DRAFT PHYSICS II MODULE

By

Thomas Nyanda Reuben, PhD

and
Duncan Nkolokosa Elia, MSc

Note: This module is under development and must be used for LUANAR ODL
purposes only unless permission is sought from the LUANAR ODL Coordinator
Module Objectives

By the end of the module, you should be able to:

1) Acquire knowledge on fluids, heat transfer, simple machines, simple harmonic

motion, work, power and energy, electricity, light and optics
2) Relate concepts of fluid statics and dynamics to design and evaluation of hydraulic
structures
3) Relate concepts of heat transfer, simple machines, simple harmonic motion, work,
power and energy, electricity, light and optics to design, operation and evaluation
of agricultural and natural resource equipment and instruments

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UNIT 1: Fluid Mechanics

1.0 Introduction

Welcome to Unit 1!!! In this unit we will discuss the properties of fluids and their
application to design of hydraulic structures. You will agree that our day to day lives
depend on and deal with fluids. Before we proceed, let us remind each other what fluids
are. McDonough (2009) defined a fluid as a substance that will undergo continuous
deformation when it is subjected to shear stress regardless of how small the shear stress is.
We can, alternatively simply define a fluid as any substance that has the capability to flow
and occupy the shape of a container in which it is placed. There are two groups of fluids,
namely, gases and liquids. The air (gas) that we breathe and the water (liquid) that we use
day after day are examples of fluids. Our discussion in this unit will cover the nature of
fluids at rest (statics) and in motion (dynamics).

1.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define fluid concepts
 Differentiate one fluid concept from another
 Solve and analyze real-life problems related to fluids
 Relate fluid concepts to design of hydraulic structures and equipment

Key terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed below.
 Absolute viscosity  Energy head
 Buoyancy  Fluid dynamics
 Capillarity  Fluid mechanics
 Critical velocity  Fluid statics
 Density  Fluid viscosity

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  Head loss  Reynolds number
 Ideal fluids  Specific gravity
 Kinematic viscosity  Specific weight
 Steady flow
 Kinetic energy  Surface tension
 Laminar flow  Turbulent flow
 Newtonian fluids  Uniform flow
 Potential energy  Velocity head
 Pressure

1.2 Fluid Mechanics

We will start our discussion by talking about fluid mechanics. Fluid mechanics represents
a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest (statics) and
in motion (dynamics). In general fluids cover the liquid and gaseous state of matter. Fluids
are substances that are capable of flowing and conform to the shape of vessels containing
them. Let us look at other properties of fluids are presented below.
1) Fluids cannot sustain tangential or shear forces when in equilibrium.
2) All fluids have some degree of compressibility and offer little resistance to change
of form.
We can classify fluids as liquids or gases. The chief differences between liquids and gases
are:
1) Liquids are practically incompressible
2) Gases are compressible and usually must be so treated
3) Liquids occupy definite volumes and have free surfaces whereas a given mass of
gas expands until it occupies all portions of any containing vessel.

1.3 Properties of Fluids

We will now discuss different fluid properties in order to further our understanding of
fluids. The properties include specific weight, density, specific gravity and viscosity.

2
1.3.1 Specific weight ()
The specific weight ( or w) of a substance is the weight of a unit volume of the substance.
For liquids,  may be taken as constant for practical changes of pressure. The specific
weight of water for ordinary temperature variations is 9.79 kN/m3.

We can calculate the specific weight of a gas using the equation of state which reads

1.1

Where pressure p is absolute pressure, v is the volume per unit weight, temperature T is
the absolute temperature, n the number of moles and R is the gas constant of a particular
gas species:

1.2

Since an inverse relationship exists between the gas’ specific weight and volume, i.e.  =
1/v, then,

1.3

1.3.2 Density of a Fluid or Body

2
We define the density of a given fluid or a body as its mass (m) per unit volume (v). We
can similarly define it as the specific weight () of the fluid or body divided by the
acceleration due to gravity (g) since /g = W/vg = mg/vg = m/g. Thus,

1.1

In SI units, the density of water is 1000kg/m3 at 4°C.

1.3.3 Specific gravity of a body

The specific gravity of a body is the dimensionless ratio of the weight of the body to the
weight of an equal volume of a substance taken as a standard. Solids and liquids are referred
to water (20°C) as their standard while gases are often referred to air free of carbon dioxide
or hydrogen (0°C).

1.2

Thus if the specific gravity of a given oil is 0.750, its specific weight is (0.750)(9.79kN/m3)
= 7.34kN/m3.

1.3.4 Viscosity of a fluid

3
Viscosity is due primarily to interaction between fluid molecules. The viscosity of a fluid
is that property which determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing force. The shear
force required to move the particle in relation to one another depends on the type of liquid
and upon its temperature. The shear force of a given fluid is measured in terms of the
Viscosity of the fluid. A gas has a very low viscosity while that of a liquid is higher. The
viscosity of a liquid will increase as its temperature is reduced. Referring to the figure
below, consider two large, parallel plates a small distance y apart, the space between the
plates being filled with a fluid. To keep the upper late moving at a constant velocity U, it
is found that a constant force F must be applied. Thus there exists a viscous interaction
between the plate and fluid manifested by a drag on the former and a shear force on the
latter.

The fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it and will move at velocity U, and
the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have velocity zero. If distance y and velocity
U are not too great, the velocity profile will be a straight line. Experiments have shown that
shear force F varies with the area of the plate A, with velocity U, and inversely with
distance y. Since by similar triangles, U/y = dV/dy, we have:

1.3

Where  = F/A = shear stress.

4
If a proportionality constant, , called the absolute (dynamic) viscosity, is introduced,

1.4

It follows that the units of  are Pa-s. Fluids for which the proportionality of the above
equation holds are called Newtonian [Link] above expression was postulated by
Newton and is known as Newton’s equation of [Link] Ideal or perfect fluid is one
which there are no tangential or shear stresses between the fluid particles. The forces
always act normally at a section and are limited to pressure and accelerative forces. No
real fluid fully complies with this concept, and for all fluids in motion there are tangential
stresses present which have a dampening effect on the motion. However, some liquids,
including water, are near to an ideal fluid, and this simplifying assumption enables
mathematical or graphical methods to be adopted in the solution of certain flow problems.

Figure 1. Relationship between shearing

5
Another viscosity coefficient, the coefficient of kinematic viscosity, is defined as

1.5

The units of  are m2/s.

