Ship Construction: Student Notes

Introduction: Stresses

Note: This topic is not included in the syllabus, but lays the foundation
for understanding Ship Construction.
 Tension Bending

Shearing

Compression

Stress is load on a material or structure.

Excessive stress may cause deformation called Strain

Types of Stress
Forces to which a ship is subjected (2) Local those affecting a particular part of the ship.

A ship at sea is subjected to a number of forces causing

the structure to distort. These may be divided into two
categories, as follows:

(1) Static forces Ship floating at rest in still water. Two

forces acting, (a) weight of ship acting vertically
downward and (b) water pressure acting
perpendicular to outside surface of hull.

(2) Dynamic forces Ship in motion.

When these motions are large then very large forces
may be generated. These forces are often of a local
nature, e.g. heavy pitching resulting in pounding
forward, but they are liable to cause the structure to
vibrate and thus transmit the stresses to other parts of
the structure.

These forces produce stresses in the ship's structure

which may be divided into two categories, as follows:
(1) Global those affecting the whole ship.
Stresses to which a ship is subjected curves up and the ends sag down due to waves or
unequal distribution of weight.
Global stresses ii) Sagging. The centre of the ships sags or
(a) Longitudinal stresses in still water. Although the droops while the ends of the ship curve upwards due to
upthrust (buoyancy) is equal to the weight of the ship waves or unequal distribution of weight.
the distribution of weight and buoyancy is not uniform Other forces which produce global stresses are:
throughout the length of the ship and differences (load) (d) Racking. When a ship is rolling the accelerations on
occur throughout the length, giving rise to tensile and the ship's structure are liable to cause distortion in the
compressive stresses away from the neutral axis. transverse section. The greatest effect is under light ship
(b) Longitudinal stresses in a seaway causing hogging conditions.
and sagging. When the ship is amongst waves the (e) Torsion. A ship traversing a wave train at an angle
weight distribution remains unchanged but the will be subject to righting moments of opposite
distribution of buoyancy is altered. directions at its ends. The hull is subject to a twisting
(c) Shearing stresses. The longitudinal stresses imposed moment (torque) and the structure is in 'torsion'. The
by the weight and buoyancy distribution can give rise to greatest effect occurs with decks having large openings.
longitudinal shearing stresses. The maximum (f) Water pressure. Water pressure acts perpendicular
longitudinal shearing stress occurs at the neutral axis to the surface and increases with depth. The effect of
and decreases to a minimum at the deck and keel. water pressure is to push in the ship's sides and push up
Vertical shearing stresses also occur as the result of the the ship's bottom.
non-uniform longitudinal distribution of weight and
buoyancy.
i) Hogging. The centre of the ship or keel
Stresses to which a ship is subjected condition.
(c) Local loading: Localized heavy weights e.g
(g) Drydocking. In drydock there is a tendency to set up machinery, or localized loading of heavy cargo e.g.
the ship's keel due to the upthrust of the supporting ore may give rise to localized distortion of the
keel blocks resulting in a change in the shape of the transverse section.
transverse section. (d) The ends of superstructures These may represent
major discontinuities in the ship's structure giving
Local stresses rise to localized stresses which may result in
(a) Panting: This is a stress which occurs at the ends of cracking.
a ship due to variations in water pressure on the (e) Deck openings Holes cut in the deck plating, e.g.
shell plating as the ship pitches in a seaway. The hatchways, masts, etc. create areas of high local
effect is accentuated at the bow when making stress due to the lack of continuity (of structure)
headway. created by the opening
(b) Pounding: Heavy pitching assisted by heaving as the
whole ship is lifted in a seaway may subject the
forepart to severe impact from the sea. The greatest
effect is experienced in the light ship condition. To
compensate for this the bottom over 30% forward is
additionally strengthened in ships exceeding 65 m in
length and in which the the minimum draught
forward is less than 0.045L in any operating
 Hogging Sagging

Racking

Stresses on Ships: Water Pressure Panting

Pounding Dry Docking

Stresses on Ships: Torsion
 1. Frames, Beams and Beam Knees

Lecture Hours: 5
Weightage: upto 10 marks - Q.1. (a) 5 marks (theoretical)
Q.2. (a) / (b) 5 marks (sketch & label)
 Transverse Framing System
• The keel is connected to floors, which are connected to transverse frames, which run around the
inside of the vessel.
• Smaller vessels tend to have a small amount of longitudinal structure, and lots of transverse
structure.
• This is known as a transverse framing system, and allows a lot of internal space for cargo.
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 Longitudinal Framing System
• In larger vessels, more longitudinal structure is required.
• The transverse frames are spaced further apart, with larger, web frames, every few frames.
• This is known as a longitudinal framing system.
• Longitudinal framing systems give excellent longitudinal strength, but take up more internal volume
than transverse systems.
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 Combination Framing System
• Large vessels need the longitudinal strength of a longitudinal framing system but the internal volume
of a transverse system.
• To get around this, most vessels use a combination framing system.
• This uses a longitudinal structure along the keel and the deck, and a transverse system around the
sides.
• This gives the best mix of space and strength.
• The longitudinal structure takes the tension and compression caused by hogging and sagging.
• The transverse structure takes the loads caused by racking and hydrostatic pressure.
• The transverse frames also support the shell plating.
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Midship section – transversely framed ship

hatch coaming
hatch opening
hatch side girder

tween deck

beam knee

lower hold

side frame

bracket
manhole

centreline girder side girder

 Midship section – Compositely framed bulk carrier

hatch coaming
hatch side girder
hatch opening upper hopper tank

beam knee

Cargo Hold
side frame

bracket

web frame

side girder lower hopper tank

longitudnals

centreline girder
Midship section – Longitudinally framed tanker
Transverse Framing Longitudinal Framing
• Good at bearing racking stresses on the • Longitudinals make up the primary
vessel. strengthening. To maintain transverse
strength, frames are placed at regular
• Used where longitudinal strength is less
important i.e. hogging and sagging stresses intervals.
are not large. • Consists of longitudinal frames at the bottom,
sides and decks, supported by widely spaced
• Advantage is that it is relatively easier to
build. transverse web frames, called 'transverses'.

• Has greater space for carriage of cargo. • Advantage - It gives great longitudinal
strength and is widely used for oil-tankers and
• Disadvantage – not good at taking other types of bulk carriers.
longitudinal stresses.
• Disadvantage – large transverses required to
support longitudinals reduce bale capacity of
holds.
Combination Framing Cantilever Framing
• Contains features of both Longitudinal and • Developed for some modern types of ship,
Transverse framing systems. Longitudinals are which have very long and wide hatchways.
used in the bottom and under the strength
decks where longitudinal strength is required. • In these ships, there is too little left of the decks
and beams to give the necessary strength to
• Widely used framing system. resist longitudinal and transverse stresses; so
the strength has to be made up in other ways.
• Transverse frames are fitted on the ship's side,
where the longitudinal stresses are smaller. • Transverse strength is maintained by using very
strong hatch end beams wherever possible and
• Plate floors and heavy transverse beams are by fitting special web frames, called 'cantilevers',
fitted at intervals to give transverse strength and at frequent intervals abreast of the hatchways.
to support the longitudinals.
• To give longitudinal strength, the sheerstrake
and deck stringer plate are much heavier than
normal; whilst the hatch side coamings are extra
deep and are often made continuous
throughout the ship.
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Beam
Knee

Beams

Longitudinal Beams Transverse Beams

Beams
Transverse beams have two main functions: (i). to tie the sides of the ship together and (ii). to support the deck
against water pressure and the weight of cargo.
Longitudinal beams also contribute to the ship's longitudinal strength.

Beam Knees
These are used to connect beams to frames. There are various types, but for connecting frames to ordinary
transverse beams, the 'plate bracket knee' is used almost exclusively.
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Frames
 General Cargo Ship Construction
• The structure is a combination system, with tween decks supported by pillars.
• Openings in the deck for hatches create local areas of high stress.
 Plating
• The job of the shell plating is to resist hydrostatic pressure and keep the inside of the vessel dry.
• The plating must be designed to be both strong enough the resist the loads, and strong enough not
to deform.
• Making the plate strong enough to take the loads without breaking is simple, but it will deform.
• To make solid plate strong enough not to deform, the thickness of the plate must be so much that it
is extremely heavy.
• To get around this, thinner plates are fitted with stiffeners (also known as stringers).
• This makes the plate both strong enough and rigid enough.
 Basic Hull Structure
• All of these components looked at so far can be can be put together to form a very basic hull cross
section.
• The longitudinal structure takes up the torsion, hogging and sagging loads.
• The transverse structure takes up the racking and hydrostatic pressure.
• The plating keeps the interior of the ship dry.
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Questions:
1. Write short notes (with sketches where necessary) on: a) Longitudinal framing b) Composite Framing
c) Transverse framing
2. Explain what is meant by longitudinal framing and transverse framing. Which types of ships would
have these methods of construction?
3. Define (sketch where applicable): a) longitudinal b) floor c) frame d) tankside bracket e) strake f)
outer bottom longitudinals g) tanktop longitudinals h) beam knee i) bracket
 2. Watertight Bulkheads

Lecture Hours: 5
Weightage: upto 10 marks - Q.1. (a) 5 marks (theoretical)
Q.2. (a) / (b) 5 marks (sketch & label)
Watertight Bulkheads bulkheads is below Rule number.

