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CHAPTER - 6
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTION
NOISE
FUMES
ILLUMINASION
CLIMATES AND TEMPERATURE
MOTION AND VIBRATION
WORKING ENVIRONMENT
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INTRODUCTION
(a) The physical environment plays an important role in the maintenance
engineers' ability to do their job properly. It is included as a separate chapter
of human factors and error management because we, as humans, tend to just
do the best with what we have got given any set of circumstances.
Increasingly, this behavior is not acceptable in a safety conscious civil aviation
industry and organizations are necessarily looking at increased safety
performance and improved productivity. The physical environment, and in
particular, the maintenance engineer's sensitivity to his or her surroundings,
plays a major role in the number of errors that are committed by individuals
and the timeliness within which any job can be done satisfactorily.
(b) This chapter will not cover all aspects of the physical environment but rather
concentrate on a few that are recognized as a concern for aircraft
maintenance engineers. Noise, fumes and illumination will be covered
specifically before we look at more general topics of climate and temperature,
motion and vibration and the maintenance engineer's working environment.
(c) The expanded elements of this chapter will be:
Noise: Specifies various levels of noise in decibels at which various grades of
hearing protection are required; specify noise levels at which hearing damage may
or may not occur; describe how noise intensity and period of exposure to noise work
together to cause hearing damage; describe what is meant by the "action threshold"
for hearing protection; describe why it is important to wear proper hearing protection
when working around aircraft on the ramp.
Fumes: Recognizes catalysts for toxic fume generation and appropriate actions in
various circumstances with respect to self, work colleagues and the public; identify
other hazards due to fume generation.
Illumination: Describes how illumination of an object varies as a function of distance
from light source; describe what causes glare and give examples of how it may be
eliminated in a workshop; describe how shadows may be eliminated in lighting of a
workshop.
Climate and Temperature: Describes how temperature, humidity and airflow can
affect human performance and state the levels of tolerance people have to such.
elements.
Motion and Vibration: Describes possible debilitating effects of excessive
motion and/or vibration and the various countermeasures that can be employed by
individuals.
Working Environment: Describes how human performance can be positively
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influenced by adopting a user or work centered approach to designing facilities for
carrying out aircraft maintenance activities; describe effects of a poorly designed
workplace on work output and human performance.
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NOISE
(a) The first point is that there are two separate issues associated with noise and
human factors. The first one we covered in some depth in Chapter 3 when we
described the workings of our information processing capability. In this
chapter we noted that we had a sensory memory, or sensory register, that
picked up a whole range of stimuli in the environment. One of those sensory
memories was associated with the auditory, or aural system. The aural
system used the ears and is our basis for hearing.
(b) Noise in this context is all of the sensory information that comes in through the
ears. We know from Chapter 3 that we need to attend to specific elements of
noise to listen to them, hence the first major issue associate with noise is the
discrimination between what is that we want to listen to and the rest of the
information that comes in through our auditory system. In general terms, the
unwanted information is called "noise".
(c) This chapter will concentrate on the physical aspects of noise, that is, the
manifestation of sound actually entering the ear and how much of it engineers
should be exposed to before it causes them problems. Noise is measured in
decibels and normally rated on a scale called the "A" scale. The amount of
noise that a worker can withstand for either short or long durations can be
measured on this scale and there is a lot of research to demonstrate what
levels are acceptable and what levels eventually cause damage to the hearing
system. Many countries now in fact legislate through occupational health and
safety guidelines how much noise on this scale is acceptable and over what
period. This is commonly called a "time weighted average". The generally
accepted thresholds that have been produced by the research is 85 dBA
(Action Threshold) before companies are required to begin an active program
of hearing conservation, and that at 90 dBA, hearing protection, individuals
must wear some form of hearing protection.
(d) Figure 6.1: Illustrates A-scale of noise. This is the A-scale that shows deci-
Bel (dBA) levels for common noises to provide some reference points.
(e) We will note that the zero point is the threshold of hearing. A whisper rates at
around 20dBA, a normal office environment at 45 dBA and a shouting voice at
100. The table presented provides an indication of the amount of time we can
spend at different sound levels without incurring permanent damage.