1.4 Fluid statics

As we saw earlier on, fluid statics deals with the understanding and application of
properties of fluids at rest. In this section we will fluid pressure, surface tension, capillarity,
and buoyancy and floatation.

1.4.1 Pressure
We can define pressure as the perpendicular force per unit area. The pressure exerted on or
by a fluid is thus a force exerted at right angles to a unit area of surface in contact with the
fluid. Pressure exerted by a fluid varies directly with depth. Fluid pressure is transmitted
with equal intensity in all directions and acts normal to any plane.

Having defined what pressure is, let us now look at Pascal’s Principle. Pascal’s principle
states that “when the pressure on any part of a confined fluid is changed, the pressure
on every part of the fluid is also changed by the same amount”. For conditions where
force F is uniformly distributed over an area, we have

6
 1.6

Figure 2. Pressure exerted by a column of fluid

The difference in pressure between any two points at different levels in a liquid is given by
the following equation:

1.7

where  = Specific weight of the liquid and h2 – h1 = difference in elevation.

If point 1 is in the free surface of the liquid and h is positive downward, the above equation
becomes

1.8

We can apply these equations as long as long as  is constant (or varies so slightly with h
as to cause no significant error in the result). In the context of pressure, we use the term
vacuum to refer to a space that has a pressure less than the atmospheric pressure.

7
Atmospheric pressure refers to the prevailing pressure in the air around us. It varies
somewhat with changing weather conditions, and it decreases with increasing altitude.

The average atmospheric pressure that you would experience at sea level is 101.3kPa, or
760mm of mercury, or 1 atmosphere. We commonly call this the “standard atmospheric
pressure”. Now, you may have come across the term “vacuum”. We can quantify a vacuum
in terms of how much its pressure is below atmospheric pressure. For example, if we pump
air out of a pressure vessel until the internal pressure is 68.9kPa, and if atmospheric
pressure is standard (i.e. 101.3kPa), we could indicate the pressure in the vessel as a
vacuum of 101.3kPa – 68.9 which is equal to 32.4kPa.

We generally indicate pressure measurements as either absolute pressure or gauge

pressure. Absolute pressure uses absolute zero, which is the lowest possible pressure and
the pressure that would exist in a perfect vacuum, as its base (i.e. zero reading). Gauge
pressure is measured with atmospheric pressure as its base.

Thus if a fluid pressure is 5.5kPa above standard atmospheric pressure (101.3kPa), its
gauge pressure would be 5.5kPa and we can find its absolute pressure as 5.5 + 101.3, or
106.8kPa. Sometimes absolute and gauge pressures are indicated by appending “a” and “g”,
respectively, to the pressure units.

Note: If no “a” or “g” (or other indication) is given, pressure is usually gauge pressure.

[Link] Vapour Pressure

When evaporation takes place within an enclosed space, the partial pressure created by the
vapour molecules is called vapour pressure. Vapour pressure depends upon temperature
and increases with it.

8
[Link] Hydrostatic Pressure

We can define hydrostatic pressure as pressure due to a column of fluid height h and density
ρ and represent this mathematically as:

1.9

1.4.2 Surface Tension and Capillarity

[Link] Surface Tension

We need to note that a molecule in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces in all
directions and the vector sum of these forces is zero. A molecule at the surface of a liquid
is acted upon by a net inward cohesive force that is perpendicular to the surface.

[Link] Capillarity

You might have observed that a liquid can rise or fall in a capillary tube (thin tube or porous
medium such as the soil). This rise or fall of the liquid is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the
liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion >
cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). We can illustrate these
phenomena using Figure 3 (a) and (b).

9
Figure 3. An illustration of capillarity

1.4.3 Buoyancy and Floatation

It is worthy for us to note that the basic principle of buoyancy and floatation was first
discovered and stated by Archimedes over 2200 years ago. We can state Archimedes
principle as follows:

A body floating or submerged in a fluid is buoyed (lifted) upward by a force equal to the
weight of the fluid that would be in the volume displaced by the body

or

If a body floats, or is submerged, in a liquid, the liquid exerts an up thrust on the body
equal to the gravitational force on the liquid displaced by the body.

The force that the liquid exerts on the body is known as the buoyant force. The point
through which the buoyant force acts is called the centre of buoyancy and is located at the
centre of gravity of the displaced fluid.

10
By applying Archimedes’ principle, we can find volumes of irregular solids by determining
the apparent loss of weight when a body is wholly immersed in a liquid of known specific
gravity.

1.5 Fluid Flow

We have all encountered or seen fluids flowing through a given stream channel or pipeline.
We can characterize fluid flow as
1) Steady or unsteady;
2) Uniform or non-uniform;
3) Laminar or turbulent;
4) One-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional; and
5) Rotational or irrotational
When we have fluid flow in which the fluid particles do not experience any rotational
motion about their centers of mass, the flow is termed irrotational. This kind of flow can
be represented by a flow net. The fluid undergoing irrotational motion is referred to as an
ideal fluid. We can define an ideal fluid as one in which no shear stresses occur and hence
no torque exists.

1.5.1 Steady Flow

Steady flow occurs if, at any point, the velocity of successive fluid particles is the same at
successive periods of time. Thus, velocity is constant with respect to time hence we can
mathematically define this condition as V/t = 0. The velocity may vary at different points
or with respect to distance. Based on this statement, we may as well say that other fluid
variables will not vary with time, implying that p/t = 0, /t = 0, Q/t = 0, etc.

11
Figure 4. Steady flow (a) and unsteady flow (b)

Most practical engineering flow problems involve steady flow conditions. For example,
pipelines carrying liquids under constant head conditions or orifices flowing under constant
heads illustrate steady flow. These flows may be uniform or non-uniform.

1.5.2 Uniform Flow

Uniform flow occurs when the magnitude and direction of velocity do not change from
point to point in the fluid. This statement can mathematically be represented by V/s = 0.
The statement implies that other fluid variables do not change with distance, or, y/s = 0,
/s = 0, p/s = 0, etc. You should note that flow of liquids under pressure through long
pipelines of constant diameter is uniform flow whether the flow is steady or unsteady.
Figure 5 is an illustration of uniform flow.

Figure 5. Uniform flow. Modified from McDonough (2009).

