ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELD

Complete Short Notes + Tricks | JEE / Board

1. CHARGE — BASICS
SI Unit Coulomb (C)

Dimension [AT] (A = current, T = time)

Charge formula q = it

Proton charge e = +1.6 × 10■¹■ C

Electron charge e = −1.6 × 10■¹■ C

Mass of electron m_e = 9.1 × 10■³¹ kg

Alpha particle q = +2e = 3.2 × 10■¹■ C (doubly charged He ion)

Properties of Charge:
1. Additivity Q_net = q1 + q2 + q3 + ... (algebraic sum)

2. Quantisation Q = ±ne, n = 0,1,2,...

3. Conservation Total charge of isolated system = constant (q_i = q_f)

■ TRICK: Repulsion is the SURE test of charge. Attraction can happen with uncharged bodies too (induction).

■ NOTE: No. of electrons in 1 C → n = 1/(1.6×10■¹■) = 6.25 × 10¹■

2. COULOMB'S LAW
Force (vacuum) F = Kq1q2 / r²

K value K = 1/(4πε■) = 9 × 10■ N·m²/C²

ε■ value ε■ = 8.85 × 10■¹² C²/(N·m²) ; Dimension: [M■¹A²L■³T■]

In medium F = F■/K (K = dielectric constant, K ≥ 1)

Dielectric const K = ε_r = ε/ε■ (unitless, dimensionless)

Vector form F■■ = Kq1q2 (r■■ − r■■)/|r■ − r■|³

CGS unit 1 C = 3×10■ esu = (1/10) emu

■ TRICK: F_medium = F_vacuum / K. So force DECREASES when placed in a medium.

■ TRICK: Min force between two charges at 1 Å separation → use smallest possible charge (1e each): F =
9×10■×(1.6×10■¹■)²/(10■¹■)² ≈ 23.04 N

■ NOTE: Principle of Superposition: Net force on a charge = vector sum of individual forces. Each pair is UNAFFECTED by
other charges.

3. EQUILIBRIUM OF CHARGES
Condition F_net = 0 on each charge

3 collinear charges Middle charge q = −(√q1·√q2)² / (√q1+√q2)² ← negative sign always

Position of middle q x = l·√q1/(√q1+√q2) from q1 (divides in ratio √q1:√q2)

System in eq'm q = −q1q2/(√q1+√q2)² and placed at x above

■ TRICK: For 3-charge equilibrium: third charge is ALWAYS negative if other two are positive (and vice versa). Placed
between them.

4. ELECTRIC FIELD (E)

Definition E = F/q■ (force per unit test charge)

Point charge E = KQ/r² (directed away from +Q, towards −Q)

SI unit N/C or V/m

Superposition E_net = E1 + E2 + ... (vector sum)

Equal opp charges E_net at midpoint = 2E (fields add up)

Two same charges E_net = 0 at midpoint (fields cancel)

Special Cases — Net E at point P:

Charges +q, +q at dist d Neutral point at midpoint; E_net = 0 there

Charges +q, −q No null point; field lines go from + to −

Equilateral triangle If equal charges at vertices → E_net at centroid = 0

Square (equal charges) E_net at centre = 0

Ring axis (on-axis pt) E = KQx/(x²+R²)^(3/2)

Ring max field at x = R/√2 → E_max = KQ/(R²·√(3/2)) = 2KQ/(3√3·R²)

Ring centre E=0

Infinite wire E = 2Kλ/r = λ/(2πε■r)

Semi-infinite wire E_net = (Kλ/y)√2 at 45° to wire

■ TRICK: For ring: E is maximum at x = R/√2. At x >> R, ring behaves like a POINT charge (E = KQ/x²). At x=0, E=0.

■ TRICK: Neutral point for unlike charges: lies OUTSIDE, closer to the SMALLER charge. For like charges: lies BETWEEN
them.

5. ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Dipole moment P = q × 2a (direction: −q to +q)

Unit of P C·m (vector quantity)

Axial field E_axial = 2KPd/(d²−a²)² → for short dipole: E = 2KP/d³

Equatorial field E_eq = −KP/(d²+a²)^(3/2) → for short: E = KP/d³

Ratio E_ax:E_eq = 2:1 (for short dipole, same distance d)

E at general pt E = (KP/r³)√(3cos²θ+1)

Torque in uniform E τ = PE sinθ = P × E

τ_max at θ=90° → τ_max = PE

τ=0 at θ=0° or 180° (stable/unstable eq'm)

Work to rotate W = PE(cosθ1 − cosθ2)

P.E. of dipole U = −PE cosθ = −P·E

Force (non-unif E) F = P dE/dx

■ TRICK: Short dipole: E_axial = 2E_equatorial. Equatorial field is ANTI-PARALLEL to P. Axial field is PARALLEL to P.

■ NOTE: In uniform E: Net FORCE = 0 always. Net TORQUE may or may not be zero.