Transverse watertight bulkheads divide a ship into a The spacing of additional bulkheads in passenger ships is
number of watertight compartments. They are of great dictated by the damage subdivision requirements of
importance for the following reasons: SOLAS. Many bulk carriers which have reduced freeboards
(1) Strength: they give large structural support, resist any assigned under the International Load Line Convention
tendency to deformation (racking) and assist in spreading have hold bulkhead spacing which is dictated by
the hull stresses over a large area. subdivision requirements.
(2) Fire: confines fire to particular regions.
(3) Subdivision: divides a ship into a number of watertight All watertight bulkheads are to extend to the uppermost
compartments. continuous deck, except for the afterpeak bulkhead which
may terminate at the first deck above the load waterline
All ships are to have a collision bulkhead, situated not less provided this deck is made watertight to the stern or to a
than O.05L nor more than O.08L for cargo ships (O.O5L + 3 watertight transom floor.
m for passenger ships) from the fore end of the load
waterline, an after peak bulkhead enclosing the stern However, where the freeboard is measured from the
tubes in a watertight compartment and a bulkhead at each second deck, watertight bulkheads need only be taken up
end of the machinery space. to that deck, except the collision bulkhead which is
maintained to the uppermost continuous deck.
Additional watertight bulkheads are to be fitted in cargo
ships depending on the length of the ship. Structural
compensation is to be made where the number of
Watertight Bulkheads shape and such bulkheads afford a considerable saving in
welding, are less susceptible to corrosion and provide
The thickness of bulkhead plating is greater at the bottom easier tank cleaning.
than the top as it depends on the head of water that the
horizontal strakes of plating would be subject to if the Superstructure bulkheads are occasionally swedged, the
compartment was flooded. It also depends on the spacing spacing of the vertical swedges being similar to that of
of the vertical stiffeners whose sectional modulus stiffeners.
increases with unsupported length of span and depth of
bulkhead. The scantlings of the fore peak bulkhead are Testing
greater than those of the other watertight bulkheads. Watertight bulkheads including recesses and flats are to be
hose-tested on completion. Peak bulkheads not forming
If there are openings in watertight bulkheads, watertight boundaries of tanks are to be tested by filling peaks with
doors with suitable framing must be fitted, and additional water to the level of the load waterline.
stiffening in way of the doors must be fitted so that
strength is the same as that of the unpierced bulkhead.
Pipes and valves attached directly to the bulkhead plating
are to be secured by studs screwed through the plating or
by welding.

Corrugated plating is frequently used for bulkheads,

particularly in tankers, bulk carriers and tank spaces of
other ships. The corrugations are usually trapezoidal in
Watertight Bulkhead
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UPPER DECK

BULKHEAD

TWEEN DECK

DECK GIRDER

BULK HEAD

STIFFENERS

INNER BOTTOM
WATER TIGHT FLOOR

OUTER BOTTOM

Watertight Bulkhead
 Corrugated
Transverse Bulkhead
Shedder Plate
Shedder Plate
Bulkhead stool

Tank top Bulkhead stool

Transverse
Bottom shell floor

Corrugated Bulkhead
Questions:
1. Sketch a transverse corrugated bulkhead showing its connection to the tank top.
2. Give five functions of watertight bulkhead?
3. Write short notes on corrugated bulkhead.
4. Discuss the following:
a. The importance that transverse water-tight bulkheads play in the construction of the ship.
b. Construction and advantages of corrugated bulkheads.
5. Sketch and label a watertight bulkhead showing how it may be stiffened.
6. Sketch a plain bulkhead, showing connections to deck, sides and double bottom and the
arrangements of stiffeners.
7. Differentiate between corrugated and swedged bulkheads.
8. Sketch a transverse corrugated bulkhead. What kind of corrugation do they have whether horizontal
or vertical and why?
9. List the advantages of corrugate bulkhead as compared to normal flat plate bulkhead.
10. Why must a ship have a collision bulkhead?
 3. i. Bilge Keels
ii. Double Bottom Tanks
iii. Peak Tanks
iv. Side, Wing Tanks & Bilges

Lecture Hours: 10
Weightage: upto 15 marks - Q.1. (b) 5 marks (theoretical)
Q.3. (a) 10 marks (sketch & label)
Bilge Keel
BILGE KEELS
Purpose: To dampen rolling of the ship.

Position: They should always lie within the line of the

ship's side and that of the bottom of the floors in order
to avoid damage.

Construction: Damage to the bilge keel should not

result in damage to the hull. Bilge keels are usually
attached to a continuous flat bar, welded to the shell
plating. The keel may be attached to the hull by
intermittent welds, and is often scalloped
throughout its length, so that the welds will part
comparatively easily and will leave the hull
undamaged.
The ends of bilge keels tend to produce stress
concentrations which can cause the bilge plating to
crack. To prevent this, the ends of the bilge keel are
tapered-off gradually and should end over a floor or
tank side bracket; a doubling plate is welded to the
bilge plating at the ends.
Bilge Keel
Bilge Keel
Questions:
1. Sketch and describe Bilge Keel. What is the function of the bilge keel? Why is the Bilge Keel not
directly welded onto the hull?
2. Answer the following
a) Describe the method of attachment of the bilge keels
b) Why does the bilge keel not extend the entire length of the ship?
c) How does it prevent rolling?
Double Bottom Construction
Double bottom construction bottom and
e) for the forward 0.25L for pounding.
Double bottom tanks: 2. Elsewhere - spacing not to exceed 3 m with
1. Provide protection for the cargo area bracket floors at the remaining frames.
2. Used for ballast to increase stability 3. Side girders are to be fitted between the centre
3. Increases GM by lowering KG girder and margin plate. If the beam is more than
4. Used to correct list and trim of ship 10 m but not more than 20 m, one side girder; for
5. Used to compensate for hogging and sagging stresses. a beam over 20 m, two side girders. Additional
side girders are provided in the engine room and
Framing within the double bottom is to be either pounding region.
longitudinal or transverse. The framing must be 4. The unsupported span of the frames in bracket
longitudinal in ships over 120 m in length and when the floors is not to exceed 2.5 m.
notation 'Heavy Cargoes' is assigned. 5. Breadth of brackets attaching the frames to the
centre girder and margin plate is to be 75% of the
Transverse framing – requirements: depth of the centre girder. The brackets are to be
1. Plate floors at every frame in the flanged on their unsupported edge.
a) engine room,
b) under boilers,
c) under bulkheads and toes of brackets to
deep tank stiffeners,
d) in way of change of depth in the double
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Cellular Double Bottoms

Double bottom construction side girders. Additional side girders are provided in the
engine room and pounding region.
Longitudinal framing - requirements 7. When the notation 'Heavy Cargoes' applies, spacing of
1. Plate floors at every frame side girders is not to exceed 3.7 m.
a) under the main engines and 8. Where L exceeds 215 m the bottom longitudinals
b) foremost shaft bearing, and at alternate frames should be continuous through the transverse
c) outboard of the engine seating, also bulkheads.
d) under boiler seats,
e) bulkheads and General: Sufficient holes are to be cut in the inner bottom
f) toes of brackets to deep tank stiffeners. non-watertight/non-oiltight floors and side girders to
2. Elsewhere, spacing not to exceed 3.8 m provide adequate ventilation and access. Their size should
3. Pounding region and where 'Heavy Cargoes' is not exceed 50% depth of the double bottom and they
assigned maximum spacing is to be 2.5 m. should be circular or eliptical in shape.
4. Between plate floors transverse brackets are to be
fitted extending from the centre girder and margin
plate to the adjacent longitudinal.
5. Brackets are to be fitted at each frame at the margin
plate and not more than 1.25 m apart at centre girder.
6. Side girders are to be fitted between the centre girder
and margin. For a beam more than 14 m but not more
than 21 m, one side girder; for a beam over 21 m, two
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Cellular Double Bottoms

 Cellular Double Bottoms
Note: For exam purposes sectional view above of double bottom is sufficient. Diagrams on following pages are for better understanding only
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Cellular Double Bottoms – Arrangement at Bilge

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Cellular Double Bottoms – Arrangement at Bilge

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Questions:
1. Sketch and label transversely framed double bottom. What are the uses of double bottom tanks?
2. Sketch and label longitudinally framed double bottom. What are the uses of double bottom tanks?
3. With the help of a neat sketch compare transversely framed and longitudinally framed double
bottoms.
4. Draw a neat diagram and label all the parts of a longitudinally framed double bottom showing the
transverse section by way of plate floor of a modern dry cargo ship.
5. Explain the following: a. Girders b. Floors c. Different types of framing.
6. What are the various stresses encountered by a vessel in a seaway? What structural members
provide: a. Longitudinal strength b. Transverse strength.
7. Differentiate between: a. Girder and beam b. Bracket floor and plate floor.
Peak Tanks
 Peaks are those parts of the ship's hull which are Panting Arrangements in Fore Peaks
forward of the collision bulkhead (the fore peak); or abaft Tiers of panting beams are fitted forward of the collision
the after peak bulkhead. They are usually constructed so bulkhead, below the lowest deck.
that their lower part forms a tank, which is known as a These are similar to ordinary deck beams and are
'peak tank'. connected to the frames by beam knees but are only fitted
at alternate frames.
Forepeak Tank: The tiers of beams are spaced 2.0 metres apart vertically
The cellular double bottom and the longitudinal frames, if and must be supported by wash plates or pillars. Panting
these are fitted, usually extend only from the after peak stringers, similar to ordinary deck stringers, are laid on
bulkhead to the collision bulkhead. Beyond this, in the each tier of beams to stiffen the joint between each beam
peaks, a system of deep 'open floors' is fitted with and the inner edge of the stringer, the plate edge may be
transverse frames and beams. shaped, or gussets fitted.
The floors extend in one piece from side to side of the ship At intermediate frames, where no beam is fitted, the
and are stiffened by a flange or a face bar on their upper stringer is supported by a beam knee of half its depth. At
edges. their fore ends, the stringers are joined by flat plates,
The centre girder is made intercostal between the floors, called breasthooks.
but usually only extends for a few frame spaces into the
peak. After Peaks:
Beyond this the hull usually becomes so narrow that there These are constructed in the same way as fore peaks,
is no further need for a centre girder. except that the tiers of panting beams may be 2.5 metres
Special strengthening is required in peaks to enable the apart vertically. The plates joining the ends of the panting
shell plating to resist panting stresses. stingers are called 'crutches' at this end of the ship.
Pounding & Slamming
Describe Pounding Stresses. How are they overcome?
Heavy pitching assisted by heaving as the whole ship
is lifted in a seaway may subject the forepart to
severe impact from the sea. The greatest effect is
experienced in the light ship condition. To compensate
for this the bottom over 30% forward is additionally
strengthened in ships exceeding 65 m in length and in
which the minimum draught forward is less than
0.045L in any operating condition.

