Quantum Physics and Applications

HKBK College of Engineering

Department of Engineering Physics
Bengaluru-560045

Name of the Faculty : Dr. Chandrakumar. K

Professor & HOD
: Dr. Mohsina Taj
Associate Professor
: Dr. Sarvamangala.M
Associate Professor
: [Link] Kumari
Assistant Professor
: [Link]. N
Assistant Professor
: [Link] P
Assistant Professor
: Dr. Suresh D.S
Assistant Professor

Department : Physics
Subject : Quantum Physics and electronics sensors
Module : 3- Superconductivity
Subject Code : 1BPHEC102/202

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Quantum Physics and Applications

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes 21 September 1853 – 21
February 1926) was a Dutch experimental physicist who
became the first to liquefy helium, cooling it to near 1.5
kelvin (K)—at the time the lowest temperature achieved
on Earth. For this work, he was awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1913.
In 1911, using liquid helium to investigate the electrical
conductivity of solid mercury, Kamerlingh Onnes found
that its electrical resistance vanishes at 4.2 K; i.e.,
superconductivity.

Course syllabus:
Module-3

Superconductivity:
Zero resistance state, Persistent current, Meissner effect, Critical temperature, Critical current
(Silsbee Effect) – Derivation for a cylindrical wire using ampere’s law, Critical field, Formation of
Cooper pairs -Mediation of phonons, Two-fluid model, BCS Theory - Phase coherent state, Limitations
of BCS theory, Examples of systems with low and high electron-phonon coupling, Type-I and Type-II
superconductors, Formation of Vortices, Explanation for upper critical field, Cooper pair Tunneling
(Andreev reflection), Josephson junction, Flux quantization, DC and AC SQUID, Numerical Problems.
Text Books : 1, 3 , Reference Book: 3 Number of Hours: 8

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Quantum Physics and Applications

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity is the phenomenon observed in some metals and materials. Kammerlingh
Onnes in 1911 observed that the electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops abruptly to zero
at about 4.2K. This state is called super conducting state. The material is called
superconductor. The temperature at which they attain superconductivity is called critical
temperature Tc.
3.1 Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:
The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop
to zero below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and
threshold temperature is called “critical temperature.”

Above the transition temperature, the substance is in the normal state and below it will be in
superconducting state. Tc value is different for different materials.

3.2 ZERO RESISTANT STATE

“The zero-resistance state in superconductors is the complete absence of electrical resistance

below the material’s critical temperature, caused by the collective motion of Cooper pairs.”

The zero-resistance state arises because of Cooper pairs:

• At low temperatures, electrons in a superconductor form pairs (Cooper pairs) due to

attractive interactions mediated by vibrations in the crystal lattice (phonons).
• These pairs condense into a single quantum mechanical ground state.
• Unlike individual electrons, this collective state is immune to scattering in the crystal —
so the electrical resistance vanishes, leading to zero resistance.

3.3 PERSISTENT CURRENT

“The current that persists in a superconductor over an infinite time is termed as Persistent
current”.

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Experiments have shown that, if the current is allowed to flow through a superconducting
loop and then the power source is removed, the current will persist for years without decay. This
persistence confirms that there is truly zero DC resistance, not just “very low” resistance. It’s a
macroscopic quantum phenomenon, arising from the collective motion of Cooper pairs in a
single quantum state.

3.4 Meissner effect

A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic flux out of its
body when it is cooled below the critical temperature and thus becomes a perfect
diamagnet. This effect is called the Meissner effect

When the temperature is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and completely expelled, as the
specimen becomes superconducting.

The Meissner effect is reversible. When the temperature is raised the flux penetrates the material,

after it reaches Tc. Then the substance will be in the normal state.

The magnetic induction inside the specimen

B = µo (H + M)

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Where 'H' is the intensity of the magnetizing field and ‘M’ is the magnetization
produced within the material. For T < Tc, B=0

0 = µo (H + M)

M = -H

𝑀
= 𝜒 = −1
𝐻

Susceptibility is -1 i.e. it is perfect diamagnetism.

Hence superconducting material do not allow the magnetic flux to exist inside the material.

