Chapter 2: Introduction

1- What is "Economic Geology"?

The discipline of “Economic Geology” covers all aspects pertaining to the
description and understanding of mineral resources. Ore deposits are formed
when a useful commodity is sufficiently concentrated in an accessible part of
the Earth’s crust so that it can be profitably extracted. Ore deposits are
natural concentrations of useful
metals, minerals or rocks, which
can be economically exploited.
Concentrations that are too
small/low-grade for mining are
called occurrences or
mineralizations.

Fe, Al, Mg, Ti, and Mn, are

abundantly distributed in the
Earth’s crust (i.e. between about
0.5 and 10 wt%) and only require a
relatively small degree of
enrichment in order to make a
viable deposit. Table 1 shows that
Fe and Al, for example, need to be
concentrated by factors of 9 and 4
respectively, relative to average
crustal abundances, in order to
form potentially viable deposits.
The crustal abundances for Au and
Pt are in the range 4–5 parts per
billion (ppb) and even though ore
deposits routinely extract these
metals at grades of around 5 gt
the enrichment factors involved are
between 1000 and 1250 times.

Mineral deposits are basically Fig. 1. Simplified scheme illustrating the

valuable rocks. Their formation is conceptual difference between mineral
resources and ore reserves as applied to
compared with processes that have mineral occurrences.
produced ordinary rocks and is
Chapter 2: Introduction

investigated with petrological methods. Mineral deposits can also be thought

of as a geochemical enrichment of elements or compounds in the Earth’s
crust, which is determined by their chemical properties. Exploration results
can be translated into a mineral resource once it is clear that an occurrence
of intrinsic economic interest exists in such form and quantity that there are
reasonable prospects for its eventual exploitation (Fig. 1). Such a resource
can only be referred to as an ore reserve if it is a part of an economically
extractable measured or indicated mineral resource.

The purpose of this process-orientated course is to provide a better

understanding of the nature and origin of mineral occurrences and how they
fit into the Earth system.

2- Classification scheme of "Ore Deposits"

A very simple classification of ores is achieved on the basis of igneous,
sedimentary/surficial and hydrothermal categories. All mineral deposits can
be classified into three types based on process, namely magmatic deposits,
hydrothermal deposits and surficial deposits formed by surface and
groundwaters. Ore-forming processes can overlap between igneous and
hydrothermal and between sedimentary and hydrothermal (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Classification of the principal rock types (a) and an analogous, but much simplified,
classification of ore deposit types (b).

Various geological aspects are employed to classify ore deposits (Table 2),
including:
1. The presence of certain metals or minerals (e.g. silver, haematite);
2. The form of the orebody (vein, bed, etc.);
Chapter 2: Introduction

3. The local geological environment (submarine or terrestrial volcanism);

4. The plate tectonic setting (island arc, continental margin) and
5. Other genetic characteristics such as formation temperatures and fluid
chemistry.

However, a stringent genetic classification of mineral deposits is very difficult.

One reason for this is that many ore deposits represent a position in a
complex multi-dimensional space of well defined end members:
1. The formation of Kuroko ore deposits, for example, is an interplay of
volcanic, intrusive, sedimentary and diagenetic processes;
2. The origin of high-grade BIF-haematite ore seems to comprise
sedimentation induced by proliferating marine life, later passage of
saline basinal brines and supergene components.
Table 2. Genetic classification of Ore Deposits.
Chapter 2: Introduction

3- Important definitions
Ore: A type of rock that contains minerals
with important elements including metals that
can be extracted from the rock at a profit
(Fig. 3).

Ore deposits: Parts of the crust, where ores

are concentrated (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Iron Ore.

Gangue: Commercially worthless material that

surrounds, or is closely mixed with, a wanted
mineral in an ore deposit (Fig. 5).

Mining: Extraction of ores, or other valuable

minerals from the ore deposits (Fig. 6).

Metallogeny: The study of the genesis of mineral

deposits, with emphasis on their relationships in Fig. 4. Ore deposit.
space and time to geological features of the Earth’s
crust.