(f) The danger area is annotated to the left of the scale on the diagram from 85
dBA onwards for ambient noise. We can see that a jet aircraft rates well
above the action thresholds at 120 dBA. This means that at any time we may
be working around running jet engines in our profession as a maintenance
engineer, we should be wearing hearing protection. See Table 6.1.
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FUMES
(a) Fumes are an issue that is commonly ignored until after a disastrous event.
The reason for this appears to be the insidious (dangerous)or sneaky nature
in which fumes affect individuals. It is included here as part of the working
environment to raise the awareness of the possible dangers associated with
fumes in the workplace.
(b) The first point to make is that, the places that toxic fumes are most likely to be
generated, are most likely already signposted as dangerous areas. In most
cases, the items that would generate toxic fumes and/or be the catalyst for the
generation of toxic fumes are often dangerous or toxic chemicals themselves,
in solid or liquid form. In these cases, they are likely to be well signposted
through regulation. Examples are battery bays, storage areas for petroleum
based lubricants, and acid baths. In each of these cases we would expect the
mandatory signposting informing workers of the associated dangers with
particular reference to their flammability, which is normally brought about by
fire regulations.
(c) These warnings, however, do not often include the dangers associated with
any fumes that are generated by such places, but one should assume that
such storage places or work places will emit toxic fumes should they catch fire
and/or change their status from solids or liquids to gas. Areas of particular
concern include:
Composites
Degreasers and solvents
De-icing fluids
Fuels and flammables
(d) Apart from these well-known items, there is the possibility of toxic fume
generation by a range of ordinary every day products once a fire starts.
Examples include the plastics in computers, compounds used for upholstery
in the office chairs and a number of compounds in everyday clothing.
(e) If we have any doubt, we should undertake an emergency egress and worry
about whether we were correct or not afterwards. As for passengers on an
aircraft, workers on the job should also be informed about emergency egress,
to use the proper terminology. In particular, formal egress instructions require
we are to look after ourselves in the first instance. We can't help others if we
are on the floor of the workshop after being overcome by fumes. Once the
safety is assured, we can raise the alarm and help others where possible
without putting ourselves in danger. For fume generation, one of the most
important requirements is to be able to supply as much accurate information
as possible to the experts so that they can make an informed decision on how
to handle the problem. Sites of possible toxic fume generation are no place to
be a hero. It requires specialist knowledge on antidotes as well as special
breathing apparatus to overcome the problem.
(f) Some other hazards associated with fume generation include:
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Insidious toxicity: This is where the fumes are odorless or are below the
smelling threshold of humans and gradually sneak up on workers without their
knowledge. An example would include carbon monoxide poisoning by leaving
space.
Air pollution: is self-explanatory. The dark clouds emanating from burning
rubber are testament to the air pollution capability of fumes. What is less well
known is that air pollution doesn't need to be visible to be very dangerous.
Again, carbon monoxide is an example.
Egress accidents: These occur when exit from the workspace is not orderly
or panic occurs. There is a lot of documented evidence that people can get
very badly injured during evacuation from a building.
ILLUMINASION
General
(a) The sense of sight also gives us some problems in the our primary source of
sensory organ and we have discussed some illusions that one may suffer
from;, there are also other aspects that can cause us problems. In general this
is to do with illumination.
(b) Illumination in the workplace provides us with the capability to be able to see
things clearly or not as the case may be. It is included here as part of the
physical environment because it has been cited as a causal factor in so many
accidents and incidents. It has also been fairly well scrutinized in terms of
research for improving illumination in the workplace and Chapter 5 of the FAA
Guide has a particularly good synopsis of the issues associated with lighting
in the workplace and is specifically addressed at the problems of maintenance
engineers.
(c) Illumination is the technical measurement of how much light is falling on an
object which necessarily has an impact on how well we can see it.
(d) From Chapter 5 of the FAA Guide, "the source of luminance is a light of some
type. Permanent light sources in facilities are generally fixed to a ceiling or
wall. As we move away from these light sources, the intensity of illumination
decreases. In fact, it decreases predictably as the square of the distance. If
we double the distance between an object and a light source, the luminance
measured at the object drops to one-fourth its previous level." It suggests that
the best source of luminance is not direct light but rather an even diffuse
lighting which requires a number of light sources.