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On the other hand, non-uniform flow occurs when the velocity, depth, pressure, etc.,
change from point to point as the fluid flows. In this case, V/s  0 and this is true for the
other fluid variables too. Figure 5 illustrates non-uniform flow.

Figure 6. Non-uniform flow. Modified from McDonough (2009).

1.5.3 Stream lines

Stream lines are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction of motion
in various sections of the fluid flow system (Figure 7). McDonough (2009) stated that the
tangent at each point on a streamline is the direction of the velocity vector at that point.

Figure 7. Stream lines for a converging pipe section

1.5.4 Stream tubes

A stream tube represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded by a group of

streamlines that confine the flow (see Figure 8). If the stream tube’s cross-sectional area is

13
sufficiently small, we can take the velocity along the midpoint of any cross section as the
average velocity for the section as a whole.

Figure 8. Elemental stream tube

1.5.5 Continuity Equation

The equation of continuity results from the principle of conservation of mass. We can
conveniently define mass in terms of the quantity of liquid which passes a given section in
unit time. This is referred to as mass flow.

For steady flow, the mass of fluid passing all sections in a stream of fluid per unit time is
the same. This can be evaluated as the mass flow rate.

1.10

or

1.11

For incompressible fluids and where 1 = 2 or ρ1 = ρ2 for all practical purposes, the
equation becomes

14
 1.12

Where A1 and V1 are respectively the cross-sectional area and average velocity of the
stream at section 1, with similar terms for section 2. Units of flow are cubic metres per
second (m3/s). This is known as the continuity equation.

1.5.6 Energy head

Moving fluids possess energy. We need to consider three forms of energy when analysing
fluid flow problems. The forms of energy are

1) Potential;
2) Kinetic; and
3) Pressure energy

We can illustrate these energy forms using Figure 9.

Figure 9. Fluid element within a conduit

15
Consider the fluid element within the conduit shown in the diagram above. The element is
located a distance z above a reference datum and has a velocity v and pressure p.

[Link] Potential energy

Potential energy (PE) refers to the energy possessed by a fluid element due to its elevation
above a reference datum. We can determine it quantitatively by multiplying the weight
(W) of the element by the distance at which the element is located above the reference
datum (z). Therefore,

1.13

In a continuous flow process, however, it is convenient for us to think in terms of unit mass
at a particular point in the liquid stream. The energy per unit mass is called the specific
potential energy of the liquid. Thus, specific potential energy is

1.14

[Link] Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy refers to the energy possessed by an element of fluid due to its velocity.
Kinetic energy (KE) is determined quantitatively by

1.15

Similarly since this is a continuous flow process, the energy per unit mass is called the
specific kinetic energy of the liquid.

16
Thus per unit mass

1.16

[Link] Pressure energy

Pressure energy, sometimes called flow energy, is the amount of work required to force
the element of fluid across a certain distance against pressure

The pressure energy (FE) can be evaluated by determining the work done in moving the
fluid element a distance equal to the segment’s length (d).
The force causing work is the product of pressure (p) and cross-sectional area (A) of the
element. Hence

1.17

The term Ad, is in fact, the volume of the element. Hence

FE = pv
but v = m/
Therefore,

1.18

Similarly, if we consider a unit mass, FE = p/. This is called the specific pressure head
of the liquid in the pipe line.

1.5.7 Energy equation

17
We can derive the energy equation by applying the principle of conservation of energy to
fluid flow. Let us consider two points 1 and 2 as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Illustration of the Energy Equation components

You will recall that the energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of internal energy and
energies due to pressure (p), velocity (v), and position (z). In the direction of flow, the
energy principle is summarised by the general equation:

Energy at section 1 + energy added – energy lost – energy extracted = energy at section 2

1. 19

18
This equation is known as the Bernoulli theorem. The Bernoulli’s equation can be
expressed in terms of equivalent heads. Thus, if we divide the above equation by g we
have:-

1.20

Each term of the Bernoulli equation is measured in metres of liquid. Many problems
dealing with flow of liquids use this equation as the basis of solution. Flow of gases, in
many instances, involves principles of thermodynamics and heat transfer. Many problems
dealing with flow of liquids use this equation as the basis of solution.

1.5.8 Velocity head

Velocity head represents the kinetic energy per unit weight of a fluid at a particular point.
If the velocity at a cross-section were uniform, then the velocity head that we would
calculate with this uniform or average velocity would be the true kinetic energy per unit
weight of fluid.

1.5.9 Power

Power is calculated by multiplying the number of Newtons of fluid flowing per second (Q)
by energy H in Nm/N.

1.21

1.5.10 Flow in Closed Conduits

19
The energy principle is applied in the solution of practical closed-conduit flow problems
in different branches of engineering practice. Flow of a real fluid is more complex than that
of an ideal fluid. Results of experimentation and semi-empirical methods must be used to
solve flow problems.

Two types of steady flow of real fluids exist, which must be understood and considered.
They are laminar flow and turbulent flow. Different laws govern the two types of flow.

[Link] Laminar Flow

In laminar flow, fluid particles move along straight, parallel paths in layers or laminae.
Magnitudes of velocities of adjacent laminae are not the same.

[Link] Turbulent Flow

In turbulent flow, fluid particles move in haphazard fashion in all directions. It is virtually
impossible to trace the motion of an individual particle.

[Link] Critical Velocity

Critical velocity is of practical interest to engineers. It is the velocity below which all
turbulence is damped out by the viscosity of the fluid. It is found that the upper limit of
laminar flow of practical interest is represented by a Reynolds number of about 2000.

[Link] Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless number which represents the ratio of inertia
forces to viscous forces. For circular pipes that are flowing full, we can find the Reynolds
number using the following equation:

20
1.22

where V = mean velocity in m/s

d = diameter of pipe in m
 = kinematic viscosity in m2/s
 = mass density of fluid in kg/m3
 = absolute viscosity in Ns/m2

For non-circular cross sections, we use the ratio of cross-sectional area to wetted perimeter,
called the hydraulic radius, R (in metres), to calculate the Reynolds number. The
following equation is used for non-circular cross sections:

1.23

1.5.11 Loss of head for laminar flow

Loss of head for laminar flow is expressed by the Hagen-Poiseulle equation.