Metallotect: any geological, tectonic,

lithological or geochemical feature that has
played a role in the concentration of one or
more elements in the Earth’s crust.

Metallogenic Epoch: a unit of geologic time Fig. 5. Gangue.

favorable for the deposition of ores or
characterized by a particular assemblage of
deposit types.

Metallogenic Province: a region

characterized by a particular assemblage of
mineral deposit types.
Fig. 6. Gangue.
Chapter 2: Introduction

Syngenetic: refers to ore deposits that form

at the same time as their host rocks (Fig.
7).

Epigenetic: refers to ore deposits that form

after their host rocks.

Hypogene: refers to mineralization caused

by ascending hydrothermal solutions. Fig. 7. Syngenetic ore formation.

Supergene: refers to mineralization caused by

descending solutions (Fig. 8).

Endogenetic: concentration caused by processes

in the Earth’s interior (magmatism or
metamorphism) (Fig. 9).

Exogenetic: concentration caused by processes

at the Earth’s surface (sedimentation,
weathering).
Fig. 8. Supergene enrichment.
Lateral secretion: concentration of
metals by abstraction from
surrounding rock.

Hypothermal: hydrothermal ore

deposits formed at substantial depths
(greater than 4500 meters) and
elevated temperatures (400–600 °C). Fig. 9. Endogenetic processes.

Mesothermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at intermediate depths

(1500–4500 meters) and temperatures (200–400 °C).

Epithermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at shallow depths (less than

1500 meters) and fairly low temperatures (50–200 °C) .
Chapter 2: Introduction

4- Common ore and gangue minerals

It is estimated that there are about 3800 known minerals that have been
identified and classified. Only a very small proportion of these make up the
bulk of the rocks of the Earth’s crust, as the common rock forming minerals.
Likewise, a relatively small number of minerals make up most of the
economically viable ore deposits of the world. The following compilation is a
breakdown of the more common ore minerals in terms of chemical classes
based essentially on based essentially on the anionic part of the mineral
formula. The compilation also includes some of the more common “gangue,”
which are those minerals that form part of the ore body, but do not contribute
to the economically extractable part of the deposit.

The compilation, including ideal chemical formulae, is subdivided into six

sections, these are: native elements, halides, sulfides and sulfo-salts, oxides
and hydroxides, oxy-salts (such as carbonates, phosphates, tungstates,
sulfates) and silicates. These groups are described as following:

Native elements
Both metals and non-metals exist in nature in the native form, where
essentially only one element exists in the structure. Copper, silver, gold, and
platinum are all characterized by cubic close packing of atoms, have high
densities, and are malleable and soft. The carbon atoms in diamond are
linked in tetrahedral groups forming well cleaved, very hard, translucent
crystals. Sulfur occurs as rings of eight atoms and forms bipyramids or is
amorphous. Examples of native metals are: Gold – Au; Silver – Ag; Platinum
– Pt; Palladium – Pd and Copper – Cu. Examples of native non-metals are:
Sulfur – S; Diamond – C and Graphite – C.

Halides
The halide mineral group comprises compounds made up by ionic bonding.
Minerals such as halite and sylvite are cubic, have simple chemical formulae,
and are highly soluble in water. Halides sometimes form as ore minerals,
such Halite – NaCl; Sylvite – KCl; Chlorargyrite – AgCl; Fluorite – CaF2 and
Atacamite – Cu2Cl(OH)3.
Chapter 2: Introduction

Sulfides and sulfo-salts

This is a large and complex group of minerals in which bonding is both ionic
and covalent in character. The sulfide group has the general formula AMXP,
where X, the larger atom, is typically S but can be As, Sb, Te, Bi, or Se, and
A is one or more metals. The sulfo-salts, which are much rarer than sulfides,
have the general formula AMBNXP, where A is commonly Ag, Cu, or Pb, B is
commonly As, Sb, or Bi, and X is S. The sulfide and sulfo-salt minerals are
generally opaque, heavy and have a metallic to sub-metallic luster.