(e) It also states that, "Regardless of the placement of light fixtures, the floor area
beneath the wing of a large transport aircraft is likely to be shielded from full
direct lighting. To raise, the illumination level in such areas, the hangar's
ceiling, walls, floors, and fixed equipment must be painted so that they reflect
a good part of the light falling on them. Reflectance is normally specified in
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'percent'. A reflectance value of 50% means that the surface reflects half of
the light falling on it."
Direct Glare
(a) As an aspect of illumination, direct glare onto our sight sense organs, the rods
and cones on our retina, can cause us serious problems as well. Direct glare
occurs when people look directly at light sources. It causes most problems
when the glare falls directly onto the fovea of the eye where we pick up most
of our visual information. The-chapter on Human Performance and Limitations
discussed the fovea as the area on the retina with the greatest concentration
of rods and particularly cones and as such picks up the most light.
(b) Problems caused by direct glare increase as the light sources get closer to a '
viewer's normal line of sight. The worst performance problems occur when a
light source is directly in the viewer's line of sight. These problems decrease
as the light source is raised above the line of sight. See figure-6.2 illustrating
the glare zones.
(c) The so-called "direct glare zone" is taken as that between 0 and 45 degrees
above the line of sight. In practice, light sources should be placed at the
highest available angle to the viewer's line of sight.
Indirect Glare
(a) Indirect glare is much less of a problem but it is nonetheless a source of error.
It is caused by light being reflected from highly reflective surfaces.
(b) The effects of indirect glare, while not generally as debilitating as those of
direct glare, can reduce performance. Direct sunlight shining on a stainless
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steel bench can be both distracting and inhibit our ability to see in the shadow
areas of the machinery we are working on. This is because the iris of the eye
contracts to reduce the amount of light entering the eye so as not to damage
the photoreceptors. What it means though is that our eye no longer picks up
anything in the areas that aren't well illuminated.
(c) Indirect glare is however, relatively easy to control. This can be done by:
Coating reflecting surfaces with flat paint,
Moving light sources out of locations where they cause reflections,
Equipping light sources with diffusers or polarizing lenses.
CLIMATE AND TEMPERATURE
(a) Humans have been able to work to some extent or other in just about every
environment on Earth. This has not always been the case though and much of
it has to do with the range of temperatures in which we can work. The human
body has a fairly narrow set of parameters and in many parts of the world we
have had to wait for technology to provide us with the capability to modify the
local climate through heating or cooling before any productive work could be
done.
(b) In the modern world, we tend to rely on air conditioning systems to cool the
working environment down for us in the tropics and heaters to warm things up
for us in more temperate parts of the world.
(c) Without these climate modifications we quickly become susceptible to error
both physically and mentally. Differences don't have to be extreme, just
outside our normal comfort zone, for us to have a diminished performance.
The further the climate and temperature is outside the normal comfort zone,
the more debilitating the effects. See Figure-6.4 illustrating the human
comfort zone.
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(d) Establishing a safe and comfortable working environment requires the
maintenance of a worker's internal body temperature ("core" temperature)
within a certain narrow range. Various environmental and work factors affect
body temperature. Both the core temperature and the subjective feeling of
comfort are affected by:
Air temperature,
Radiant heat,
Humidity,
Air velocity,
Type of work, and
Clothing
MOTION AND VIBRATION
(a) Motion and vibration in the aviation industry are more considered to be
hazards for the pilots. The engineer does however; get involved in a number
of tasks that can be subjected to some major motion or vibration input. A
simple example would include test flying an aircraft following maintenance
work but there are any number of equipment types used by engineers that
could cause problems.
(b) Motion sickness is an obvious problem and while it does not last for a long
time, it can prevent any work from taking place at all while the sufferer comes
to terms with it.
(c) Distraction is the most common issue associated with motion and vibration
and the source of many errors of omission.
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(d) Habituation can also be bought on by both motion and vibration and there is a
particularly fatiguing aspect to prolonged exposure to either which once again
leads to error being made unintentionally by engineers.