3.5 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE (TC)

The Critical temperature is the temperature below which the material undergoes a
transition from the normal state to the Superconducting state, denoted by TC.
Note: Superconductivity will disappear if the temperature of the specimen is raised above its TC ,
or if a sufficiently strong magnetic field is employed.
3.6 CRITICAL FIELD (HC) The critical magnetic field of a
superconductor is the maximum strength of an externally
applied magnetic field that the material can withstand and still
retain its superconducting state.

• For applied fields less than Hc → the material remains

superconducting and shows the Meissner effect (flux
expulsion).
• For applied fields greater than Hc → superconductivity is
destroyed, and the material returns to the normal (resistive)
state.

Effect of magnetic field

Superconductivity can be destroyed by applying magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic
field required to destroy the superconductivity below the Tc is called critical field. It is denoted
by Hc(T).If ‘T’ is the temperature of the superconducting material, ‘Tc’ is the critical
temperature, ‘Hc’ is the critical field and ‘Ho’ is the critical field at 0o K. They are related by

𝑇2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻𝑂 [1 − 2 ]
𝑇𝑐

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3.7 CRITICAL CURRENT

When an electric current is passed through a conductor, it will also produce its own magnetic
field around it. Similarly, in a superconductor, when current is passed through it, it produces its
own magnetic field (surface magnetic field), which is responsible for converting the
superconducting state of a metal to a normal state or normal conductor. Hence, the Critical current
can be defined as “The minimum current that can be passed in a sample without destroying
its superconductivity is called the Critical current.”
3.8 Silsbee Effect
The Silsbee effect is the phenomenon where a superconductor loses its superconducting state when
the current passing through it becomes too high.
This happens because the current generates its own magnetic field, and if this field exceeds a
certain "critical" strength, it destroys the superconductivity, similar to applying an external
magnetic field.
The critical current depends on the material's radius, temperature, and its critical magnetic field,
and is given by the formula
𝐼𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐻𝐶
Where, 𝐼𝐶 is Critical current and 𝐻𝐶 is called Critical field.
Critical current density Jc is given by
IC 2πR𝑯𝑪
𝑱𝒄 = =
𝑨 π𝑹𝟐
2𝐻𝐶
𝐽𝐶 =
𝑅
Definition: The minimum value of current that can be passed in a superconductor without
destroying superconductivity is known as critical current I c and the critical current per unit
cross sectional area is known critical current density (Jc)
3.9 Ampere’s Law
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝 𝐁 𝐚𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐩 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝛍𝐨 𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝
𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝒏𝒆𝒕 current enclosed within that loop.

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼

Where I is the current enclosed by the loop.

Consider a cylindrical wire of length L and radius R, carrying current I.

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The magnetic field produced by the current on the surface of

the cylinder is B. Imagine an Amperian loop of radius R around
the cylinder as shown in figure.
According to Ampere’s law
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 --------- (1)
The angle between the direction of B and the small elemental
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
length dl is 0. Hence 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝑜 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
Equation (1) becomes

∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 ----------(2)
But ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑅 = 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
Equation (2) becomes

𝐵 (2𝜋𝑅) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
Put B = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻
𝜇𝑜 𝐻 (2𝜋𝑅) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼

𝐼
H=
2𝜋𝑅

This is the magnetic field intensity. If the current is critical current, then

𝐼𝐶
𝐻𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑅
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐻𝐶 2𝜋𝑅
This is the expression for the Critical current in a superconducting cylindrical wire.
BCS Theory:
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of superconductivity
based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS theory. It is a quantum mechanical
concept.
Formation of Cooper pairs
Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons
with opposite momenta & opposite spin in a phonon field.

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Quantum Physics and Applications

In a superconductor, electrons do not behave as independent particles. Instead, two electrons

with opposite momentum and opposite spin can weakly bind together to form a correlated state
known as a Cooper pair.
An electron(first) moving through a crystal lattice attracts the positively charged ions slightly,
creating a local distortion.
This distortion increases the local positive charge density, which in turn attracts another electron
(second).
Although electrons naturally repel due to Coulomb repulsion, the lattice distortion produces an
effective attractive interaction between electrons at very low temperatures (below Tc).
This effective attraction binds the two electrons to form Cooper pair with same and opposite
momentum and opposite spin.
A Cooper pair once formed can condense into a macroscopic quantum state, allowing for
lossless electric current and expulsion of magnetic field.
BCS Theory:
• An electron moves through the material and slightly distorts the crystal lattice (the atoms).