Bottom framed - longitudinally

Where the minimum draught forward is less than
0.04L in any operating condition, plate floors are to be
fitted at alternate frames and side girders fitted at a
maximum spacing of three times the floor spacing. If
the minimum draught forward is between 0.04L and
0.045L, plate foors are to be fitted at every third frame
and side girders fitted at a maximum spacing of four
times the floor spacing.
Pounding & Slamming
Bottom framed - transversely
Plate floors are to be fi ed at every frame and side
girders are to be fitted at a maximum spacing of three
times the floor spacing. Half height side girders are to
be provided midway between the full height side
girders.
Panting
Describe Panting Stresses.
This is a stress which occurs at the ends of a ship due
to variations in water pressure on the shell plating as
the ship pitches in a seaway. The effect is accentuated
at the bow when making headway.
How are they overcome?
Additional strengthening is provided in the
forepeak structure, the transverse side framing being
supported by any, or a combination, of the following
arrangements:
(i) Panting stringers spaced vertically 2 m apart
and supported by 'panting beams' fitted at alternate
frames. These 'panting beams' are connected to the
frames by brackets and, if long, supported by a partial
wash bulkhead at the centreline; or
(ii) side stringers spaced vertically about 2 m
apart and supported by web frames; or
Panting
(iii) perforated flats spaced not more than 2.5 m
apart. The area of perforations being not more than
10% of the total area of the flat.
Aba the forepeak, pan ng stringers are fitted in line
with each panting stringer or perforated flat in the
forepeak extending back over a distance of 0.15L from
forward. These stringers may be omitted if the side
shell plating thickness is increased by 15% for ships of
150 m in length or less, or 5% for ships of 215 m
length or more, with intermediate length reductions
being determined by interpolation.
Panting Arrangements
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Forepeak Tank
 Bulbous Bow Structure
• The bulbous bow structure must resist the same type loads as a fine bow, however these may be
larger on a bulbous bow.
• Again the structure is built onto the collision bulkhead, which is itself attached to the keel and all the
longitudinal structure.
• The structure is basically a mesh of transverse and longitudinal plates and frames designed to
produce a very strong, light structure.
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 Basic Stern Structure
• The stern structure must resist a range of loads.
• The propeller itself is heavy, and must be supported, as must the rudder.
• The rudder creates significant loads in turning which must be transmitted to the ship.
• The stern must also take pounding loads in head and following seas, pressure pulsing from the
propeller and grounding/ dry docking forces.
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Side, Wing Tanks & Bilges
Wing Tanks – Tanker
 Side tank – Bulk carrier

hatch side girder

upper hopper tank

longitudnals

web frame

side girder

lower hopper tank

centreline girder
 Bilge

Bilge – 1. The intersection of bottom and side.

2. The lower parts of holds and machinery spaces where bilge water may accumulate.
The purpose of the bilges are to collect oil and water mixture in the machinery space and water in the
form of ship and cargo sweat in the cargo holds. The bilges can then be either pumped to a holding tank
or overboard in accordance with MARPOL regulations.
Bilge Well
Deep Tanks Bulkhead thickness is thus increased with an increase in
depth. To provide the greater rigidity the vertical stiffeners
Deep Tanks Deep tanks were often to provide ballast are of heavier scantlings and more closely spaced.
capacity, improving the draft when the ship was light.
These tanks were frequently used for carrying general On ships with broader beams, it may be necessary to
cargoes, and also utilized to carry liquid cargoes. partition the deep tanks with a perforated bulkhead so as
to reduce the free surface effects.
Deep tanks are subject to sloshing of liquids and are often
filled to a head, increasing the pressure on the bulkheads.
Questions:
1. With the help of a sketch, illustrate Forepeak Tank. Label the various components.
2. With the help of a sketch, illustrate Aft peak Tank. Label the various components.
3. Make a profile view of a bulk carrier showing the following: a) Collision bulkhead b) Double bottom
Tank c) Top Side tank d) E/R bulkhead e) Chain locker
4. What is panting stress? Sketch a diagram showing panting arrangements inside a forepeak tank.
5. Differentiate between panting and pounding stresses. How is the ship strengthened for panting and
pounding?
6. Sketch a plan view of forepeak tank to illustrate the construction to withstand panting stress. Also
explain the difference between panting and pounding.
7. Make a neat-labelled diagram of a typical fore peak tank, showing the principle features and their
relative positions.
8. Sketch and label wing / side tank.
9. What do you understand by bilges? Draw a diagram of the bilges.
10. Sketch and label bilge well and NRV.
 4. Deck Openings

Lecture Hours: 5
Weightage: upto 5 marks - Q.1. (b) 5 marks (theoretical)
Hatchways
Hatchways cross-sectional area of the steel is maintained.
In addition to the plating, beams will also be cut at
Hatchways in the majority of dry cargo ships extend across hatchways and the ends of the half beams will be
the deck for approximately one-third of the beam. In connected to the hatch coamings and supported by deck
special types of ship, e.g. container ships, colliers (bulk girders. The deck girders are usually integral with the hatch
carriers carrying coal) etc., much wider hatchways are coamings. At the ends of the hatchways, in the case of
fitted as will be seen from the separate cross-sections of transverse framing and at the sides in the case of
these types. longitudinal framing deep hatch end beams will be fitted
Special arrangements must be made to compensate for the to support the coamings. A pillar will often be placed near
structural discontinuity caused by these large openings; the hatch corners at the intersection of the deck girder and
insert plates of increased thickness may be required at a strong beam.
the hatch corners. The hatch coaming should be
extended beyond the corner to form a bracket. The deck
opening corners should be well-rounded to a reasonable
radius, or elliptical or parabolic in shape, to avoid a
concentration of stress at these points.
The deck plating forms an important structural member,
especially at the strength deck, in resisting longitudinal
stress, but only the plating clear of the hatches can be
considered in this respect. If hatchways are made unduly
wide, the effective width of this plating is reduced and the
thickness has to be increased in order that the
Hatchways
Hatchways
Beams at Hatch coamings
Hatch Covers before opening, and, to lower them when securing shut.

Modern steel hatch covers are fitted to cover the hatch The ‘compression bar’ is extruded on the surface of the
openings. They consists of plates stiffened by webs or hatch coaming. The underside of the hatch cover panel has
stiffeners. a recess along the rim. A rubber packing sits in this groove.
The compression bar presses into the packing when the
Securing cleats and cross joint wedges, together with hatch cover is shut, forming a weathertight seal.
suitable jointing material are fitted. The cleats are fitted to
ensure proper securing with a minimum of 2 cleats per Load bearing pads are fitted in multiple locations around
panel at each side. (The cross joints, where fitted are the hatch cover. These structures transfer the weight of the
spaced 1.5m apart.) hatch covers to the hatch coaming and the deck. They also
prevent lateral movement of the hatch covers.
Modern hatch covers open in the transverse direction,
though sometimes they may open fore and aft. They are
usually hydraulically operated.

There are roller wheels on the fore and aft end of each
hatch cover panel. The roller wheels move along a
trackway on the hatch coaming, and slide the panels open
or shut.

There is a jacking arrangement to lift the hatch covers

Steel Hatchways
Questions:
1. Sketch and describe hatchway strengthening arrangements
2. Sketch and describe steel hatch cover. How is it kept weathertight?
3. Sketch and label a typical hatchway on a modern dry cargo ship and explain how weather tightness is
achieved.
4. Draw the hatch corner of a general cargo ship showing structural strengthening arrangements.
5. Sketch the cross section of a hatch coaming fitted with roller pontoons. Show how water tight
integrity is achieved.
6. Sketch and label a hatch cover showing the various strengthening arrangements.
7. Sketch and describe a MacGregor steel hatch cover of a dry cargo ship.
Deck Openings
Portholes, Side lights or Side Scuttles

When fitted below the freeboard deck they are provided

with a steel deadlight which fastens onto a rubber gasket
to ensure water tightness in the event of the glass being
broken. They must be fitted a minimum of 0.025B mm or
500 mm, whichever is greater, above the deepest load line.

Porthole
Watertight doors
Both the hinged and vertical sliding type are shown.
Hinged watertight doors are not permitted below the
waterline. Sliding doors may be hand-operated, but in
most modern ships they are hydraulically controlled.
SOLAS requirements stipulate that they be capable of
being operated when the ship is listed 15°, and be opened
and closed from a position above the bulkhead deck or
locally. They are also to have an indicator at the above
deck operating position showing if they are open or closed.
Watertight doors for passenger ships are tested to a head
of water equivalent to their depth below the bulkhead
deck before they are installed in the ship. They and other
watertight doors are hose-tested in place.
Opening in Shell Plating
Openings on Tankers
Deep tank lid and
fastening

Tank Openings
Tank Domes
The deck of the tanker will have additional manholes.
On tankers, loading and discharging of cargo is carried out These are fitted with bolted down manhole covers. The
by means of pipelines. Hence, large openings in the deck manholes are also gastight and watertight.
such as hatchways are not required.
The manholes are not used for man entry. They are used to
Tankers are fitted with tank domes. These are circular cut lower portable tank cleaning machines, or for lowering and
outs in the deck, approximately 1.5 mtrs. In diameter. picking up equipment from the tank during man entry and
cleaning.
The opening is strengthened with the help of a coaming.
Additional strengthening of the deck may be required in
around the opening. Alternatively, the deck plating may be
thickened.

The tank dome is oiltight and gastight. This sealing is done

with the help of a neoprene rubber packing around the rim
of the tank dome. Additionally, cleats are placed around
the tank dome for tightening.

The main purpose of the tank dome is man entry for

inspection and cleaning of the tanks. Ladder rungs are
welded on the inner face of the coaming.
 SCREW DOWN ARRANGEMENT
STEEL COVER
GASKET
LOCKING PIN
SWIVEL ARRANGEMENT

STEEL COAMING
STEPS TO TANK
DECK

Oiltight Hatchway
Questions:
1. Sketch and label Manhole Cover.
2. Write short notes on:
1. Manhole Cover
2. Tank Dome
3. Watertight door
3. Sketch and describe watertight doors. Write short note on watertight doors.
4. Sketch and label watertight arrangements for tank domes in tankers.
 5. Anchor, Chain & Mooring Arrangements

Lecture Hours: 10
Weightage: upto 15 marks - Q.1. (c) 5 marks (theoretical)
Q.4. (a) or (b) 5 marks (sketch & label)
Q.5. (a) or (b) 5 marks (sketch & label)
Forward Mooring and Anchoring
The Stockless Anchor

The head of the anchor is secured to the shank by a

hinged bolt which allows the arms to form an angle of
up to 45° with the shank.

