ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELD

Complete Short Notes + Quick Tricks | JEE / Board

1. CHARGE - BASICS
SI Unit Coulomb (C)

Dimension [AT] (A = Ampere, T = second)

Charge formula q=ixt

Proton charge +e = +1.6 x 10^-19 C

Electron charge -e = -1.6 x 10^-19 C

Mass of electron m_e = 9.1 x 10^-31 kg

Alpha particle q = +2e = 3.2 x 10^-19 C (doubly charged He ion)

1 C in CGS 1 C = 3x10^9 esu = (1/10) emu

3 Properties of Charge:
1. Additivity Q_net = q1 + q2 + q3 + ... (algebraic sum, NOT vector)

2. Quantisation Q = +/-ne, n = 0, 1, 2, ... (e = 1.6 x 10^-19 C)

3. Conservation Total charge of isolated system is constant (q_i = q_f)

TRICK: Repulsion is the SURE TEST of charge. Attraction can also happen with uncharged bodies via induction - so
attraction alone does NOT confirm charge.

NOTE: No. of electrons in 1 C: n = 1 / (1.6 x 10^-19) = 6.25 x 10^18

NOTE: Smallest known charge in nature = charge on electron = 1.6 x 10^-19 C

2. COULOMB'S LAW
Force (vacuum) F = K q1 q2 / r^2

K value K = 1/(4 pi e0) = 9 x 10^9 N.m^2/C^2

e0 value e0 = 8.85 x 10^-12 C^2/(N.m^2)

Dimension of e0 [M^-1 A^2 L^-3 T^4]

In a medium F = F0 / K (force reduces by factor K)

Dielectric const K K = Er = E / E0 (unitless, dimensionless, K >= 1 always)

Vector form F21 F21 = K q1 q2 (r2 - r1) / |r2 - r1|^3

Newton's 3rd law F12 = -F21 (equal and opposite forces)

TRICK: F in medium = F0 / K. So force DECREASES when placed in a medium. K >= 1 always.

TRICK: Min force at 1 Angstrom separation: use min charge = e each. F = 9x10^9 x (1.6x10^-19)^2 / (10^-10)^2 = 23.04 N

NOTE: Principle of Superposition: Force on a charge = vector sum of individual forces. Each pair interaction is
UNAFFECTED by presence of other charges.

3. EQUILIBRIUM OF CHARGES
Stable eq'm Fnet = 0 AND dU/dx = 0 AND d^2U/dx^2 > 0 (PE minimum)

Unstable eq'm Fnet = 0 AND dU/dx = 0 AND d^2U/dx^2 < 0 (PE maximum)

3 collinear charges Middle charge q = -sqrt(q1) x sqrt(q2) in ratio form

Position of middle q x from q1 = L x sqrt(q1) / (sqrt(q1) + sqrt(q2))

Net charge formula q_middle = -(sqrt(q1) x sqrt(q2))^2 / (sqrt(q1)+sqrt(q2))^2

TRICK: 3-charge equilibrium: Third charge is ALWAYS NEGATIVE if other two are positive. It sits between them. Position
divides gap in ratio sqrt(q1) : sqrt(q2).

TRICK: For 2 FIXED charges q and 4q, the neutral point for third charge q0 is at L/3 from smaller charge q (between them if
q0 is negative, outside if same sign).

4. ELECTRIC FIELD (E)

Definition E = F / q0 (force per unit positive test charge)

Point charge E = KQ / r^2 (directed away from +Q, towards -Q)

SI unit N/C or V/m

Superposition E_net = E1 + E2 + E3 + ... (vector sum)

Two +q charges E_net = 0 at midpoint; field lines repel each other

Two opp charges (+q,-q) No null point between them; field from + towards -

Equil. triangle equal q E_net = 0 at centroid if all three charges equal

Square with equal q E_net = 0 at centre if all four charges equal

Key E formulas for different configurations:

Ring (on-axis, dist x) E = KQx / (x^2 + R^2)^(3/2)

Ring: max E position x = R/sqrt(2) --> E_max = 2KQ / (3 sqrt(3) R^2)

Ring: at centre (x=0) E=0

Ring: at x >> R E ~ KQ/x^2 (behaves like point charge)

Infinite straight wire E = 2K lambda / r = lambda / (2 pi e0 r)

Semi-infinite wire at end E = K lambda / y (perpendicular to wire end)

Semi-infinite (at midpt) E_net = (K lambda / y) x sqrt(2) at 45 degrees

Infinite plane sheet E = sigma / (2 e0) [independent of distance!]