Sulfides include: Chalcocite – Cu2S; Bornite – Cu5FeS4; Galena – PbS;

Sphalerite – ZnS; Chalcopyrite – CuFeS2; Pyrrhotite – Fe1–xS; Pentlandite –
(Fe,Ni)9S8; Millerite – NiS; Covellite – CuS; Cinnabar – HgS; Skutterudite –
(Co,Ni)As3; Sperrylite – PtAs2; Cobaltite – CoAsS; Gersdorffite – NiAsS;
Loellingite – FeAs2; Molybdenite – MoS2; Realgar – AsS; Orpiment – As2S3;
Stibnite – Sb2S3; Bismuthinite – Bi2S3; Argentite – Ag2S; Calaverite –
AuTe2; Pyrite – FeS2; Laurite – RuS2; Braggite/cooperite – (Pt,Pd,Ni)S and
Moncheite – (Pt,Pd)(Te,Bi)2

Sulfo-salts include: Tetrahedrite – (Cu,Ag)12Sb4S13; Tennantite –

(Cu,Ag)12As4S13 and Enargite – Cu3AsS4

Oxides and hydroxides

This group of minerals is variable in its properties, but is characterized by one
or more metal in combination with oxygen or a hydroxyl group. The oxides
and hydroxides typically exhibit ionic bonding. The oxide minerals can be
hard, dense, and refractory in nature (magnetite, cassiterite) but can also be
softer and less dense, forming as products of hydrothermal alteration and
weathering (hematite, anatase, pyrolucite). Hydroxides, such as goethite and
gibbsite, are typically the products of extreme weathering and alteration.

Oxides include: Cuprite – Cu2O; Hematite – Fe2O3; Ilmenite – FeTiO3;

Hercynite – FeAl2O4; Gahnite – ZnAl2O4; Magnetite – Fe3O4; Chromite –
FeCr2O4; Rutile – TiO2; Anatase – TiO2; Pyrolucite – MnO2; Cassiterite –
SnO2; Uraninite – UO2; Thorianite – ThO2 and Columbite-tantalite–
(Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6
Chapter 2: Introduction

Hydroxides (or oxyhydroxides) include: Goethite – FeO(OH); Gibbsite –

Al(OH)3; Boehmite – AlO(OH) and Manganite – MnO(OH)

Oxy-salts
The carbonate group of minerals form when anionic carbonate groups
(CO3)2
bearing and hydrated carbonates can also form, usually as a result of
weathering and alteration. The other oxy-salts, such as the tungstates,
sulfates, phosphates, and vanadates, are analogous to the carbonates, but
are built around an anionic group of the form (XO4)n Carbonates include:
Calcite – CaCO3; Dolomite – CaMg(CO3)2; Ankerite – CaFe(CO3)2; Siderite
– FeCO3; Rhodochrosite – MnCO3; Smithsonite – ZnCO3; Cerussite –
PbCO3; Azurite – Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2 and Malachite – Cu2(OH)2CO3.
Tungstates include: Scheelite – CaWO4 and Wolframite – (Fe,Mn)WO4.

Sulfates include: Baryte(s) – BaSO4; Anhydrite – CaSO4; Alunite –

KAl3(OH)6(SO4)2; Gypsum – CaSO4.2H2O and Epsomite – MgSO4.7H2O

Phosphates include: Xenotime – YPO4; Monazite – (Ce,La,Th)PO4 and

Apatite – Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH).

Vanadates include: Carnotite – K2(UO2)(VO4)2.3H2O.