The head of the anchor is comprised of the flukes, the

arms, and the crown, which are manufactured from
cast steel, whereas the shank is made of cast steel or
forged iron.

The stockless anchor’s greatest advantage is its close

stowing properties and is easily housed in the hawse
pipe when not in use.

The overall size of these anchors will vary between

individual ship’s needs but the head must be at least CROWN
60% of the total weight of the anchor. Holding power
again varies depending on the nature of the bottom
but, as a rule of thumb, it may be considered to be up
to three times its own weight.
The Cable joining shackle which is painted red to help identify it. To
identify the cables run out, a standard method is
The anchor crown shackle is connected to the shank of employed where the number of links equal to the cable
the anchor and allows for attachment of the anchor to number, before and after the joining shackle are painted
the cable. white.

The anchor crown shackle is attached to an open end link, For example:
which is further attached to and enlarged link. For the 3rd cable, links 1, 2 & 3 before and after the
joining shackle are painted white.
The enlarged link is connected to a joining shackle. The
purpose is to easily disconnect the anchor from the cable. It is common for the paint to wear off, so as an additional
marking, the ‘nth’ link, (where n is the ‘cable’ number)
The cable consists of common links. Each length of 15 from the joining shackle, both before and after are
fathoms i.e. 27.5 mtrs. is called a ‘shot’ or a ‘cable’. marked with a canvas and seizing wire or stainless steel
band.
The ‘cables’ are attached to each other by means of a
The Kenter Lugless Joining Shackle joining shackle. In addition, all shackle lengths are the
same, which ensures smoother working in the snugs of the
The Kenter Lugless Joining Shackle, has four main parts. The gypsy. The shape of the Kenter lends itself to cable working,
two main halves interlock with the stud forming the middle especially around and over the bow, and the tendency for it
of the link. All parts are held together with a tapered spile to catch is comparatively rare.
pin. This spile pin is made of mild steel and is driven into
the shackle on the diagonal. A lead pellet is then forced into
the inverted dovetail recess to prevent the pin from
accidentally falling from the shackle.
The shackle is made from nickle steel which resists
corrosion and allows the shackle to be taken apart without
much fuss. When breaking the shackle apart, remove the
spile pin by using a punch and drift.

The construction of the Kenter shackle is such that it is

larger than the common links but not by so much that it will
not fit into the snug of the gypsy of the windlass or cable
holder.

The main advantage of this type of joining shackle is that

open end links are not required, as with the ‘D’ lugged
Anchoring Arrangements
Anchoring Arrangements
FORWARD ARRANGEMENTS
The forward arrangements are:
1) Anchoring Arrangements
2) Mooring Arrangements

Anchoring Arrangements consist of port and starboard

anchors. The anchor shank is housed within the hawse
pipe, with the flukes resting against the side shell.
The cable leads over a ‘guide roller’ to the ‘gypsy’ on
the windlass. A bow stopper is provided to secure the
anchor.
From the windlass, the anchor passes through the
spurling pipe and is stowed in the chain locker.
The bitter end is an arrangement to prevent the anchor
from running out completely. The last link of the cable
is secured with a heavy pin. The pin usually has to be
hammered open to release the cable.

The spurling pipe is covered with canvas and cement

while a sea, to prevent shipping seas into the chain
locker.

Anchoring Arrangements
FORWARD ARRANGEMENTS

Cable stopper - The purpose of the cable stopper is to

take the load of the anchor cable off the windlass when
the vessel is at anchor. It is also used to secure the
anchor when at sea.
 Brake Handle Brake Band

Gypsy

Snug
Warping Drum

Windlass
Anchor Securing
Arrangements

Anchoring Arrangements
 Bow Stopper /
Guillitone Bar /
Compression Bar
 Safety Pin Open Link Common Link

Watertight
Enclosure

Bitter End
Hawse Pipe
Hawse Pipes provide a passage for the anchor and
anchor cable to be led outboard.
The hawse pipe is a tube which leads from the
forecastle deck, and opens at the side shell. It usually
passes through the Forecastle store.
Hawse pipes are reinforced with chafing flanges to
resist wear and tear.
A system of pipes called the anchor wash is fitted into
the hawse pipe, to provide a stream of water which
washes any mud brought up by the cable.
On deck, the opening of the hawse pipe is closed with
the help of a perforated steel cover. This prevents
stowaways from boarding.

Hawse Pipe
ANCHOR TERMINOLOGY

Anchor A-Cockbill
When the anchor is hanging vertically from the hawse pipe, with the
flukes turned into the ship’s. In this position it will not stow correctly in
the hawse pipe.

Anchor Aweigh
The anchor is said to be ‘A-Weigh’at the moment it is broken out of the
ground and clear of the sea bed.

Anchor Coming Home

When the anchor is being drawn towards the ship in the operation of
heaving away, by means of the windlass or cable holder/capstan, the
anchor is said to be coming home. Instead of the ship being drawn
towards the anchor, the reverse is happening.

Anchor Dragging
The anchor is said to be dragging when it is not held in the sea bed. It is
said to bite well when it has a good hold in the ground. The vessel is
‘dragging her anchor’ if she moves her position while dragging the
anchor over the sea bed.
ANCHOR TERMINOLOGY

Brought Up
A vessel is said to be brought up when her way has stopped and she is
riding to her anchor, with the anchor holding. The terms ‘come to’ and
‘got her cable’ are sometimes used to mean the same thing. The officer
in charge of an anchor party will know when the vessel is brought up, by
the cable rising up from the surface towards the hawse pipe when the
brake is holding it. The vessel should then move towards the anchor,
causing the cable to drop back and make a catenary.

Foul Anchor
The term used to describe the anchor when it has become caught on an
underwater obstruction. The flukes of the anchor often become fouled
by an old hawser or cable, obstructing its normal use.

Foul Hawse
This term is used to describe the crossing of the anchor cables, when
both cables are being used at the same time, as with a running,
standing or open moor, owing to the uncontrolled swinging of the vessel
when anchored with both anchors (moored).
ANCHOR TERMINOLOGY
Hove in Sight
Grow When the anchor is hove home, it is ‘sighted and clear’
The cable is said to grow when the exposed part of the at the point when the anchor crown shackle breaks the
chain above the surface, is seen to expand towards the surface of the water. A prudent officer would not
anchor. consider that the anchor is clear until he sees that the
flukes are clear. On the same basis an officer in charge
Gypsy of an anchor party tends not to ring anchor aweigh until
The vertical wheel on the windlass which the cable he sees the anchor is hove in sight and clear.
passes over. The cable is held in the segments of the
wheel known as the ‘snug’. The gypsy is held by the Long Stay
clutch plate (when in gear) or by the brake (when about The term applicable when the cable is leading down to
to be let go). the water close to the horizontal, with weight on it. A
good length of the cable is exposed.
Hawse Pipes
The two pipes on either bow which accommodate the Short Stay
bow anchors. Some vessels may be equipped with a The cable is said to be at short stay when the anchor is
stern anchor. The term hawse pipe is in general use for hove in close to the ship’s side and not over-extended.
the stowage space for the anchors of a vessel. The cable is not up and down in this position.
ANCHOR TERMINOLOGY
Hove in Sight
Grow When the anchor is hove home, it is ‘sighted and clear’
The cable is said to grow when the exposed part of the at the point when the anchor crown shackle breaks the
chain above the surface, is seen to expand towards the surface of the water. A prudent officer would not
anchor. consider that the anchor is clear until he sees that the
flukes are clear. On the same basis an officer in charge
Gypsy of an anchor party tends not to ring anchor aweigh until
The vertical wheel on the windlass which the cable he sees the anchor is hove in sight and clear.
passes over. The cable is held in the segments of the
wheel known as the ‘snug’. The gypsy is held by the Long Stay
clutch plate (when in gear) or by the brake (when about The term applicable when the cable is leading down to
to be let go). the water close to the horizontal, with weight on it. A
good length of the cable is exposed.
Hawse Pipes
The two pipes on either bow which accommodate the Short Stay
bow anchors. Some vessels may be equipped with a The cable is said to be at short stay when the anchor is
stern anchor. The term hawse pipe is in general use for hove in close to the ship’s side and not over-extended.
the stowage space for the anchors of a vessel. The cable is not up and down in this position.
ANCHOR TERMINOLOGY or cable holder to the cable locker.

Render Cable Surge

To apply the brake lightly so that when weight comes on To allow the cable or hawser to run out under its own
the cable it will run out slowly. weight. The term is often used when handling mooring
ropes on drum ends. (You should not surge on man-made
Scope fibre ropes, because of the possibility of heat/friction
Is the name given to the amount of anchor cable payed causing the yarns/strands to fuse.)
out from the hawse pipe to the anchor crown ‘D’ shackle.
Shorten Cable Tide Rode
To heave in a portion of the cable, so reducing the scope. A vessel is said to be tide rode when she is riding at
anchor head to tide.
Snub
To snub the cable is to stop the cable running out by Up and Down
applying the brake. A vessel is said to snub round on her The cable is said to be up and down when the angle the
anchor when she checks the paying out of the cable by cable makes with the water surface is 90°, usually just
applying the brake on the windlass, so causing the cable before anchor aweigh.
to act as a spring, turning the bow smartly in the direction
of the cable. Veer Cable
To pay out cable under power, by walking back the gypsy
Spurling Pipes of the windlass.
The cable passes through these pipes from the windlass
ANCHOR TERMINOLOGY

Walk Back the Anchor

To lower the anchor under power.

Wind Rode
A vessel is said to be wind rode when she is riding at
anchor head to wind.

Yaw
A vessel is said to ‘yaw’ when at anchor when she
moves to port and starboard of the anchor position
under the influence of wind and/or tide. Yawing should
not be confused with sheering.
FORWARD ARRANGEMENTS - MOORINGS

Mooring Arrangements consist of a set of ropes or

wires for mooring the ship. The direction of the
moorings determine their purpose.
a) Headlines – Headlines typically lead 30 to 45
degrees on the bow. They help in moving the
ship forward as well as bringing the bow
towards the jetty.
b) Breastlines – Breastlines lead as close
athwartship as possible. Their purpose is to
keep the vessel alongside.
c) Forward Springs – Forward springs lead as
near astern as possible. Their purpose is to
prevent surging of the vessel.

