width of the specimen, then J = 𝑤𝑑
J= nev =V
Bid Bi
=>𝑉𝐻 = 𝑤𝑑 = 𝑝𝑤
Hall Coefficient:
 Hall field𝐸𝐻 , for a given material depends on the current density J and the applied
magnetic field B.
i.e. 𝐸𝐻 α JB
𝐸𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 α JB
Bi 𝑉
Since, 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑤 , 𝐸𝐻 = 𝑑𝐻
Bi
𝐸𝐻 = 𝑤𝑑
i Bi i
J = 𝑤𝑑 , 𝑤𝑑 = 𝑅𝐻 = (𝑤𝑑 ) B

I
i.e 𝑅𝐻 = 
Applications:
Determination of the type of Semi-conductors:

GRIET 30