The expression is

1.24

The other equation used to determine head loss is known as the Darcy-Weisbach formula
and it reads:

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 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ 𝐿 𝐿2
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ℎ𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿 × × 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ℎ𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿 2𝐿

1.25

For laminar flow in all pipes for all fluids, the value of f is:

1.26

Re has a practical maximum value of 2000 for laminar flow. For turbulent flow, many
hydraulic engineers have endeavoured to evaluate f from the results of their own
experiments and from those of others.

[Link] Minor head losses

Other head losses are generally categorised as “minor” head losses. They result when there
is a significant change in flow pattern. Hence, they occur in conduit contractions and
enlargements (both sudden and gradual)), valves, fittings, bends, etc., and entrance to or
exit from a conduit. In some cases, a “minor” loss can be quite important.

[Link] Entrance losses

Entrance losses occur when a liquid enters a conduit from a large tank or reservoir.
The amount of head loss is significantly dependent on the shape of the entrance.
If an entrance is well rounded, the entrance loss will be very small.

[Link] Exit losses

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Exit losses occur when a liquid exits a conduit and enters a large tank or reservoir. The
losses can be due to sudden contractions, sudden expansions, gradual expansions or gradual
contractions. Sudden contraction losses occur when there is an abrupt decrease in conduit
size and sudden expansion losses happen when there is an abrupt increase in conduit size.
Similarly, gradual expansion losses occur when there is a gradual increase in conduit size,
and gradual contraction losses happen when there is a gradual decrease in conduit size.

Theoretical considerations of the various minor losses are quite complicated; therefore,
minor losses are usually evaluated by empirical methods.
They are commonly expressed in terms of the applicable velocity head. In equation form,

1.27

Activity: Example

Water is conveyed through a trapezoidal irrigation canal at a volumetric flow rate of

15m3/sec. The canal has a bottom width of 3 m and the water is flowing at an effective
depth of 2 m. If the top width of the flowing water is 9 m. What is the velocity head of the
water?

Solution:
We will start with an illustration of the canal:

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From our knowledge about the area of a trapezium, we can find the cross area (A) of flow
as follows:
𝐿 = 2(𝐿 + 𝐿)ℎ
1

where A is the cross sectional area (m2); b the canal bottom width (m); T the water
flow top width; and h the effective water depth

Hence, 𝐿 = 12(3𝐿 + 9𝐿)2𝐿

𝐿 = 12 𝐿2
From the Continuity Equation, Q = AV. Therefore, 15m3/s = 12 m2 x V
Hence, 𝐿 = 1.25 𝐿/𝐿
𝐿2
Now let us find the velocity head using the equation, 𝐿𝐿 = 2𝐿

(1.25 𝐿/𝐿)2
𝐿𝐿 =
2(9.81 𝐿/𝐿2

𝑯𝑯 = 𝑯. 𝑯𝑯 𝑯

Unit Summary
In this unit we have discussed the nature and properties of fluids at rest and in motion. We
encounter fluids in our everyday life. Therefore, the knowledge acquired in the unit will be
essential in design, operation and evaluation of hydraulic structures such as irrigation
canals, reservoirs and water pipelines.

Unit Test
Answer all questions.

24
1.6.1 Water is conveyed at a constant volumetric flow rate of 2.3 x 10-2 m3/s through a
pipeline whose internal diameter is 15 cm. The water flow condition is laminar
(Re = 1,400). Find the following:

a) Friction factor
b) Water velocity
c) Velocity head
1.6.2 A fluid mass occupies 2 [Link] the density, specific weight, and specific
gravity if the fluid mass is

a) 4 kg
b) 8 kg
c) 15 kg

1.6.3 A formula that provides a good estimate of the density in kg/m3 of water is

(𝐿 − 4)2
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 1000 −
180

where the temperature T is in degrees Celsius.

a) Use this formula and find the density of water at 80oC.
b) What is the error?

Suggested Answers to the Unit Test

Here are the suggested answers for the Unit Test:

Model Answer for Activity 1.6.1:

a) f = 0.0457
b) V = 1.3015 m/s

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 c) Velocity head = 0.086 m

Model Answer for Activity 1.6.2:

a) 2 kg = m3; 19.62 N = m3; 0.002
b) 4 kg = m3; 39.24 N = m3; 0.004
c) 7.5 kg = m3; 73.6 N = m3; 0.0075

Model Answers for Activity 1.6.3:

a) 968 kg/m3
b) -0.4%

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UNIT 2: HEAT AND CALORIMETRY

2.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 2! In unit 1 we discussed fluid mechanics, however in this topic you will
be introduced to key principals in heat transfer and thermodynamics.

2.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Differentiate heat from temperature
 State four examples of temperature scales
 Convert temperature from one scale to another scale
 Measure the amount of heat transfer using a calorimeter

Key terms
Ensure that you understand the key term phrases used in this unit as listed below.
 Temperature
 Heat
 Specific heat
 Calorimetry

2.2 Temperature
From our primary school knowledge we have always defined temperature as the degree of
hotness or coldness. This definition is based on our sense of touch: cold or hot. We
generally consider a hot oven to have high temperature than a cold tray of ice. However
defining temperature by solely depending on the sense of touch might give us wrong results.
For example, if your hands were placed in hot water and then you shift to place the same
hands in lukewarm water you will feel cold, on the contrary if you place the hands in the
cold water first and then shift them to lukewarm water you would feel water.
We shall now define temperature as, the measure of average kinetic energy (thermal energy)
of the molecules of the body. Temperature is directly proportional to the average molecular
kinetic energy. The greater the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a body, the
greater is the temperature of the body. In this case we may conclude that temperature of a

27
body depends only on the molecular kinetic energy and it is independent of mass of a
substance.
When we bring together two bodies of different temperatures into contact, heat flows from
a body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature till the temperatures of the
two bodies are the same. Temperature guides the direction of heat flow between two bodies
of different temperatures in contact.
2.2.1 Temperature Scales
There are four temperature scales
Celsius Scale
On this scale, the ice point (melting point) is marked as 0°C and the steam point (boiling
point) is marked as 100°C. Both the melting and boiling points are taken at normal
atmospheric pressure. The interval between these points is divided into 100 equal parts.
Each of these divisions gives one degree Celsius (1°C). If the thermometer is needed to
measure temperatures outside the ice and steam points, then the scale markings are
continued below the 0°C mark and above 100°C mark. The distance between the
consecutive marks on the scale remains the same.
Fahrenheit Scale
On this scale, the ice point is marked as 32°F and the steam point is marked 212°F. The
interval between these two reference points is divided into 180 equal parts. Each division
is called degree Fahrenheit and is written as °F