Rollers and fairleads fitted provide flexibility in

mooring.
Forward Mooring Arrangements
Deck fittings

Mooring Bitts are attached by welding to the deck or

bolting to welded stools on the deck.

Panama Leads may be either fitted to the deck or in the

bulwark as illustrated. The bulwark plating is increased in
thickness in way of the lead.

Fairleads are of many types, they may be attached directly

to the deck or to the deck and bulwarks.

a) 'OLD MAN' OR 'DEAD MAN' is a type of fairlead used to

prevent chafing and to give a direct lead of a mooring line to
the windlass, winch or capstan.
b) MULTI ANGLE FAIRLEADS reduce the number of fairleads
required for mooring, warping, locking and docking
operations. They are typical of the type required for
operations in the St. Lawrence Seaway.
c) EYEBOLTS AND RINGBOLTS and other attachments for the use
with derrick gear etc. are welded directly to welded pads on
the deck, posts, bulwarks etc.
Rope Stopper 4) When synthetic rope stoppers are used, the material
should have a high melting point, e.g. polyester..
The purpose of the stopper is to allow the weight on a line 5) The stopper should be flexible.
to be transferred to bitts or cleats when belaying up. 6) Never use nylon stoppers on nylon ropes (polyamide).
Examples of the use of stoppers may be found when the
vessel is securing to a quay or wharf. They are used in Common Rope Stopper
conjunction with the transference of weight in the mooring
rope from the windlass drum end to the bitts (bollards). This may be used on natural fibre or synthetic fibre ropes
The stopper should be secured to the base of the bitts by a provided they are of a hawser lay. The stopper should
shackle, or around one of the bollards, so as to lead away be examined for wear and tear before use, and if there
from the direction of heaving. is any sign of deterioration, the stopper should be
renewed. The mariner should ensure that the stopper
Mooring ropes will use a rope stopper, either the ‘common is secured, then pass a half hitch against the lay of the
rope stopper’ or the ‘West Country stopper’, depending on rope; the bight of the stopper between the shackle and
the type of lay and the material of manufacture of the the half hitch should be seen to be taut. Many
mooring ropes in question. The mariner should be aware seafarers pass a double half hitch (forming the first part
that the type of rope used for the stopper is critical and of a rolling hitch), instead of just using the single half
the following points should be borne in mind: hitch. The tail of the stopper is then turned up with the
1) Use natural fibre stopper for natural fibre ropes. lay of the rope, and held while the weight is
2) Use synthetic fibre stopper for synthetic fibre ropes. transferred.
3) The stopper material should be of low stretch material.
Rope Stopper

West Country (Chinese) Stopper

This stopper is for use on man-made fibre ropes of either a
hawser or multi-plait lay. The stopper is formed of two tails
of equal length secured to the base of the bitts. The tails
should be half hitched under the mooring rope to be
stoppered off, and then criss-crossed on opposite sides
(top and bottom) of the mooring rope. It is important to
note that in the first cross of the stopper the tail nearest
the rope is with the lay. When the second cross is put in on
the reverse side of the mooring rope, this same tail is not
the tail nearest the rope. The criss-crossing of tails is
continued about five times, then the tails are twisted
together to tension up the stopper about the mooring
rope.
 Common
Rope Stopper

West Country
Rope Stopper

Rope Stoppers
Chain Stopper

The Chain Stopper

The Chain Stopper serves the same purpose as the rope

stopper, but is used for securing wires.
The chain stopper consists of a length of open link chain,
about 1.7 m, with a rope tail secured to the end link. The
chain is shackled to the base of the bitts or to a deck ring
bolt of convenient position. The stopper is passed over the
wire forming an opened cow hitch, followed by the
remainder of the chain, which is turned up against the lay.
The rope tail is also turned up in the same direction, then
held as the weight comes onto the stopper. The two half
hitches of the cow hitch are kept about 25 cm (10 in.)
apart. The mariner should be aware that a cow hitch is
used and not a clove hitch; the latter would be liable to
jam whereas the cow hitch is easily pulled loose when no
longer required. The turns of the chain are made against
the lay of the wire, so as not to open it up and cause
distortion, and also weaken the wire.
Deck Fittings
Questions:
1. Sketch an anchoring arrangement from Anchor to Chain locker and write point wise short notes on
every component of the arrangement.
2. Draw and label the anchoring arrangement on forecastle deck of a ship? Label atleast 10 items?
3. What is the purpose of a Chain Locker? Sketch and label the chain locker with bitter end.
4. Sketch and describe the construction of Hawse Pipes and Spurling Pipes. What is the securing
arrangements for anchor at sea?
5. How is water ingress into the chain locker prevented?
6. With the help of a sketch, show the typical mooring arrangements in the forecastle.
7. Sketch: i) Multi Angle fairlead ii) Mooring bitts iii) Roller Fairlead iv) Panama Lead v) Pedestal fairlead
or Old Man.
8. Describe: hawse pipe and bow stopper arrangement on the forecastle deck.
9. Describe the following and explain their function: a. Hawse pipe b. Spurling pipe c. Cable stopper
Ventilators, Air Pipes & Sounding Pipes
Ventilators, air and sounding pipes sounding pipe passes through a refrigerated compartment
where temperatures may be O°C or below the bore is not
Ventilators are necessary to give adequate air circulation to to be less than 65 mm. Striking plates of adequate
under deck spaces, accommodation and tanks. The thickness and size are to be fitted under open-ended
coamings of ventilators are to have a minimum height sounding pipes.
above the weather deck of 900 mm in Position 1 and 760
mm in Position 2*. Where the coamings exceed 900 mm in *Position 1 Hatchways on exposed freeboard decks, and exposed
height they are to be specially stayed. All ventilators are to superstructure decks within forward 0.25L.
Position 2 Hatchways on exposed superstructure decks abaft 0.25L
be provided with means of closing unless the height of the
coaming exceeds 4.5 m in Position 1 and 2.3 m in Position
2. Special care is to be taken when designing and
positioning ventilator openings, particularly in regions of
high stress concentration. Mushroom, gooseneck and
other minor ventilators are to be strongly constructed and
efficiently secured to the deck. Goose or swan neck type
ventilators are mainly used for air pipes to tanks. The
height (H) shown is not to be less than 760 mm on the
freeboard deck and 450 mm on the superstructure deck.
Air pipes are to be fitted at the opposite end of the tank to
that at which the filling pipe is placed and/or at the highest
point of the tank. Sounding pipes are to be as straight as
possible and to have a bore not less than 32 mm. Where a
 COWL VENTILATOR GOOSENECK PIPE

Ventilators, Air Pipes & Sounding Pipes

Ventilators, Air Pipes & Sounding Pipes
Ventilators, Air Pipes & Sounding Pipes
 Ballast Tank Airpipe
with buoyant float

Ventilators, Air Pipes & Sounding Pipes

Questions:
1. Sketch Open Ended and Close Ended sounding pipes and explain the functions of Deck Insert and
Striking Plate.
2. Sketch and label: i) air pipe ii) Cowl Ventilator iii) Mushroom ventilator iv) Striking plate v) Swan neck
air pipe.
3. Describe: double bottom ballast tank air pipe and sounding pipe arrangement.
Piping & Pumping arrangements
Bilge and ballast piping to protect the pumps.
Strum boxes are fitted to the ends of suction bilge lines in
Bilge pumping and piping arrangements in every cargo ship cargo holds. These strum boxes have perforations not
should, in general, be capable of discharging water from more than 10 mm diameter with a total area of at least
any compartment when the ship is on an even keel or twice that required for the bore of the suction pipe. It
listed not more than 5° either way. In the machinery should be possible to clear the strums without breaking
spaces, additional arrangements are required so that any any joint in a suction pipe.
water may be discharged through at least two bilge Not less than two power-operated bilge pumps are to be
suctions, one connected to the bilge main and one to an provided for cargo ships, one of which may be operated by
independent pump or ejector. An emergency suction must the main engines.
also be provided with a connection to the main circulating An arrangement of piping and pumps in an engine room is
water pump in the case of a steam ship or to the main shown in the diagram. The bilge system is only designed to
cooling water pump in the case of a motor ship. discharge overboard, but the ballast system is capable of
Bilge and ballast lines may be constructed of cast iron, discharging overboard, running up tanks by gravity and if
steel, copper or other approved material. Heat-sensitive necessary, pumping up tanks.
materials such as lead must not be used. The size of The forepeak tank has to have a screw down valve
bilge lines is determined by a formula depending on the operated from above the bulkhead deck. This valve is to be
main dimensions of the ship but is never to be less than 50 inside the tank.
mm bore. Provision for expansion is made in the form
of expansion bends or glands. Screw down non-return
valves must be provided on bilge lines, and mud boxes are
provided on the suction bilge lines from machinery spaces
 Strum Box

Pumping & Piping

Bilge Well
Tanker Pipelines circumvent. Also, the washing is more difficult since there
is no circular system and the washings must be flushed into
There are three basic types of pipeline systems: the tanks.
1. Direct system
2. Ring main system The advantages are that:
3. Free flow system. 1. it is easy to operate and less training of personnel is
required
Each system has their uses and is designed to fulfil a need 2. as there are fewer valves it takes less time to set up the
in a particular type of vessel. valve system before commencing a cargo operation
3. contamination is unlikely, as it is easy to isolate each
The Direct System section.

This is the simplest type of pipeline system which uses The disadvantages are that:
fewer valves than the others. It takes oil directly from the 1. it is a very inflexible system which makes it difficult to
tank to the pump and so reduces friction. This has an affect plan for a multiport discharge
of increasing the rate of discharge, at the same time 2. block stowage has to be used which makes it difficult to
improving the tank suction. It is cheaper to install and control ‘trim’
maintain than the ring main system because there is less 3. carrying multiple parcels concurrently can be difficult.
pipeline length and with fewer valves less likelihood of
malfunction. However, the layout is not as versatile as a
ring main system and problems in the event of faulty
valves or leaking pipelines could prove more difficult to
The Ring Main System 2. contamination is far more likely if valves are incorrectly
set
This is basically a ring from the pump room around the 3. fairly low pumping rates are achieved
ship, with crossover lines at each set of tanks. There are 4. costs of installation and maintenance are higher
various designs usually involving more than one ring. It is because of more pipeline and an increased number of
extensively employed on ‘product tankers’ where the valves.
system allows many grades of cargo to be carried without
contamination. This is a highly versatile system which
permits several different combinations of pump and line
for any particular tank.