• This distortion (phonon)creates a region of positive charge, which attracts another electron.

• If this attraction is stronger than the repulsion between electrons then two electrons are
coupled and form a pair called cooper pairs.

• Thus formed electron pairs will stay together over large distance (> 10-6m).

• The number of cooper pairs increases with time and all of them will be having single wave
function.

• The entire set of electron pairs can move in a particular direction without scattering off
atoms and constitute electric current

• The pairing is very delicate. Heat breaks up the Cooper pairs. That’s why superconductivity
only happens when materials are cold enough.

3.13 Energy Gap in Superconductor

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The energy gap is the minimum energy required to break a Cooper pair into two independent
electrons.

• When electrons form Cooper pairs due to attractive interaction (via lattice vibrations or
phonons), they condense into a lower-energy, collective ground state.
• The gap appears between this ground state and the excited (normal) state
• All electrons near the Fermi level are paired, so an energy gap (2Δ) exists around the
Fermi energy.
• Electrons cannot scatter easily because there are no available energy states within the
gap.
• This absence of scattering is what gives zero resistance in superconductors.
• As temperature rises, the gap decreases gradually and becomes zero at the critical
temperature 𝑇c

3.15 Two-fluid model

Two-fluid model was proposed by Gorter and Casimir in 1934 to explain the thermodynamic
properties of superconductivity as a coexistence of two types of electron populations.
When a material is cooled below its transition temperature Tc, all electrons in the material do
not jump into the superconducting phase at once. They become superconducting pair by pair.
Two fluid model is assumed to be a mixture of two fluids- a normal fluid with normal electrons
(Unpaired electrons as in a normal conductor) mixed with a fluid of superconducting electrons
(Cooper pairs that move without resistance).
• The normal electrons behave in the usual fashion as charged particles flowing in a
viscous medium.
• But the super-electrons experience no scattering, have zero entropy (perfect order), and a
long coherence length.
• At any temperature the sum of superconducting electrons and normal conducting
electrons is equal to the conducting electrons in the material in the normal state.
i=in+is
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The number of super electrons depends on the temperature. The concentration of these electrons
is given by the formula
𝑇 4
𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝐶
• Thus, at T = 0 K, all the electrons are super electrons, but as T increases, the super
electrons decrease in number, and eventually they all become normal electrons at T = Tc.
• The two-fluid model explains the zero-resistance property of the superconductor. For T <
Tc, some super electrons are present, and since these have infinite conductivity, they
experience no scattering-they essentially short-circuit the normal electrons, resulting in
infinite conductivity for the sample as a whole.
• This model may be readily related to the concept of the energy gap. All the electrons
below the gap are essentially frozen in their state of motion by virtue of the gap; hence
these are the super electrons.
• Those above the gap are normal electrons. The gap decreases as the temperature
increases, and vanishes entirely at T = Tc,. Thus, as T approaches Tc and the gap
vanishes, all the electrons become normal.
3.16 Electron–Phonon Coupling
Electron–phonon coupling refers to the interaction between conduction electrons and lattice
vibrations (phonons). A coupling constant λ characterizes the strength of this interaction:
1. Low coupling (λ small): electrons scatter weakly with phonons, leading to high conductivity
and mobility. Examples for Low electron-phonon coupling are simple semiconductors like
Al, Pb, Sn, Nb and Hg
2. High coupling (λ large): electrons interact strongly with phonons, resistivity increases rapidly
with temperature, and phenomena such as superconductivity or polaron formation may occur .
High temperature superconductors which require high electron-phonon coupling, are
Cuprates (YBCO- Yttrium Barium copper oxide, BSCCO- Bismuth strontium calcium
copper oxide), Iron pnictides, Heavy fermions, Sr2RuO4.
3.18 TYPE I AND TYPE II SUPERCONDUCTORS
Superconductors can be classified as type I and type II based on diamagnetic response.

(i) Type I superconductors (or soft superconductors)

• Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect.

• Below the critical field it behaves as perfect diamagnet.

• If the external magnetic field increases beyond H c the superconducting specimen gets
converted to normal state.
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• The magnetic flux penetrates and resistance increase from zero to some value.

• As the critical field is very low for type-I superconductors, they are not used in
construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets.

(ii) Type II superconductor (or Hard superconductor)

Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states

➢ Superconducting state

➢ Mixed state

• They are having two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2.