Temperature scale Freezing Point of Boiling Point of SI Unit

Water Water

FAHRENHEIT 32°F 212°F F

SCALE

CELSIUS SCALE 0°C 100°C C

KELVIN SCALE 273.15K 373.15K K

28
REAUMER 0°R 80°R R
SCALE

2.2.2 Conversion Equations

The relationship among Celsius, Fahrenheit and Reaumur scales is given as
tC÷100 = (tF-32)/180 = tR÷ 80 2.1
Other relationships
a. F = 1.8C + 32 2.2
b. K = C + 273.15 2.3

Example 1
If the temperature of the room is 20°C, what is its temperature in degrees Fahrenheit?
Solution: We are going to apply equation 2.2 to convert degrees Celsius to degrees
Fahrenheit.
Then F = 1.8 x 20 + 32 = 68°F
Kelvin Scale and the absolute Zero
The Kelvin scale is setup so that its zero point is the coldest possible temperature--absolute
zero, at which point a substance would have zero internal energy. This is -273.15 °C, or -
459.69 °F. Absolute zero can never be reached, but there is no limit to how close we can
get to it. Scientists have cooled substances to within 10-5 kelvins of absolute zero. How
do we know how cold absolute zero is, if nothing has ever been at that temperature? The
answer is by graphing Pressure vs. Temperature for a variety of gases and extrapolating.

29
The Triple Point of Water
We can define the triple point of water as a point where water in a solid, liquid and gas
states can coexist in aquarium and this occurs only at a unique temperature and pressure.
The pressure at the triple point of water is 4.58 mm of Hg and the temperature is 273.16K
or 0.01°C.

Activity 1
An object has a temperature of 50°F. What is its temperature in degrees Celsius and in
Kelvin? [10°C; 283K]

2.3 Specific heats

Specific heat is the energy that is transferred from one body to another due to temperature
difference between two bodies. Or is the transfer of internal (thermal) energy from one
body to another. The SI unit for heat is joule, but can also be measured in calories Heat
transfer depends on temperature gradient
2.3.1 Heat capacity
The amount of heat required to raise its temperature by 1°C.
Heat capacity is also called thermal capacity
Heat capacity = mc
Specific heat

30
Is the heat capacity of a substance per unit mass
c = Heat capacity/m
Alternatively we may define heat capacity as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1°C or 1K. The SI Unit is J/Kg/°C or J/Kg/K Specific
heat is represented by c.
2.3.2 Water Equivalent
The mass of water that will absorb or loose the same amount of heat as the body for the
same rise or fall in temperature is known as water equivalent. Water equivalent is measured
in kg. For instance, if you are told that the water equivalent for a body is 12kg, this means
that when a body is heated through 12°C, it will absorb the same amount of heat as
absorbed by 12kg.
Q = w ΔT
But Q = cm ΔT
Equating the two equations we have
wΔT = cm ΔT
w = mc
From Equation ---- we may conclude that water equivalent and heat capacity of a body are
numerically equal.
2.3.4 Molar Specific Heat
Molar specific heat of a solid (liquid) is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 mole of the solid (liquid) through 1°C OR 1 K. We can now represent the
amount of heat Q required to raise the temperature ΔT of n moles is presented as:
Q = nC ΔT 2.5
But n = m/M and capital c (C) stands for molar specific heat.
C = Mc 2.6
2.3.5 Specific heat of a gas
We shall adopt the same definition for specific heat as the one used in solids and liquid.
On the contrary, the situation with gasses is quite different. When a gas is heated, there
may be large changes in pressure and volume. When we want to define a specific heat, it
is necessary to specify the particular conditions of pressure and volume. A gas can have
any value of specific heat depending on how the heating has been carried out.

31
We are going to consider two practical conditions in which we have values of specific heat
of a gas: specific heat of a gas at constant volume (Cv) and specific heat of a gas at constant
pressure (Cp).
Specific heat at constant volume: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 mole of the gas through 1°C at constant volume is referred to as specific heat at constant
temperature. It is measured in J/kg/K or cal/g/K. If we are given 1 mole of the gas instead
of 1g, then we will be dealing with molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume.
Molar Specific heat of a gas at constant volume is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 mole of the gas through 1°C at constant volume. We use capital C v to
denote molar specific heat at constant volume where as cv represents specific heat at
constant volume.
Cv = Mcv 2.7
Where M = Molecular mass of the gas and the SI units of Cv J/mol/K or cal/mol/K.
Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure: this is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1g of the gas through 1°C at constant pressure. The SI units are the same
as those for specific heat capacity at constant volume. On the other hand, molar specific
heat at constant pressure is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 mole of a gas through 1 °C at constant pressure.
Cp = Mcp 2.8
Relationship between Cv and Cp

a.

b. Cv = R; CP = R for monoatomic gas

c. Cv = R; Cp = R for diatomic gas

R = 8.31J/mol/K
When you want to calculate the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a gas
you use equation 2.5 but you substitute Cv and Cp for specific heat (C):
Q at constant volume: Q = n Cv ΔT 2.8
Q at constant pressure: Q = n Cp ΔT 2.9

32
Example:
How much heat is required to raise the temperature of an ideal monoatomic gas by 10K if
the gas is maintained at constant pressure?
Solution:
Lets consider what we have first: n = 1 mole, ΔT = 10K, R = 8.31J/mol/K, we are also told
that the gas is monoatomic and is at constant pressure. In this case we are going to employ
equation 2.9.
Q = n Cp ΔT

CP = R=

Q = 1mol x x 10 K = 207.5 J

Activity 3.
What is the specific heat of a substance if 36 Kcal of heat is needed to raise 4.5 Kg of the
metal from 20° C to 42°C [0.36 Cal/g/°C]

2.3 Calorimetry
Is the experimental technique for quantitative measurement of heat exchange. The law of
heat exchange is applied in calorimetry. Law of heat exchange states that, “for completely
an isolated closed system, no energy can flow into or out of the system.”
Alternatively, Heat lost = Heat gained.
A calorimeter is used to determine the specific heat of a substance.
Heat lost by the substance is gained by and the calorimeter.
Heat gained by the calorimeter
= (m1+w) × c’× (T -T1)
Heat lost by the substance
= m2c(T2 – T)
Where:
m1=Mass of water in the calorimeter
w = Water equivalent of the calorimeter

33
T1= Initial temperature of water + calorimeter
m2= Mass of the substance
T2= Initial temperature of a substance
T= Final temperature
c = specific heat capacity of the substance
c’= Specific heat of water
Heat gained = heat lost
(m1+w) × c’× (T -T1) = m2c(T2 – T) 2.4
And c can be given as
c = [(m1+w) × c’× (T -T1)]/m2(T2 – T)
Example
When a piece of metal of mass 48.3g at 10.7 °C was immersed in a current of stream at
100 °C, 0.762g of steam was found to condense. Calculate the specific heat of the metal
(LV of steam: 536 cal).
Heat gained = 48.3×c×(100-10.7) cal
Heat lost = mass of condensed matter × latent heat of steam
= 0.762×536 cal
Then: 48.3×c×(100-10.7) cal = 0.762×536 cal
c = (0.76×536)÷ [48.3×(100 – 10.7)
= 0.095 cal/g/°C.