The advantages of the system are that:

1. cargoes can be more easily split into smaller units and
placed in various parts of the ship
2. line washing is more complete
3. a greater number of different parcels of cargo can be
carried
4. trim and stress can be more easily controlled.

The disadvantages are that:

1. because of the more complicated pipeline and valve
layout, better training in cargo separation is required
The Free Flow System

The ‘free flow system’ employs sluice valves in the tank

bulkheads rather than pipelines. With a stern trim this
system can discharge all the cargo from the aftermost tank
via direct lines to the pump room. The result is that a very
high speed of discharge can be achieved and as such is
suitable for large crude carriers with a single grade cargo.
Tank drainage is also very efficient since the bulkhead
valves allow the oil to flow aft easily. There are fewer tanks
with this system and it has increased numbers of sluice
valves the farther aft you go. The increased number of
sluices is a feature to handle the increased volume being
allowed to pass from one tank to another. The main
advantage is that a very high rate of discharge is possible
with few pipelines and limited losses to friction. The main
disadvantage is that overflows are possible if the cargo
levels in all tanks are not carefully monitored
Bulwark and Guard Rails considerable stress with the subsequent fracture. This
would create a notch at the sheerstrake and might give rise
Bulwarks and guard rails are fitted for the safety of the to a serious structural failure. Bulwarks are not to be
crew and play no part in the structural strength of the ship. welded to the top edge of the sheerstrake within O.5L
They are at least 1 m high and plated bulwarks are amidships.
stiffened by a strong top rail section and supported by Where guard rails are fitted they are to consist of courses
stays from the deck. Spacing of the stays is maximum 1.2 m of rails supported by stanchions efficiently secured to the
on the forecastle decks of tankers and bulk carriers with deck. The opening between the lowest course of rails
reduced freeboards. On other decks and on other ships the and the deck is not to exceed 230 mm in height and above
spacing is maximum 1.83 m. The thickness of bulwarks is that course openings are not to exceed 380 mm in height.
increased in way of mooring fittings, eye plates etc. Where the ship has a rounded gunwale the stanchions are
Where bulwarks form wells, provision is made for freeing to be secured at the perimeter of the flat of the deck.
the decks of water. Bulwarks must be provided with
'freeing ports'. The lower edge of the freeing port is to be Scuppers: Sufficient scuppers are fitted in all decks to give
as near to the deck as possible and the openings are to be effective drainage. Those draining open decks above the
protected by rails spaced approximately 230 mm apart. If freeboard deck are led directly overboard. Scuppers from
hinged doors or shutters are fitted to freeing ports they decks below the freeboard deck are led to the bilges or
must have ample clearance to prevent jamming and the they may be led overboard if above the waterline and
pins or bearings are to be of non-corrodible material. fitted with appropriate non-return valves.
If the construction of bulwarks was made integral with the
sheerstrake then the light plating of the bulwarks (being
further from the neutral axis) would be subjected to
 Storm Valve

Bulwark, Scupper & Rails

Questions:
1. Describe the pumping arrangement on tankers.
2. Sketch and describe the direct pipeline system on tankers
3. Sketch and describe the ring main pipeline system on tankers
4. Sketch and describe the free flow pipeline system on tankers
5. Compare the direct and ring main pipeline systems on tankers.
6. What is a strum box? Where is it fitted?
7. With a neat sketch, show a typical Bilge and Ballast Pumping line.
8. Draw neat diagram and describe: i) Storm valve ii) Strum box iii) Scupper iv) Bulwark v) Railing vi)
freeing ports.
9. Draw and describe the bilge pumping system of a general cargo ship.
10. Describe with a sketch the bilge pumping arrangements of a bulk carrier with seven holds and
engine room aft.
Special Doors on Cargo Vessels
Stern door and ramp
Many roll on/roll off ships only have stern doors and
ramps. The ramp provides access to and from the vessel.
The slope and the angle can usually be adjusted so that it
sits properly on the jetty. The arrangements vary
depending on the nature of the service being operated.
The stern the ramp when in the raised position usually
forms the watertight closure. The stern ramp is operated
either by winches and wires or by hydraulic rams. In the
closed position it is cleated in place to secure it.

Bow door and ramp

Many roll on/roll off ships only have bow doors and ramps.
The ramp provides access to and from the vessel. When a
bow ramp is used, a separate watertight door is fitted as
shown in the diagram. The bow door has to be opened to
give access to the ramp. The bow door and ramp are
usually hydraulically operated.
Side door and ramp
Some roll on/roll off ships have side doors in addition to
the stern door. Like the stern door, the side door and ramp
are usually one and the same. In the closed position, the
side door is cleated shut and made watertight. The side
door can be adjusted for slope but not for angle.
Cargo doors
Cargo doors are fitted in certain trades to provide access to
tween deck spaces, e.g. direct loading by fork lift truck
from the quay into the tween deck.
Openings are cut in the side shell plating and arrange-
ments must be made to maintain the strength, particularly
in a longitudinal direction. The corners of all openings
are to be well-rounded to avoid stress concentrations.
Illustrated are:
(1) A cargo port, manually operated, secured by closely
spaced dogs or bolts. This arrangement is typical of the
type fitted to facilitate the loading of stores etc.
(2) A patent hydraulically operated sliding door shown in
the open and closed positions. This type is simple and fast
to operate and is self closing since the door is forced
against the perimeter of the opening door to the eccentric
path of its guide rollers.
(3) A swing door. This type of door may be fitted at the
sides of the ship to give access to the tween deck or at the
stern to give access for vehicles e.g. Ro-Ro ships.
Rudders, Rudder Trunk and Rudder Carrier.
Rudders gudgeons or bearing housings of the rudder. The upper
face of the rudder is usually formed into a horizontal palm
The rudder is used to steer the ship. The turning action is that acts as the coupling point of the rudderstock. Every
largely dependent on the area of the rudder, which is rudder is air tested to a pressure equivalent to a head of
usually of the order of one-sixtieth to one-seventieth of 2.45m above the top of the rudder in order to check its
the product of the length and the breadth of the ship. The watertight integrity. The internal surfaces of the rudder are
ratio of the depth to width of a rudder is known as the coated with bitumen or similar paint to prevent rusting. A
aspect ratio and is usually in the region of 2. drain hole is provided at the bottom of the rudder.
Streamlined rudders of a double-plate construction are
fitted to all modern ships and are further described by the
arrangement about their axis.
a) Unbalanced rudder is a rudder that has all of its
area aft of the turning axis.
b) Semi-balanced rudder is a rudder with a small part
of its area (about 20%) forward of the turning axis.
c) Balanced rudder is a rudder with more than 25%
of the rudder area forward of the turning axis.
This reduces the torque on the rudderstock at
certain angles.
Modern rudders are constructed with steel plate sides
welded to an internal webbed framework. Integral with
the internal framework may be heavy forgings that form
Rudders
 RUDDER STOCK

HORIZONTAL COUPLING LOCKING PINTLE

STERN FRAME

LIFTING EYE

BEARING PINTLE

DRAIN PLUG

Semi--balanced Rudder
Semi
Cast Steel Frame Welded Frame

Rudders
Rudder Trunk and Rudder Carrier A packing gland or seal is fitted where the stock enters the
hull to prevent water ingress.
Rudder Trunk: Rudder stocks are carried in the rudder
trunk, which as a rule is not made watertight at its lower
end, but a watertight gland is fitted at the top of the trunk
where the stock enters the intact hull. This trunk is kept
reasonably short so that the stock has a minimum
unsupported length, and may be constructed of plates
welded in a box form with the transom floor forming its
forward end. A small opening with water-tight cover may
be provided in one side of the trunk which allows
inspection of the stock from inside the hull in an
emergency.

Rudder Carrier: The stern frame of Semi-balanced and

balanced rudders do not have a rudder post. The weight of
the rudder is thus carried by a fitting inboard called the
rudder carrier, which carrier the weight of the rudder and
tiller. The bearing surfaces are formed by cast iron cones,
the upper cone being fitted to the rudder stock, and the
lower cone being fixed.
Rudder Trunk
Rudder Stock
Key
Gland Ring
Packing
Gunmetal Bush

Bearing Faces

Base

Deck

Rudder Carrier
with watertight arrangement
 Key

Thrust Ring
Tiller

Rudder Stock

Carrier (lower bearing)

Doubler Plate

Gland

Rudder Carrier
Questions:
1. Differentiate between Balanced/Unbalanced/Semi balanced rudders. With neat sketches illustrate
how Rudder action causes turning of the vessel.
2. Write short notes on Rudder carrier.
3. Write short notes on Rudder trunk.
4. Sketch, label and explain the purpose of rudder carrier & bearing.
5. Make a neat and labelled diagram of a semi-balanced rudder used on twin screw ships. How is it
different from balanced rudder?
6. What are the advantages of a balanced over unbalanced rudder?
Stern Frame
Stern Frame Gudgeons are forged on, or cast with the rudder post.
Bushes with brass, lignum vitae are used to reduce friction.
Stern frames may be cast, forged or fabricated from steel
plate and sections. Forged stern frames are not generally Pintles are of the same depth as the gudgeons in which
found on larger ships and for these vessels a cast stern they turn. They are sometimes fitted with liners to reduce
frame may need to be cast in more than one piece. The the wear.
castings may be welded together when erected at the
shipyard. Thermit welding is used for this purpose. Stock is connected to the rudder by either a vertical or a
horizontal coupling.
The use of a welded connection is illustrated in the figure
showing a cast stern frame and semi or balanced rudder.
All stern frames are to be efficiently attached to the
adjoining hull structure. In addition to the rudder post
being attached to the transom floor the propeller post is
also carried up into the hull and attached to a floor, and
the lower part of the stern frame is extended forward to
provide an efficient connection to the flat plate keel. The
aftermost plate of the keel, which is called the “coffin
plate” is dished around this extension. If the attachment is
not substantial, the propeller supported by the stern frame
may set up serious vibrations in this area.
Unbalanced Rudder Balanced Rudder

Stern Frame
Stern Frame

Fabricated stern frame

Many larger stern frames are fabricated with the rudder
and propeller posts built into the adjacent hull structure. A
fabricated propeller post arrangement is illustrated with
accompanying cross-sections in way of various frames.