• For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic field completely and
becomes a perfect diamagnetic.

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• Between Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts penetrating throughout the
specimen. This state is called vortex state.

• Hc2 is 100 times higher than Hc1.

• At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and becomes normal conductor.

• Type-II superconductors are used in the manufacturing of the

superconducting magnets of high magnetic fields.

Distinction between Type I Superconductors and Type II Superconductors

Type I Superconductors Type II Superconductors

They exhibit complete Meissner effect They do not exhibit, complete Meissner effect
because they lose magnetization gradually

There is only one critical magnetic field There are two critical magnetic fields namely lower
critical field Hc1 and upper critical field Hc2

No mixed state exists Mixed or vortex state is present

Highest known critical field is 0.1 T The critical field is much greater than in- type I
superconductor, which is l0 T

Examples: Lead, tin, mercury Examples: Niobium and vanadium.

They are also known as soft They are also known as hard superconductors.
superconductors.

3.14 LIMITATIONS OF BCS THEORY

1. BCS theory is based on weak interactions between electron and phonon but high-temperature
superconductors require much stronger coupling, hence it fails to explain High-Temperature
Superconductivity.
2. BCS theory cannot predict superconductivity in new or existing materials.

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3. The theory is primarily suited for Type I superconductors and cannot fully account for the
behaviour of Type II superconductors.
4. BCS would expect resistance to rise with pressure (more collisions), but in reality, extreme
pressure can induce superconductivity at unexpectedly high temperatures .
5. BCS theory didn’t “fail” completely—it still works for conventional superconductors—but it
cannot explain unconventional and high-temperature superconductivity.

3.19 Formation of Vortices

Type II superconductors permit partial penetration of

magnetic flux with the applied field is of intermediate
strength.

The bulk material is superconducting. But it is threaded

with very thin filaments of normal material . These
filaments act as channels for a external field lines to
penetrate.

A current circulates around the perimeter of each filaments. This flow of current resembles the
vortex (whirlpool) and hence the filaments are called vertex lines or vortices.

3.21 Cooper Pair Tunneling - Andreev Reflection

Andreev reflection is a type of particle scattering that

occurs at interfaces between a superconductor (S) and a
normal state material (N).

At a normal metal and superconductor interface, when an

electron from the N side, whose energy is less than the
band gap of the superconductor, tries to enter the S side,
it adds a Cooper pair to the S side, and hence the
supercurrent increases. Meanwhile, a hole is reflected
into N side. This process is known as Andreev reflection.

MECHANISM:
When an electron from N side approaches the N-S interface the S side cannot accept this single
electron because there are no single-particle states within the energy gap of superconductor. It
can take only a pair of electrons. So, the incident electron will ‘pair up’ with another electron in
the N side. This pair is pulled into the S side as a Cooper pair, and hence the number of Cooper

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pairs increases. Meanwhile, the missing electron on the N side (which has been paired with the
initial electron) appears as a hole, which is reflected back (called retroreflection) into the N side
exactly in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig. In this whole process, charge, spin, and
momentum are conserved.

3.22 Josephson Junction

• A Josephson junction is a quantum mechanical device that consists of two superconducting layers
separated by a thin insulating barrier.
• The Josephson effect refers to the phenomenon in quantum mechanics where a super current—an
electric current that flows without any resistance—passes through a thin insulating barrier
between two superconductors. This effect was first predicted by British physicist Brian D.
Josephson in 1962
• Moreover, the Josephson effect builds a current which is called super current. This super current
flows continuously without any voltage across a device that is called Josephson junction.

DC Josephson effect
As the name suggests, the DC Josephson effect is related to the direct current crossing, which
goes over the insulator when there is no external electromagnetic field present. DC Josephson
effect refers to the phenomenon of a supercurrent flowing between two superconductors that are
separated by a thin insulating barrier, without any applied voltage. In this effect, the supercurrent
flows steadily, or "direct current," through the Josephson junction.

The AC Josephson Effect

The AC Josephson effect refers to the phenomenon of a

supercurrent flowing between two superconductors that
are separated by a thin insulating barrier, also called a
Josephson junction, when a voltage oscillating at a
particular frequency is applied to the junction. This
effect is known as AC because the voltage oscillates
with time, producing an alternating current in the junction.
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3.23 Flux quantization

Flux quantization describes how magnetic flux through a superconducting loop can only take
on discrete (quantized) values, rather than any continuous values. In a superconductor, the
quantum mechanical wavefunction of the Cooper pairs must be single valued i.e., differ by an
integer multiple of 2π. This condition leads directly to flux quantization.