6. CHARGE DENSITIES
Linear λ (1D) λ = Q/L → dQ = λ·dl [C/m]

Surface σ (2D) σ = Q/A → dQ = σ·dA [C/m²]

Volume ρ (3D) ρ = Q/V → dQ = ρ·dV [C/m³]

7. ELECTRIC FLUX & GAUSS'S LAW

Electric Flux φ φ = ∫E·dA = ∫E dA cosθ

For uniform E φ = EA cosθ

SI unit of φ N·m²/C or V·m

Gauss's Law φ_net = q_enclosed / ε■

q_enclosed = all charges INSIDE the closed surface (not outside)

Flux through various surfaces (charge Q at centre):

Sphere (full) φ = Q/ε■

Hemisphere (upper) φ = Q/(2ε■)

Hemisphere (lower) φ = Q/(2ε■)

n equal parts φ_each = Q/(nε■)

Charge at corner (cube) φ_total = Q/ε■ → each face = Q/(24ε■) → 3 adj faces = Q/(8ε■)

Charge at face centre φ_that_face = 0 ; φ_total = Q/ε■ (use 2 cubes)

Charge at edge centre Use 4 cubes → φ per cube = Q/(4ε■)

Cone (curved surface) φ = Eπr² (field uniform, closed surface has zero total)

■ TRICK: Flux through a CLOSED surface due to OUTSIDE charge = 0 always.

■ TRICK: If E is uniform → total flux through any closed surface = 0 (net enclosed charge = 0).

8. APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS'S LAW

Infinite line charge E = λ/(2πε■r) = 2Kλ/r (cylindrical Gaussian surface)

Infinite plane sheet E = σ/(2ε■) (independent of distance)

Two parallel opp sheets Between plates: E = σ/ε■ ; Outside: E = 0

Two parallel same sheets Between plates: E = 0 ; Outside: E = σ/ε■

Hollow sphere (outside r outside r>Rgt; R) E = KQ/r² (behaves like point charge)

Hollow sphere (inside r inside r<Rlt; R) E = 0 (no enclosed charge)

Solid sphere (outside r outside r>Rgt; R) E = KQ/r²

Solid sphere (inside r inside r<Rlt; R) E = KQr/R³ = ρr/(3ε■) (E ∝ r inside)

Solid sphere surface (r=R) E = KQ/R² (maximum for solid sphere)

■ TRICK: For solid non-conducting sphere: E ∝ r (inside) and E ∝ 1/r² (outside). Max E is at the surface.

■ TRICK: For hollow sphere: Inside E=0 always (shell theorem). Outside acts like point charge.

9. FORCE ON A CHARGE / DIPOLE IN E FIELD

Force on charge F = qE (in direction of E for +q, opposite for −q)

Charged particle in E ma = qE → a = qE/m

Equilibrium condition qE = mg → E = mg/q (for charged ball in gravity)

Tension (string) T = √(F² + (mg)²) where F = qE

tan θ for string tan θ = F/mg = qE/mg

Dipole oscillation ω ω = √(PE/I) ; T = 2π√(I/PE)

Dipole SHM condition τ = −PEsinθ ≈ −PEθ for small θ → a = −ω²θ

■ TRICK: Charged ball suspended in E field: If E upward and q positive → effective g_eff = g − qE/m. If qE = mg → floats!

10. CONDUCTORS & INDUCTION

Inside conductor E = 0 (always, in electrostatic condition)

Surface of conductor E = σ/ε■ (perpendicular to surface)

Charge on conductor Resides only on the OUTER surface

Induction mechanism External +Q → near face −ve, far face +ve induced charge

Neutral body + charge Can attract due to induction (F_near > F_far)

Dielectric constant K K = ε_r = ε/ε■ ; K ≥ 1 always ; unitless

Force in medium F = F■/K

Charged spheres in liq K = 1/(1 − ρ_liquid/ρ_solid) (buoyancy formula)

■ TRICK: For two identical spheres in liquid: K = 1/(1−ρ_l/ρ_s). If angle same in medium as air → K = 1 (impossible unless
K≥1).

QUICK REVISION — KEY FORMULAS AT A GLANCE

Topic Key Formula Quick Note

Coulomb F = Kq1q2/r² K = 9×10■

In medium F = F■/K K≥1

E (point) E = KQ/r² Radially outward

E (ring) E = KQx/(x²+R²)^(3/2) Max at x=R/√2

E (wire ∞) E = 2Kλ/r Indep. of length

E (sheet) E = σ/2ε■ Indep. of distance

Gauss φ = q_enc/ε■ Closed surface

Dipole P P = q·2a −q to +q dir

τ on dipole τ = PE sinθ Max at θ=90°

E_axial E = 2KP/d³ Parallel to P

E_equat E = KP/d³ Anti-parallel to P

Solid sphere (in) E = KQr/R³ E∝r

Solid sphere (out) E = KQ/r² E ∝ 1/r²

Prepared from class notes | JEE 2025–26 | All the best! ■