Silicates
The bulk of the Earth’s crust and mantle is made up of silicate minerals that
can be subdivided into several mineral series based on the structure and
coordination of the tetrahedral (SiO4)4
generally hard, refractory and translucent. Most of them cannot be regarded
as ore minerals in that they do not represent the extractable part of an ore
body, and the list provided below shows only some of the silicates more
commonly associated with mineral occurrences as gangue or alteration
products. Some silicate minerals, such as zircon and spodumene, are ore
minerals and represent important sources of metals such as zirconium and
lithium, respectively. Others, such as kaolinite, are mined for their intrinsic
properties (i.e. as a clay for the ceramics industry).
Chapter 2: Introduction

Nesosilicates include: Zircon – Zr(SiO4); Garnet (almandine) –

Fe3Al2(SiO4)3; Garnet (grossular) – Ca3Al2(SiO4)3; Sillimanite – Al2SiO5;
Topaz – Al2SiO4(F,OH)2 and Chloritoid –
(Fe,Mg,Mn)2(Al,Fe)Al3O2(SiO4)2(OH)4.

Sorosilicates include: Lawsonite – CaAl2Si2O7(OH)2.H2O and Epidote –

Ca2(Al,Fe)3Si3O12(OH).

Cyclosilicates include: Beryl – Be3Al2Si6O18 and Tourmaline –

(Na,Ca)(Mg,Fe,Mn,Al)3(Al,Mg,Fe)6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH,F)4.

Inosilicates (chain) include: Tremolite-actinolite – Ca2(Fe,Mg)5Si8O22(OH)2;

Spodumene – LiAlSi2O6 and Wollastonite – CaSiO3.

Phyllosilicates (sheet) include: Kaolinite – Al4Si4O10(OH)8; Montmorillonite –

(Na,Ca)0.3(Al,Mg)2; Si4O10(OH)2.nH2O; Illite –
KAl2(Si,Al)4O10(H2O)(OH)2; Pyrophyllite – Al2Si4O10(OH)2; Talc –
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2; Muscovite – KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2; Biotite –
K(Fe,Mg)3(Al,Fe)Si3O10(OH,F)2; Lepidolite – K(Li,Al)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH,F)2
and Chlorite – (Fe,Mg,Al)5–6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8.

Tectosilicates include: Quartz – SiO2; Orthoclase – (K,Na)AlSi3O8; Albite –

(Na,Ca)AlSi3O8; Scapolite – (Na,Ca)4[(Al,Si)4O8)]3 (Cl, CO3) and Zeolite
(analcime) – NaAlSi2O6.H2O.

Unknown structure includes: Chrysocolla – (Cu,Al)2H2Si2O5(OH)4.nH2O

Some applications of ore minerals are shown in Table 3.

Chapter 2: Introduction

Table 3. Applications of some ore minerals.

Metallic Elements Ore Minerals Chemical Formulae Industrial Usage

Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
Copper (Cu) Alloys, Electronics
Bornite Cu5FeS2
Native gold Au Precious metals, electronics, chemical
Gold (Au)
Electrum AuAg instruments
Lead (Pb) Galena PbS Batteries, alloys, glasses
Special steel alloys, rockets, nuclear
Nickel (Ni) Pentlandite (Fe, Ni)9S8
reactors
Mollybdenium (Mo) Molybdenite MoS2 Special steel, filaments, glass piegments
Catalysts, Electronics, Chemical
Platinum (Pt) Native platinum Pt
instruments
Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar HgS Electric industrie, Catalysts, corrosives
Zinc (Zn) Sphalerite ZnS Alloys, pesticides, medicines
Stibnite Sb2S3
Antimony (Sb) tin tubings, bronze, enamel, ceramics
Tetrahedrite Cu12Sb4S13
Aluminum (Al) Gibbsite Al(OH)3 Alloys, automobiles, aircrafts
Uranium (U) Uraninite UO2 Nuclear fuels, catalysts, piegments
Native silver Ag Precious metals, alloys, photos, electric
Silver (Ag)
Argentite Ag22S plating
Tin (Sn) Cassiterite SnO2 Tin plates, bronze
Sheelite CaWO4 Special steels, ultralight macbinaries,
tungsten (W)
Wolframite (Fe, Mn)WO4 alloys
Cobalt (Co) Llinnaeite Co3S4 Steel alloys, ceramics, catalysts
Chrome (Cr) Chromite (Fe, Mg)Cr2O4 Alloys, plating, refractory bricks, dyes
Titanium (Ti) Rutile TiO2 High pressure vessels, textiles, dyes