34
The outer and inner surfaces of the calorimeter are polished heat to reduce heat loss due to
radiation
The space between a calorimeter and the insulating jacket is filled with some poor
conductor (e.g. Air, cotton) to avoid heat loss by conduction
The lid is insulated to avoid heat loss by convection. The insulated lid has two holes, one
for stirring (mixing contents) and the other for thermometer.

Activity 2
A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated in a furnace to a temperature of 500°C and then
placed on a large ice block. What is the maximum amount of ice that can melt? (Specific
heat of copper = 0.39 J/g/°C; Heat of fusion of water = 335J/g) [1.455kg]

2.6 Practice Activity

In an experiment on the specific heat of a metal, a 0.20 kg block of the metal at 150°C is
dropped in a copper calorimeter (of water equivalent 0.025 kg) containing 150 cm3 of water
at 27°C. The final temperature is 40°C. Compute the specific heat of the metal.
[0.434J/g/°C]

2.7 Unit summary

In this unit we have discussed important concepts of heat and temperature which will lead
to heat transfer and thermodynamics. We have seen that though heat and temperature are
related but they are not the same. Specific heat, mass and temperature are very significant
in calorimetry. Calorimetry is the science of measuring heat.

Unit Test
1. If two temperatures differ by 25° on a Celsius scale, what is the difference on Fahrenheit
scale?
2. A calorimeter contains 70.2 g of water at 15.3°C. If 143.7g of water at 36.5°C is mixed
with it, the common temperature is 28.7°C. Find the water equivalent of the calorimeter.
3. A piece of iron of mass 16g is dropped at a temperature of 112.5°C into a cavity in a block
of ice of which it melts 2.5g. If the latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g, find the specific
heat of iron.

35
 Suggested Answers to Unit Activities
Activity 1
10°C; 283K
Activity 2
1.455kg
Activity 3
0.36 cal/g/°C
Practice Activity
0.434J/g/°C
Unit Test
1. 45°F
2. 13.4g
3. 0.11cal/g/°C

UNIT 3: Heat and Heat Transfer

3.0 Introduction

Welcome to Unit 2. In this unit, we will discuss concepts of heat, its transfer and
measurement. You will agree that heat forms an integral part of our daily life. For example,
we need heat to cook our food and to keep us warm. This unit is therefore of prime
importance because it will help us deepen our understanding of heat, its measurement and
transfer.

36
 3.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1) Understand and state the different concepts of heat transfer

2) Acquire knowledge on measurement of temperature and heat
3) Apply the laws of heat transfer in solving problems related to the same

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms used in this unit as listed below.
 Heat
 Temperature
 Latent heat
 Specific heat
 Sublimation

 Convection
 Radiation
 Conduction
 Heat capacity
 Sensible heat

37
 3.2 Heat and Temperature

3.2.1 Heat

We will start by discussing what heat is and have a quick overview of how heat gets
transferred from one location to another. Heat is a form of energy. As you are aware,
the molecules of a body are in constant motion. The moving molecules possess kinetic
energy referred to as heat. Heat is transferred from a warmer to a colder body because
of the temperature difference between the two bodies.

3.2.2 Temperature

We can define temperature as the intensity of heat or a measure of how hot or cold an
object is. In other words, temperature is an indication of molecular activity since (as we
saw earlier on) moving molecules possess kinetic energy referred to as heat. In the SI
system, temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (named after Anders Celsius). Its
temperature scale is referred to as the centigrade scale. The scale involves choosing two
fixed points (i.e. two easily reproducible temperatures), and dividing the interval
between them into a number of ‘degrees’.

Anders Celsius chose the temperature of melting ice and boiling water (both at normal
atmosphere), and the arbitrary number 100 degrees. The Celsius scale is still defined
this way but an improvement has been made in which the scale is divided and a more
reliable fixed point has been introduced.

The other temperature unit is Kelvin (named after Lord Kelvin). This is referred to as
the absolute temperature scale. Lord Kelvin showed that a temperature scale might be
divided in a way which does not depend on the properties of a particular substance.
He proposed that ‘Zero’ must be located at the lowest temperature possible. Both
theoretical considerations and practical experience indicate that it is impossible to reach
a temperature lower than -273.15oC and this is known as the absolute zero temperature.

2
Th e resulting scale is the Kelvin Thermodynamic Temperature Scale and its unit is the
Kelvin (K).

Equation 28

Or

Equation 29

Another temperature scale is known as the Fahrenheit. Its relationship to the centigrade
scale is as follows:

Equation 30

Or

Equation 31

3.2.3 Temperature and Heat Measurements

Let us now look at the instruments and methods used to measure heat intensity. Table
1 presents a list of the measurements and their respective instruments:

Table 1. Instruments and methods for measuring heat intensity

Measurement Instrument/Method of Measurement

Thermal expansion Bi-metallic thermometers; Liquid-in-
glass (mercury, alcohol) thermometers;
Pressure thermometers
Thermo-electricity Thermocouple
Resistance Resistance thermometers; Thermistors
(semi-conductor); Integrated circuit
detectors (temperature transducers)

3
 Radiation Pyranometers
It is worth noting that the most common thermometers are mercury–in– glass.

Before we proceed, let us pause and define some of the important terms which we will
be using in the discussions that follow. One of such terms is ambient temperature.
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the medium surrounding a body or system,
e.g. room air temperature. The other term is specific heat, the dimensionless ratio
between the thermal capacity of a material to that of water. Heat quantity is measured
in Joules. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by
1° Kelvin is 4.187 Joules. This quantity is equivalent to one calorie of heat.