(e) The best countermeasure to these possible effects is awareness. If engineers
are alerted to the possibility and probability that their work will be negatively
affected by such things, they are more likely to be vigilant and call in support
to check the work they are doing.
(f) Most sets of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPS) will ensure that the
procedures don't set engineers up to be caught in these traps and in many
countries, the OSH (Occupational Safety & Health) guidelines are equally
cautious about the possible debilitating effects of motion and vibration.
(g) There is also medication available now to suppress the effects of motion
sickness.
WORKING ENVIRONMENT
General
(a) Workplace design and job design are usually treated separately; however, it is
difficult to change a workplace without changing the way a job is done.
Likewise, even slight changes in a job's structure or content can drastically
affect what is an appropriate workplace. In this section we will consider the
two issues or workplace design and job design where a workplace design
centers on the task and the job design centers around the worker and how
they might achieve the required work.
(b) The argument will suggest that:
Workplace redesign improves:
1. Posture
2. Productivity
3. Quality
4. Safety
Job redesign:
1. Increases job satisfaction
2. Reduces process errors (therefore improves safety)
Workplace design
(a) Examples of poor workplace design can be found in many maintenance
operations. Due to an aircraft's structural design, components may not be
easily accessible, resulting in:
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1. Awkward postures,
2. Restricted space for movement, and
3. Decreased safety and performance.
(b) In workshops, postural problems can be caused by:
1. Benches located at inappropriate heights,
2. Heavy power tools with ill-designed handles, and
3. Uncomfortable chairs.
(c) Appropriately designed workplaces with well-chosen access stands, benches,
chairs, and tools can improve both safety and productivity.
(d) Improving lighting that reduces the need for close viewing improves working
posture.
(e) Applying an ergonomics audit to the broad spectrum of maintenance and
inspection jobs can reveal examples of poor and of good design for
elimination and emulation, respectively.
Job Design
(a) Aircraft inspection and maintenance are part of a complex activity chain that
includes scheduling, planning, and cleaning. For such tightly-scheduled
activities, safe and efficient outcomes require that team members work
together smoothly and intelligently. The consequences of poor job design
include errors, delays, and frustration.
(b) When activities are not well-coordinated or when workers are unaware of how
tasks are linked together, good teamwork cannot exist. Symptoms of poor job
design include
1. Disputes over who has authority;
2. Physical interference between activities, such as inspection and
cleaning; and,
3. Inability to respond smoothly to unplanned events, such as
discovering an unusual structural defect.
(c) The symptoms also appear when team members are interviewed or surveyed
to determine their job satisfaction and frustrations.
(d) Extreme job design problems are measured by absenteeism, rapid workforce
turnover, and union grievances. This is in fact one of the most expensive
issues associated with maintenance engineering. The cost of retraining
somebody or of employing a new person once someone has left due to
dissatisfaction is fairly major. Not only do we lose the experience associated
with the incumbent, but also employing somebody new then requires both
training and experience to reach the same level of competence or expertise.
These are usually hidden costs in an engineering firm because most human
resource departments count the numbers, i.e. "bums in seats", as distinct from
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the competence and capabilities. That becomes the problem of the line
manager.
Figure-6.5 Components of the 'working environment'
(e) An example provided Chapter 6 of the FAA Guide gives a situation in which
both workplace design and job design were addressed. In maintenance
engineering, facility that specialized in complex electronic component
assembly, changes were made over an 18-month period. At the end of this
time, productivity was up by 5%, quality of workmanship had improved by
50%, job satisfaction had increased by 60% and workplace injuries had all but
been eliminated.
(f) Both work design and job design can improve performance but to attend to
one of them either at the expense of the other or just as a standalone item is
unlikely to reap the benefits of doing both. By that it is suggested that if a work
redesign can bring about a 5% increment in productivity improvement and job
redesign can bring about a 7% improvement, the probably improvement of
doing both is more than additive.
(g) In summary, the days of achievement-based workplace environments that
concentrate solely on output of individuals have been replaced by a more
holistic attitude to the working environment. This includes both workplace
design and job design with a human-centered approach and the total
organizational output of those that improve these are as in substantially higher
than those with an achievement based approach to their working
environment.
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