5- Metals and minerals for a high-tech world

The availability of metal, non-metal and mineral
raw materials, particularly those that underpin
high-technology sectors, is important for the
ongoing development of many industries (Figs.
10 and 11). Major ore – commodities - such as
iron ore, coal, aluminium and copper are very

important in a wide range of sectors, however Fig. 10. Minerals for cellular phones.
there is a diversity of supply and
substantial resources. In essence a
mineral resource, i.e., ore deposit is
critical if it is both economically important
and has high risk of supply disruption.
These supply risks originate from four
main causes: (1) scarcity of the ore or

mineral (the geological abundance); (2) Fig. 11. Minerals for circuits.
diversity and stability of supply; (3)
production only as a by-product of other commodities; and (4) level of
Chapter 2: Introduction

concentration of ore production and processing within particular countries or

by particular companies.

6- Uses of critical and other metal and mineral commodities

The periodic table of the elements
illustrates the groupings of elements with
certain shared physical and chemical
properties. For example, all metals are
good conductors of electricity and are
generally malleable and ductile, whereas
semi-metals are semi-conductors of
electricity, a highly valuable property in
electronics (Fig. 12) and solar energy Fig. 12. Minerals for electonics.
panels (Fig. 13). Some sub-groups have
particular shared properties, for example
platinum-group elements (including
platinum and palladium) and other noble
metals such as gold are highly resistant to
chemical corrosion.

Other metals are valued for their extremely Fig. 13. Minerals for electonics.
high melting temperatures and hardness,
such as tungsten and rhenium, so that alloys of these metals tend to have
greater tensile strength at high
temperatures. This property enables
rhenium-bearing super-alloys in jet
engine turbine blades to operate at
higher temperatures than non-rhenium
turbines, reducing aeroplane emissions
and fuel costs (Fig. 14). The rare-earth
elements, which include the lanthanide
series metals as well as scandium and Fig. 14. The use of rhenium in high
yttrium, have diverse and very useful temperature turbines in the aerospace
properties. For example, small industry.
percentages of neodymium and
dysprosium in some alloys increase permanent magnet strength by orders of
Chapter 2: Introduction

magnitude, enabling step changes in miniaturizing of telecommunications and

other electronic devices, and much more efficient generation of electricity in
commercial wind turbines.

7- Mineral Deposit versus Orebody

A mineral deposit/ore deposit may be defined as a rock body that contains
one or more elements (or minerals) sufficiently above the average crustal
abundance to have potential economic value. Mineral deposits can be
classified into two broad categories:
1. metallic mineral deposits (e.g., deposits of copper, lead, zinc, iron, gold,
etc.), from which one or more metals can be extracted; and
2. nonmetallic (or industrial) mineral deposits (e.g., deposits of clay, mica,
fluorite, asbestos, garnet, etc.), which contain minerals useful on
account of their specific physical or chemical properties.

8- Styles of Mineralization and Morphology of Mineral

Deposits
The style of mineralization refers to the pattern of distribution of ore minerals
in a host rock, and it varies from being very subtle (even invisible to the naked
eye as in some precious metal deposits) to quite pronounced (as in the case
of massive sulfide deposits). The shapes of mineral deposits are also highly
variable, from concordant tabular and stratiform to discordant veins and
breccia bodies.
Table 4. Morphology of Ore Deposits.

(Fig. 15)

(Fig. 16)

(Fig. 17)

(Fig. 18)

(Fig. 19)

(Fig. 20)
Chapter 2: Introduction

Fig. 15. Disseminated Ore Deposit. Fig. 16. Stockwork Ore Deposit.

Fig. 17. Massive Ore Deposit. Fig. 18. Tabular Ore Deposit.

Fig. 20. Stratiform Ore Deposit.

Fig. 19. Vein Ore Deposit.