Note: Where a balanced rudder is fitted the rudder post is omitted and the
unsupported sole piece is then required to be of a more substantial section.
Stern Frame cant beams were lugged to the transom beam.
Cruiser Sterns - Have a system of ordinary transverse
General - The upper part of the stern of a ship extends framing which is supported by an intercostal girder at the
abaft the rudder post, and there must be a special centre line. This girder has to be doubled, just abaft the
arrangement of framing to support it. transom floor, to allow the rudder stock to pass. A
This framing is mainly carried by the 'Transom', which number of 'cant frames' are fitted abaft the aftermost
consists of a deep, heavy floor, securely attached to the transverse frame.
rudder post, in association with a transverse frame and The frames are to be of the same size as bulb angle frames
beam. These are known as the 'Transom Floor', 'Transom in peaks and are to extend to the strength deck. The frame
Frame' and 'Transom Beam', respectively. spacing is not to exceed 610 millimetres.
The transom floor must have the same depth as the floors Where extra strength is required, web frames may be
in the cellular double bottom, but must be slightly thicker. required and also extra longitudinal girders to support
them.
Ordinary Sterns - These were often called 'Counter', or
'Elliptical' sterns. At one time they were used almost Transom Stern - This is similar to a cruiser stern, except
exclusively in merchant ships, but they have now been that the cant framing at the after end is omitted and is
superseded by the Cruiser Stern, or Transom Stern, and are replaced by a flat plate, called a 'transom'.
virtually obsolete for large vessels.
Ordinary sterns had a system of 'Cant Framing', which Rudder Trunk - This is often formed by carrying-up the
radiated out from the transom in much the same way as doubled centre girder to the deck above in the form of a
the spokes of a wheel. The cant frames were attached to box.
the transom floor by brackets; whilst the fore ends of the
Cruiser Stern
Stern Frame
Questions:
1. Draw transom stern showing connections to the stern frame. Describe stern frame?
2. Sketch, label and describe the stern frame of a modern cargo ship. What is the function of a stern
frame?
3. Sketch, label and describe a stern frame of a vessel fitted with a balanced rudder.
4. Sketch and label transom stern.
Propeller & Propeller Shaft
Propellers – Fixed Pitch Propeller backwards in relation to the hub.

Most propellers for sea going ships are made of copper Skew: The transverse sweeping of a blade such that
alloys because they are corrosion proof, easy to cast, viewing the blades from fore or aft shows an asymmetrical
machinable and sturdy. A propeller is like a rotating fan shape.
structure which uses the main engine power to propel the
ship. Blade Face: This is the pressure side, pitch side or after side
of the blade.
Boss: This is the solid cylinder located at the centre of the
propeller to which each propeller blade is attached. Boss Blade Tip: This is the point of maximum radius of the blade
shapes include cylindrical, conical, radius and barrelled. from the centre of the boss and is also the point of
The centre of the boss is bored to accommodate the separation between the leading and trailing edges.
engine propeller shaft.

Blades: Twisted fins or foils connected to the hub. The

shape of the blade and their speed of rotation dictates the
torque which a propeller can deliver.

Pitch: Theoretical forward movement of the propeller for

one rotation.

Rake: It is the degree that the blades slant forward or

Propellers – Controllable Pitch Propeller

These are propellers in which the blades are separately

mounted on the boss, and in which the pitch of the blades
can be changed, and even reversed, by means of a
mechanism in the boss, while the propeller is running. The
pitch is mechanically or electro-mechanically adjusted.
Propellers of this type are often found on diesel-engine
tugs and trawlers. By changing the pitch, it is possible to
stop the vessel, and even move astern without changing
the speed of the engine.
Questions:
1. Sketch a simple propeller and label the following: a) Boss b) Rake c) Skew d) Face e) Radius.
2. Write short notes on Controlled Pitch Propeller (CPP).
Stern Tube
Stern Tube

Propeller and propeller shaft

Stern Tube In a water lubricated stern tube the forward end is fitted
with a watertight gland, and the aft end is fitted with a
Stern tubes are fitted to provide for the tail end shaft and brass bush into which strips of bearing material are set.
to enable a watertight gland to be fitted at an accessible Traditionally the bearing material used was a very hard
position. wood ‘lignum vitae’ but now laminated plastics are used. A
Two types of stern tubes are in common use, one with bronze line is fitted to the tail end shaft, usually for the full
water-lubricated bearings having the aft end of the tube length of the stern tube.
open to sea and the other with oil lubricated metal
bearings. An oil lubricated stern tube has glands at both ends, the
Oil type stern tube is preferred when the machinery is aft aft gland being self adjusting since it is not accessible while
and the short shaft is to be relatively stiff and only small in service. The bearings are of white metal and a bronze
deflections are tolerated. It is also used when the ship liner is therefore unnecessary on the tail shaft.
operates in water containing sand or sediment and the The after end of the tail shaft is tapered to receive the
wear down on the non-metal bearings could be excessive. propeller boss and a key is provided to transfer the torque
The tube is usually constructed of cast steel with a flange from the shaft to the propeller. A nut fitted with a locking
at the forward end and a thread at the aft end. The tube is plate, secures the propeller in position and as an additional
inserted from the forward end and the flange is bolted to safeguard, it is fitted with a left hand thread in association
the aft peak bulkhead with a gasket to ensure water with the right hand propeller, or a right-handed thread
tightness. A large nut is placed on the thread at the aft with a left handed propeller.
end, tightened and secured to the propeller post.
 Header
Tank

Air vent

After peak bulkhead

Aft Bearing
Aft Seal Stern Tube
Forward Seal

Propeller
Shaft

Forward Bearing

Circulation Pump
Return Line

Sterntube
 Lignum vitae strips

Lignum vitae strips used as bearing

Questions:
1. Sketch, label and describe a water cooled stern tube.
2. Sketch, label and describe an oil cooled stern tube.
Riveting & Welding
Riveting

Riveting is the process of joining two parts. The process of

riveting is that a number of holes are punched in a line
near the edges of the parts to be joined, and a cylindrical
shaft with a head at one end is driven through the holes.
Stronger joints will require several rows of rivets. Each time
that a hole is punched in a plate to take a rivet, the plate is
weakened. Hence, rivets must not be too closely spaced or
the plate will be made too weak. Rivets must not be within
one diameter of the edge of the
plate, or they may tear through that edge.

On the other hand, rivets must not be too far apart, or

they will not close the work properly and will also be too
weak to stand up under stress. Where a joint is to be
caulked, the rivets must not be too far from the edge of
the plate, or the caulking may force the plate edges apart.
The rivets must also fill the holes in the plates properly, or
the joint will be weakened.
Welding & Cutting the welding rod or wire while the other is the metal to be
welded. The welding electrode and the plate are
The welding processes used in shipbuilding are of the connected to the electrical supply and a high temperature
fusion welding type. Fusion welding is achieved by means arc is created by momentarily touching the electrode onto
of a heat source which is intense enough to melt the edges the metal and then withdrawing it to create a small gap
of the material to be joined as it is traversed along the between it and the metal. The arc will melt the edges of
joint. the metal joint and the consumable welding rod or wire.
The heat source may be generated in a number of ways, Consumable manual welding rods have flux coatings which
examples are: provide inert gas shielding for the arc and molten metal.
The gas shielding consumes the surrounding atmospheric
(a) Gas welding: A gas flame was probably the first heat gases which might otherwise be absorbed by the molten
source for fusion welding, and the most commonly used metal, stabilizes the arc, and provides a protective slag for
gas is acetylene, which with oxygen produces the high the molten metal. Automatic welding processes may
temperature flame. Oxy-acetylene welding is only really employ consumable wires with an external or cored flux
suitable for thinner mild steel plate and its use in which serves the same purpose. Submerged arc welding
shipbuilding is limited to the fabrication of sheet metal where the arc is maintained within a blanket of granuIated
items like ventilation trunking, cable trays etc. and some flux is commonly used for downhand automatic welding of
plumbing work. steel in shipbuilding.

(b) Electric arc welding: An electric arc is formed when an

electric current passes between two electrodes separated
by a short distance. In electric arc welding one electrode is
Welding & Cutting

Inert gas shielded arc welding is used for welding

aluminium alloys, usually with argon as the gas, and using
a tungsten electrode for manual welding of light plate or
consumable metal wire for semi-automatic or automatic
welding of heavier plate. Mild steel inert gas shielded
welding is now also common using automatic or semi-
automatic processes with CO2 as the shielding gas.

(c) Thermit welding A combination of chemicals called the

thermit is fired producing a chemical reaction. It is
essentially a casting process and this method is mainly
used in the joining of steel castings e.g. sternframes.
Advantages of Welding over Riveting

1. The welded structures are usually lighter than the

riveted structures. This is due to the fact that in
welding gussets and other connecting components are
not used.
2. Alterations and extensions can be made to existing
structures.
3. The welded joints provide maximum efficiency (may be
100%) which is not possible in case of riveting.
4. Welded structures are smooth in appearance and are
therefore more pleasing to look at, and provide less
resistance.
5. In welded connections, tension members are not
weakened as is the case of riveting.
6. Repair to the structure is easier in the case of welded
structures.
Welding practice effectiveness of the member to be welded. Where fillet
welds are intermittent they may be either staggered or
In joining two plates (in the same plane) a stronger and chain welded, the section may also be scalloped to give the
more efficient joint is obtained by 'butt' welding rather same result when continuously welded. It is desirable that
than 'lap' welding the plates. Where the plate thickness a maximum of welds are made in the downhand position
exceeds 5-6 mm it is necessary to make more than one where the ease of depositing weld metal and the common
welding pass to deposit sufficient weld metal to close the use of fully automatic welding results in higher quality
butt joint. It is necessary to bevel the edges of thicker welds. For this reason many ship units are fabricated
plates in order to achieve complete penetration of weld upside down e.g. the deck plating being assembled and
metal. Where thicker insert plates are butt welded to the welded and then the deck beams or longitudinals, girders
thinner surrounding plate the heavier insert and transverses being welded on top of the plating before
plate is chamfered to the thickness of the adjacent plate the whole unit is lifted and turned for erection. Vertical
before the butt edge bevel is cut. To ensure complete welding of side shell units is necessary and is normally
penetration of a butt weld it is necessary to turn the plates accomplished by working upwards. Automatic welding
and complete a 'back run' weld unless a backing bar or processes are available for this purpose. Overhead welding
special 'one-sided' welding technique is used. 'One-sided' is the most difficult and requires skill and special
butt welding techniques are common in ship fabrication techniques when carried out manually or with semi-
where a minimum of plate and unit turning results in time automatic equipment.
and cost savings.
'Fillet' welds are used to attach sections to plate or one
plate perpendicular to another. Fillet welds may be
continuous or intermittent depending on the structural
Precautions while welding

1) Be sure the welder is properly installed and grounded.