The flux quantum (or quantum of magnetic flux) is:

Φ0= h/2e ≈ 2.07×10−15 Wb

Thus, the magnetic flux in a superconducting ring can only be an integer multiple of

𝛷 = 𝑛𝛷𝑜 , where n = 0,1,2,3…..

Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) rely on flux quantization — it can

detect extremely small changes in magnetic flux.

3.24 SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device)

A SQUID is an abbreviation for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device — is an

extremely sensitive magnetometer based on the principles of flux quantization and Josephson
tunnelling. It can detect magnetic fields as small as 10−14 tesla.

Structure of a SQUID

APPLICATION:

• SQUID can be used to defect the variation of very minute magnetic signals in terms of
quantum flux.
• It is used as a storage device for magnetic flux.
• It is used to study earth quakes

There are two main types of SQUIDs:

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(a) DC SQUID
It has two Josephson junctions in parallel in a superconducting loop. It is based on the
DC Josephson effect. In the absence of any external magnetic field, the input current I splits into
the two branches equally.

(b) RF SQUID
• It is based on the AC Josephson effect and uses only one Josephson junction. It is less
sensitive compared to DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to manufacture in smaller
quantities.

• Depending on the external magnetic field, as the SQUID operates in the resistive mode, the
effective inductance of the tank circuit changes, thus changing the resonant frequency of
the tank circuit. These frequency measurements can be easily taken, and thus the losses
which appear as the voltage across the load resistor in the circuit are a periodic function
of the applied magnetic flux with a period of Φ0

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NUMERICALS
1. Calculate the critical current which can flow through a long thin superconducting wire of
aluminium of diameter 10-3 m. The critical magnetic field for aluminium is 7.9 х 103 amp/m
Solution:
Diameter of aluminium wire d = 10-3 m
Critical magnetic field , Hc = 7.9 х 103 amp/m
Critical current 𝐼𝐶 = ?

𝐼𝐶 = 𝐻𝐶 2𝜋𝑅
10−3
= 7.9 х 103 х 2 х 3.14 х
2
= 24.80 A

2. Superconducting tin (Sn) has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at Zero magnetic field and a
critical field of 0.0306 tesla at 0K. Find critical field at 2K. (Model QP1-2023)
Solution:
Critical temperature Tc = 3.7 K
Critical magnetic field at 0 °K, H0 = 0.0306 tesla
Temperature T=2K
Critical field at temperature T, Hc =?

𝑇2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻𝑂 [1 − ]
𝑇𝑐2

Hc = 0.0306 [1-(2/ 3.72)2]

= 0.0306[1-(4/ 13.69)]
= 0.0306[13.69 -(4 /13.69)]
= 0.0217 tesla

3. Lead has a super conducting transition temperature of 7.26 K. If initial field at 0K is

50×103Am−1, calculate the critical field at 6K. (Model QP1-2023)
Solution:
Transition temperature, Tc= 7.26 K & T = 6 K
Field at 0K, i.e., H0= 50 X 103 Am−1
To find: 𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝑭𝒆𝒊𝒍𝒅 𝑯𝒄 =?
We have, Hc= Ho [1-(𝑇/𝑇𝑐)2]
3
6 2
𝐻𝐶 = 50 × 10 [1 − ( ) ]
7.26
= 50 × 103 [1 − 0.623]
= 18.834 × 103 𝐴𝑚 −1

4. The super conducting transition temperature of Lead is 7.26 K initial field at 0 K is

64 X 103 Am−1, calculate the critical field at 5K.
Solution:
Transition temperature, Tc = 7.26 K & T = 5 K
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Field at 0K, i.e., H0= 64 X 103 Am−1

To find: 𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑭𝒆𝒊𝒍𝒅 𝑯𝒄 =?
We have,

𝑇2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻𝑂 [1 − 2 ]
𝑇𝑐

𝑯𝒄=64×𝟏𝟎3 [1-(57.26)] = 64×𝟏𝟎3 [𝟏−𝟎.474]

𝑯𝒄=33.66×𝟏𝟎3Am−1

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