3.3 Specific Heat

The actual thermal capacity (specific heat capacity) measured in J/(kg°K) is often listed
as specific heat. It is defined as the heat capacity of a substance per unit mass.
Specific heat is essentially a measure of how thermally insensitive a substance is to the
addition of energy. The greater the material’s specific heat, the more energy must be
added to a given mass of the material to cause a particular temperature change.

For gases, heat capacity at constant pressure is a strong function of temperature.

Heat capacity is an additive property, i.e. the heat capacity of a mixture of gases can be
determined from the heat capacities of the constituents weighted accordingly.
The heat capacities of solids cannot be predicted from fundamental relationships but
they are amenable to experimental measurement. However, a particularly useful
method of estimating heat capacity in the absence of experimental data is the Kopp’s
rule which is based on the fact that heat capacity is an additive property. It may be
stated as follows:

The heat capacity of a solid compound is approximately equal to the sum of

the heat capacities of its constituents.

4
The heat capacities of liquids are generally greater than those of solids and gases; heat
capacity usually increases with temperature. For foodstuff, heat capacity is strongly
dependent upon moisture content.

3.4 Sensible Heat

Sensible heat is the heat that causes a temperature change when there is a heat transfer.
We can also define sensible heat as a measure of the energy that accompanies a
temperature change. A good example of sensible heat is heat moving through the walls
of a home causing a temperature rise in the process. We can determine total sensible
heat using the following equation:

3.1

where qs = total sensible heat (J); m = mass of material (kg); c = specific heat capacity
of the material (J/(kg°K); t1 = temperature (°C) of the material at condition 1; and t2 =
temperature (°C) of the material at condition 2.

3.5 Latent Heat

Latent heat is the heat that causes a change in state but no change in temperature. The
heat that is absorbed when ice changes to water (solid to liquid) is known as latent heat
of fusion (Lf). When boiling water changes to vapour (liquid to vapour), the heat
involved is latent heat of vapourisation (Lv).

You will recall that at normal pressures, most chemical compounds and elements
possess three different states (solid, liquid, gas) at different temperatures. In these cases,
the transition from solid to gaseous state requires an intermediate liquid state. However,
for some elements or substances at some pressures, the material may pass directly from
solid to gaseous state. This can occur if the atmospheric pressure exerted on the
substance is too low to stop the molecules from escaping from solid state. When a solid
changes to vapour without going through the liquid phase (solid to vapour), the heat

5
involved is referred to as latent heat of sublimation (Ls). Carbon dioxide is a common
example of chemical compounds that sublime at atmospheric pressure. A block of solid
CO2 (dry ice) at room temperature and at atmospheric pressure will turn to gas without
becoming a liquid. The opposite of sublimation is deposition. The formation of frost is
an example of meteorological deposition.

Let us now look at an example on the heat involved when water evaporates to water
vapour. This occurs over a wide range of temperatures.

When air moves across the surface of water, some of the air's sensible heat is converted
to latent heat causing the air temperature to drop. The latent heat of vaporisation
changes with temperature as presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Latent Heat of Vaporisation for Water

°C kJ/kg
0 2500
30 2430
100 2256

You should know that different materials have different properties hence latent heat of
vaporization and latent heat of fusion vary from one material to another. Table 3
presents latent heat properties of different substances.

6
Table 3. Latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporisation for various
substances

When a gas cools, it eventually condenses – that is, it returns to the liquid phase.
The energy given up per unit mass is called the latent heat of condensation (Lc) and is
numerically equal to the latent heat of vaporisation. Likewise, when a liquid cools, it
eventually solidifies, and the latent heat of solidification is numerically equal to the
latent heat of fusion.

Activity: Phase Change Example

You will recall that there are three states (or phases) of matter namely gas, liquid and
solid. In order for us to understand the role of latent heat in phase changes, consider the
energy required to convert 1.0 g cube of ice at -30.0°C, to steam at 120°C. Figure 11
indicates the experimental results obtained when energy is gradually added to the ice.
Let us examine each portion of the curve.

7
Figure 11. A plot of temperature versus energy added when 1.00g of ice initially at -30.0°C is
converted to steam at 120.0°C

Part A. On this portion of the curve, the temperature of the ice changes from -30°C to
0°C. Because the specific heat of ice is 2090 J/kg°C, we can calculate the amount of
energy added by:

Q  m c T i i

Q  1.0  10 kg 2090J / kg .C 30C 

3

Q  62.7 J

Part B. When the temperature of the ice reaches 0°C, the ice-water mixture remains at
this temperature, even though energy is being added, until all the ice melts. The energy
required to melt 1.0 g of ice is:

Q  mi L f  1.00 103 kg3.33 105 J / kg  333J

Thus we have moved to the 396 J (62.7J + 333J) mark on the energy axis in Figure 11.

Part C. Between 0.0°C and 100.0°C, no phase change occurs, and so all the energy
added to the water is used to increase its temperature. The amount of energy necessary
to increase the temperature from 0.0°C to 100.0°C is:

Q  m c T
w w

Q  1.00  10 kg 4.19  10 J / kg .C 100.0C 

3 3

Q  419 J

8
Part D. At 100.0°C, another phase change occurs as the water changes from water at
100.0°C to steam at 100.0°C. The water-steam mixture remains at 100.0°C, even
though energy is being added, until all of the liquid has been converted to steam. The
energy required to convert 1.00g of water to steam at 100.0°C is:

Qm L w v

Q  1.00  10 kg 2.26  10 J / kg 
3 6

Q  2.26  10 J 3

Part E. In this portion of the curve, as in parts A and C, no phase change occurs; thus,
all energy added is used to increase the temperature of the steam. The energy that must
be added to raise the temperature of the steam from 100.0°C to 120°C is:

Q  m c T
s s

Q  1.00  10 kg 2.01  10 J / kg .C 20.0C 

3 6

Q  40.2  10 J 3

The total amount of energy that must be added to change 1g of ice at -30.0°C to steam
at 120°C is the sum of the results from all the five parts of the curve, which is equal to
3.11×103J. Conversely, to cool 1g of steam at 120.0°C to ice at -30.0°C, we must
remove 3.11×103J of energy. The results show that a relatively large amount of energy
is transferred into the water to vaporise it to steam.