Two opp parallel sheets Between: E = sigma/e0 ; Outside: E = 0

Two same parallel sheets Between: E = 0 ; Outside: E = sigma/e0

TRICK: Ring on axis: E is max at x = R/sqrt(2). Remember: max when dE/dx = 0 gives x^2 = R^2/2.

TRICK: Plane sheet E = sigma/(2e0) does NOT depend on distance. E is uniform and perpendicular to sheet.

TRICK: Neutral point (E=0) for UNLIKE charges: lies OUTSIDE, closer to SMALLER charge. For LIKE charges: lies
BETWEEN them.

5. ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Dipole moment P P = q x 2a [C.m] direction: from -q to +q
Axial field (exact) E_ax = 2KPd / (d^2 - a^2)^2

Axial field (short) E_ax = 2KP / d^3 (for d >> a)

Equatorial field (ex) E_eq = KP / (d^2 + a^2)^(3/2)

Equatorial (short) E_eq = KP / d^3 (for d >> a)

Ratio E_ax : E_eq = 2 : 1 (at same distance, short dipole)

E at general angle E = (KP/r^3) x sqrt(3cos^2(theta) + 1)

Torque in uniform E tau = P x E x sin(theta) = P x E (cross product)

Torque max tau_max = PE at theta = 90 degrees

Torque = 0 at theta = 0 (stable) or 180 degrees (unstable)

Work to rotate dipole W = PE(cos theta1 - cos theta2)

Potential energy U = -PE cos(theta) = -P.E (dot product)

Force in non-uniform E F = P dE/dx

TRICK: SHORT DIPOLE: E_axial = 2KP/d^3 (PARALLEL to P). E_equatorial = KP/d^3 (ANTI-PARALLEL to P). Ratio = 2:1.

TRICK: Dipole in UNIFORM E: Net FORCE = 0 always. Net TORQUE = PEsin(theta) (may or may not be zero).

TRICK: Dipole SHM: For small angle, tau = -PEtheta = I x alpha --> omega = sqrt(PE/I) --> T = 2pi x sqrt(I/PE)

NOTE: Equatorial E is anti-parallel to P (opposite direction). Axial E is parallel to P (same direction).

6. CHARGE DENSITIES
Linear lambda (1D) lambda = Q / L --> dQ = lambda x dl [C/m]

Surface sigma (2D) sigma = Q / A --> dQ = sigma x dA [C/m^2]

Volume rho (3D) rho = Q / V --> dQ = rho x dV [C/m^3]

7. ELECTRIC FLUX & GAUSS'S LAW

Electric Flux phi phi = integral([Link]) = integral(E dA cos theta)

For uniform E phi = E x A x cos(theta)

SI unit of phi N.m^2/C or V.m

Gauss's Law phi_net = q_enclosed / e0

q_enclosed = ALL charges INSIDE the closed Gaussian surface only

Flux from outside q = 0 (outside charges contribute zero net flux)

Flux through various surfaces (charge Q at centre):

Full sphere phi = Q / e0

Each hemisphere phi = Q / (2 e0)

n equal parts of sphere phi each = Q / (n x e0)

Cube: charge at centre phi per face = Q / (6 e0) ; total = Q/e0

Cube: charge at corner Use 8 cubes --> phi per cube = Q/(8e0) --> per adj face = Q/(24e0)

Cube: charge at edge Use 4 cubes --> phi per cube = Q/(4e0)
 Use 2 cubes --> phi per cube = Q/(2e0) --> that face = Q/(2e0)... rest =
Cube: charge at face cen Q/(2e0)

Cone curved surface (E||) phi = E x pi x r^2 (same as base area formula)

TRICK: Flux through a CLOSED surface due to charge OUTSIDE it = 0 always. Only enclosed charge matters.

TRICK: If E is UNIFORM everywhere, total flux through ANY closed surface = 0 (net enclosed charge = 0).

8. APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS'S LAW

Infinite line charge E = lambda/(2 pi e0 r) = 2K lambda/r ; E is perpendicular to wire

Infinite plane sheet E = sigma/(2 e0) [independent of r]

Two opp charged sheets Between: E = sigma/e0 ; Outside both: E = 0

Two same charged sheets Between: E = 0 ; Outside: E = sigma/e0

Hollow sphere: r > R (outside) E = KQ/r^2 (behaves like point charge at centre)

Hollow sphere: r < R (inside) E = 0 (no enclosed charge inside hollow)

Hollow sphere: r = R (surface) E = KQ/R^2 = sigma/e0

Solid sphere: r > R (outside) E = KQ/r^2 (same as hollow)

Solid sphere: r < R (inside) E = KQr/R^3 = rho x r/(3 e0) [E proportional to r]

Solid sphere: r = R (surface) E = KQ/R^2 [maximum value for solid sphere]

TRICK: SOLID sphere: E proportional to r (inside), E proportional to 1/r^2 (outside). E is MAX at surface r=R.

TRICK: HOLLOW sphere: E = 0 inside regardless of shell thickness. Outside acts as if all charge at centre.

9. FORCE ON CHARGE / DIPOLE IN ELECTRIC FIELD

Force on charge q F = qE (along E for +q, opposite E for -q)

Acceleration a = qE/m (use Newton's 2nd law)

Equilibrium in E qE = mg --> E = mg/q (for charged ball levitating)

String tension T = sqrt(F^2 + (mg)^2) where F = qE (electric force)

Angle of string tan(theta) = qE / mg

No. of null points Find where E_net = 0 (between like charges, outside unlike)

Dipole SHM omega omega = sqrt(PE/I) ; T = 2pi x sqrt(I/PE)

Dipole SHM condition Valid for small theta: tau = -PE theta ~ -PE sin(theta)

TRICK: Charged ball in E field: If E upward and q positive, effective g_eff = g - qE/m. If qE = mg then g_eff = 0 (floats!). If qE
> mg, ball accelerates up.

TRICK: Two charged balls on strings: angle depends on F=qE and weight mg. Heavier ball has smaller angle (tan = F/mg).

10. CONDUCTORS & DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Inside conductor (static) E = 0 always in electrostatic condition

Surface of conductor E = sigma/e0 (perpendicular to surface)

Charge on conductor Resides ONLY on outer surface (free electrons)

Induction mechanism External +Q near conductor: near face -ve, far face +ve

Attraction of uncharged Possible via induction (near induced charge is closer)

Dielectric constant K K = e_r = e/e0 ; K >= 1 ; unitless

Coulomb force in medium F_medium = F_vacuum / K (force reduces)

Charged spheres in liquid K = 1 / (1 - rho_liquid/rho_solid)

TRICK: Two identical charged spheres suspended in liquid: K = 1/(1 - rho_L/rho_S). If angle is SAME in medium as in air,
use this to find K.

QUICK REVISION - ALL KEY FORMULAS

Topic Key Formula Quick Note

Coulomb's Law F = Kq1q2/r^2 K = 9x10^9

In medium F = F0/K K >= 1

E (point charge) E = KQ/r^2 Away from +Q

E (ring axis) E = KQx/(x^2+R^2)^(3/2) Max at x=R/sqrt(2)

E (ring centre) E=0 Always zero

E (infinite wire) E = 2K lambda/r Perp to wire

E (plane sheet) E = sigma/(2e0) Indep of distance

E (between opp plates) E = sigma/e0 Uniform field

Gauss's Law phi = q_enc/e0 Closed surface

Dipole moment P = q x 2a -q to +q direction

Torque on dipole tau = PE sin(theta) Max at theta=90 deg

E axial (short) E = 2KP/d^3 Parallel to P

E equatorial (short) E = KP/d^3 Anti-parallel to P

Solid sphere (inside) E = KQr/R^3 E proportional to r

Solid sphere (outside) E = KQ/r^2 E prop to 1/r^2

Hollow sphere (inside) E=0 Shell theorem

Dipole SHM period T = 2pi x sqrt(I/PE) Small oscillations

Quantisation Q = ne n = integer

Equilibrium (string) tan(theta) = qE/mg Electric vs gravity

Prepared from class notes | Electric Charges and Fields | JEE 2025-26 | All the best!