2) Never weld without adequate ventilation.
3) Take proper precautions to prevent fires.
4) Protect your entire body with fire retardant clothing,
shoes, and gloves.
5) Wear eye protection at all times.
6) Weld only in a fire safe area.
7) Never do any welding, cutting, or hot work on used
drums, barrels, tanks, or other containers.
8) Mark metal "HOT" with a soapstone.
9) Keep a well stocked first aid kit handy.
Types of Welds

Butt Welds are usually prepared by chamfering-off the

plate edges, so that there is a small gap between them at
the bottom of the ‘V’. A series of runs of welding is made
and when this is completely filled in, one run, called a back
run is made on the other side of the joint.

Fillet Welds are used for making T-joints and lapped joints.
The leg length is governed by the thickness of the abutting
part of the joint, whilst the throat thickness (T in the
figure) must be at least 70% of the leg length. Fillet welds
may be continuous or intermittent.

Full penetration fillet welds are stronger than

ordinary fillet welds and are used where special strength is
required in the T joint. The vertical leg of the joint is veed,
so that the weld metal can penetrate right through.

Double continuous fillets are used for specially

important structural connections and for watertight and oil
tight work.
Types of Welds

Intermittent fillets are used for many joints that

are not required to be watertight. The length and spacing
of the fillets depend on the work. At the end fillets must be
continuous and carried around the ends. Chain
intermittent fillets are used for the more important
connections and staggered intermittent fillets for the
others. As compared with continuous fillets, intermittent
fillets reduce weight and distortion, but have some
inherent disadvantages.

Tack welds are spots of welding placed at

intervals and used to hold parts temporarily in place whilst
a proper welded joint is being made.
Distortion Effects - The chief cause of distortion is the and locked-up stresses weaken the joint and the metal
intense heat set up by the electric arc, as it melts the around it. They cannot usually be entirely eliminated, but
electrode and the edges of the work. great care is necessary to make sure that they are kept to a
The surrounding metal is also heated and expands, so that minimum.
the edges being joined are actually a little closer together
than they were when cold. After the joint has been made Reducing Distortion Effects - Residual and locked-up
and has cooled, the plates on either side of the joint try to stresses can usually be kept within safe limits, if certain
move slightly towards each other. If they are free to move, rules are observed. Residual stresses are reduced by
they will do so and they may also buckle to a slight extent, starting from the middle of each joint and working
so that visible distortion may occur. outward to
Some of the stresses causing this will remain in the joint, the ends, using what is known as 'step-back' welding.
for various reasons, and these are known as 'residual Locked-up stresses are minimized by planning the work so
stresses'. Thick plates, or those which are held firmly so that at least one of the parts being joined is free to move,
that they cannot move, may not be able to buckle or each time a joint is welded. When this cannot be done, the
to 'take-up' in this way. The stresses trying to make them work should be arranged so as to reduce restraint to a
do so will still exist and will remain locked in the joint, in minimum.
which case they are known as 'locked-up stresses'. These
stresses may also occur in joints which have been badly
prepared, where considerable force may be required to
pull the parts into their proper positions. When such parts
are welded up and the restraining gear has been removed,
the stresses will be transferred to the joint. Both residual
Defects in welding wherever possible, be carried right round the ends of
the joint.
Weak or faulty joints may be produced if the welder does
not use the proper procedures, current, electrode or 3) Slag Inclusion occurs if the slag is not completely
length of arc. cleaned off the top of each run before the next one is
The most common defects, which may cause the weld or made. If this is not done properly, a certain amount of
plate to crack are:- slag may be left in the joint.

1) Undercutting, which occurs when a groove is burned in 4) Blow holes are rounded holes formed by gases trapped
the plate close to the weld. It weakens the plate at a in the weld metal as it cools.
very dangerous point.
5) Pipes are elongated holes, due to the same cause.
2) Poor Penetration can occur as 'incomplete penetration'
if the weld metal does not fill the joint properly, so that
a gap is left between runs. Alternatively, it may appear
as 'lack of fusion', when the heat does not melt
sufficient of the plate or of previous runs, so that the
weld metal does not bond properly with the original
metal. A hollow weld-profile must be avoided, as it will
weaken the joint. The surface should always be convex,
whilst the weld must be carried right out and finished-
off square at it's ends. In T-joints, the weld should,
Welding sequence

During welding heat is applied to the plate which will

expand locally and on cooling contract. This can lead to
distortion of the structure or result in residual stresses
where restraint is applied to limit distortion. To reduce
distortion and minimize residual stresses it is important
that the correct welding sequence is followed throughout
the construction. In welding the side shell plating of a ship
for example the butts are welded first and then the
adjacent seams working outwards from the centre both
vertically and longitudinally. Stiffening members are left
unwelded for a distance across the plate butts and seams
and when finally welded are notched or scalloped in the
way of the seam or butt. In repair work correct welding
sequences are also important, particularly where new
material is to be inserted into the existing relatively rigid
structure.
Existing seams, butts and welds of stiffening members will
need to be cut back some distance and re-welded in
sequence with the new insert.
Welding Tests In the nick-break test and the fillet test the weld is
fractures along its length and examined for internal
Welding test carried out in shipbuilding is done visually by defects. The specimen is fractured along the centerline of
trained personnel. Spot checks at convenient intervals are the weld by bending or a blow with a chisel. The fractures
made on the more important welds, generally using surface is examined for slag inclusions, gas entrapments,
radiographic equipment. incomplete root fusion, etc. the appearance of the
Welds are tested by two main methods. fractured surface and the type and location of any weld
1. Destructive testing. & 2. Non-destructive testing. flaws are recorded.
The chemical and metallographic test, the surface to be
Destructive tests examined is cut and polished and viewed with the naked
In destructive test a sample of the metal containing part of eye or under a high magnification to examine for
the weld is used which gets destroyed during the test. This incomplete fusion, porosity and slag inclusions.
method includes:
1. Tensile test Non-destructive tests.
2. Bend test 1. Visual examination
3. Hardness test 2. Welding gauges
4. Impact test 3. Liquid penetration inspection
5. Nick-break test 4. Leak test
6. Fillet test 5. Magnetic particle inspection
7. Chemical and metallographic test. 6. Radiographic inspection
The first four tests are carried out by the same equipment 7. Ultrasonic inspection.
and in a similar was as the tests for the strength of material
test.
Welding Tests radiation, the difference being that sound waves are used.
In ultra-sonic testing, there is no radiation hazard as in
The dye penetrant and magnetic particle tests have a small radiographic testing.
application in ship hull construction, being used for
examining of surface cracks in the stern frame and other
castings. Visual, radiographic, magnetic particle testing is
carried out by magnetizing the casting and spreading a
fluid of magnetic particles on the surface. Any
discontinuity such as a crack will show up as the particles
will concentrate at the points where there is an alteration
in the magnetic field.
A dye penetrant will also show a surface flaw if it remains
after the casting has been washed following the
application of the dye. To aid the detection of a surface
crack, the dye penetrant used is often luminous and is
revealed under ultra-violet light.
Visual inspection of welds is routine procedure and faults
can be picked up by trained personnel.
Radiographic inspection is simply to subject a material to
radiation on one side and record the radiation density on
the other side. Either X-rays or gamma rays may be used.
Ultra-sonic testing works on the same principle as
Questions:
1. Describe the destructive and non-destructive tests which may be carried out on welding material or
Welding joint?
2. List all the precautions to be taken while welding.
3. What are the advantages of welding? List the different types of welding.
4. Write short notes on: i) Gas Welding ii) Electric arc welding iii) Thermit welding
5. List the various defects of welding.
6. What are the various stresses caused due to welding?
7. Write short notes on: a. Corrosion. b. Uses of fluxing material for welding.
8. What safety precautions would you observe during electric arc welding operations onboard?
9. State briefly the faults in welding joints.
10. What are the advantages of electric arc welding over oxy-acetlylene flame welding?
 Double Hull Tanker Structure
• The structure is again based on a longitudinal system.
• The hull is arranged so that the cargo tanks are protected by spaces around the bottom and sides of
the vessel.
• The minimum size of these spaces is set by legislation, which is intended to make sure that in the
event of hull damage oil is not able to escape to the sea.
 Container Ship Structure
• The structure is based on a longitudinal system.
• As container ships have very large hatch openings, all of the deck longitudinal structure is
concentrated in the deck girders.
• Container ships suffer from torsion. To reduce the twisting of the hull, an additional piece of
longitudinal structure, known as the torsion box, runs around the deck.
 Basic Bulk Carrier Structure
• The structure is based on a longitudinal system.
• Bulk carriers have to carry small amounts of very dense cargo. This creates large local loads on the
hold floors, and very large shear forces and bending moments.
• Bulk carriers all have double bottoms, but can be either single or double skin on the sides.
• The interior of the hold is kept a clean from structure as possible to aid removal of cargo.
• Large hatch openings mean that the deck structure is concentrated along the edges of the deck.
 Basic Bulk Carrier Bulkheads
• The bulkheads on bulk carriers have to withstand very large forces from the cargo, and are also the
point of maximum global and local shear force.
• The are built in a specific manner to withstand these loads.
• The bulkheads also form part of the hatch opening structure, and add to the strength of the deck
around the openings.