Now, let us imagine reversing this process, there is a large amount of energy transferred
out of steam to condense it into water. This is why a burn to your skin from steam at
100°C is much more damaging than exposure of your skin to water at 100°C. A very
large amount of energy enters your skin from steam and the steam remains at 100°C
for a long time while it condenses. Conversely, when your skin makes contact with
water at 100°C, the water temperature immediately begins to drop as energy is
transferred from the water to your skin.

3.6 Thermal Capacity

9
We define thermal (heat) capacity as the ability of a material to absorb and hold heat.
Thermal capacity is measured in J/(g K). For example, the thermal capacity of water is
4.187kJ/(kg K) or J/(g K). Thermal capacity is also defined as the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of 1g sample by 1°C.

3.7 Total Heat Content

Bodies with great mass can store large quantities of heat, even at low temperatures. For
example, thick masonry walls are slow to warm up in the heat of the day and slow to
cool down during a cool night. Also, a match has high temperature and little heat
content. A large tank of water may be at low temperature but still have large heat
content.

3.8 Heat Transfer Theory

Every body contains some internal energy. One component of internal energy is thermal
(heat). Heat will transfer from one body to another if there is a temperature difference
between the bodies. When designing an agricultural building, an engineer is often
required to accelerate or slow down heat transfer. Steady state (constant in time) heat
transfer problems can usually be solved with relatively simple equations. Non-steady
state (varies with time) heat transfer problems require more complicated solutions.

3.8.1 Types of Sensible Heat Transfer

There are three modes of sensible heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation.

[Link] Conduction

In conduction, heat energy is passed from molecule to molecule in a material. For heat
to be conducted it is essential that there be physical contact between particles and some
temperature difference. Thermal conductivity is a measure of how easily heat is passed

10
from particle to particle. The rate of heat flow depends on the magnitude of temperature
difference and the thermal conductivity of the material.

You should take note that the thermal conductivity of a material is affected by density,
size of fibres or particles, the degree of bonding between particles and their arrangement,
moisture content, and temperature. The ability of many materials to conduct heat has
been determined experimentally.

3.2

q = heat conduction rate (W)

A = cross-sectional area normal to the direction of heat flow (m2)
k = thermal conductivity of material (W/m2 K)
dt/dx = temperature gradient (K/m)

The term k(dt/dx) is known as Fourier’s first law of conduction.

The above equation shows us that the rate of heat conduction is directly proportional
to:
 The cross-sectional area, A;
 The thermal conductivity of the substance, k;
 The temperature gradient, dt/dx; and
 Values of k vary considerably.

It is worthy for us to know that metals have high thermal conductivities, the best being
silver (k = 419 W/m oC), copper (k = 388 W/m oC), aluminium (k = 203 W/m oC). Non-
metals have in general relatively low values of k, e.g. a cork has k = 0.04 W/m oC and
is often used as a heat insulator.

Activity: Example

11
A small building has concrete walls 150 mm thick. If the thermal conductivity of the
concrete is 1.1 W/m oC, what is the rate of heat leakage through a wall 2.5 m high and
5 m long when the inside temperature is 20oC and the outside temperature is 2oC?

Let us begin by illustrating the information contained in the question.

Figure 12. A single layered concrete wall

Let us Equation 1 to solve the problem. From this equation, we have:

𝑯. 𝑯𝑯
𝑯𝑯 − 𝑯𝑯 × 𝑯. 𝑯𝑯 × 𝑯𝑯(𝑯𝑯℃ − 𝑯℃)
𝑯 = 𝑯𝑯 ( ) = 𝑯℃
𝑯 𝑯. 𝑯𝑯𝑯

𝑯 = 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯 𝑯 = 𝑯. 𝑯𝑯 𝑯𝑯

Conduction through a composite wall

You will agree that in many cases heat transfer involves more than one material. Let us
consider a wall with three layers having a rate of heat transfer, Q passing through each
layer. Here is our illustration for this:

12
Figure 13. A 3-D illustration of a composite wall

From the 3-D illustration in Figure 13, we can extract a 2-D diagram that follows. You
will notice that the 2-D diagram is the front view of the 3-D diagram.

Figure 14. A 2-D illustration of a composite wall

We can now, using respective notations presented in the Figure 14, write the equations
that define the rate of heat transfer through each of the three layers. The rate of heat
transfer through the first layer is as follows:

3.3

Now, we can define the equation for the rate of heat transfer through layer two as
follows:

13
 3.4

Finally, we can define the rate of heat transfer through layer 3 as:

3.5

Using the equations that we have defined above, we can determine the rates of heat
transfer through each of the three layers and the interface and surface temperatures.
You will agree that it may not be easy for us to accurately measure the interface
temperatures (t2 and t3) unless we have some sophisticated means of doing so. In view
of this, it is usually unlikely that the interface temperatures are known while the outside
temperatures are easily measured (known). We can compute the values of the interface
temperatures by combining the three equations and simplify the result. The section that
follows presents we can do this.

The first step is to transpose equations (1), (2) and (3). To transpose the equations, we
will group temperature terms together in each equation by bringing them to the left side
of the equation. Equation 2 becomes:

3.6

while equation 3 is:

3.7

14
and equation 4:

3.8

If we add equations (4), (5) and (6) we will have:

3.9

Making Q the subject of the formula gives us

3.10

Based on what we have found in equation 9, let us have a close look at t 4. You will
agree that t4 is the same as t3+1. The number of layers in the composite wall from which
we have derived the equation is 3. This implies that if the number of layers, 3, is
replaced by n, the subscript for the latter temperature term would be tn+1. Hence for n
layers,

3.11

15
 Example

A brick wall 250 mm thick is faced with concrete 50 mm thick. The brick has a
coefficient of thermal conductivity of 0.69 W/m K while that of the concrete is 0.93
W/m K. The temperature of the exposed brick face is 30oC and that of the concrete is
5oC.
Determine the heat loss per hour through a wall 10 m long and 5 m high. Find the
interface temperature.

We can illustrate this problem as follows:

Figure 15. A two layered (composite) wall

a) We can find the rate of heat loss as follows:

Heat lost per hour = 3.004 kJ/s x 3600 s/hr

= 10, 815 kJ/h

16
 b) Now, let us find the interface temperature. We can do this using either the brick
wall or the concrete.

For the brick wall:

Therefore,
t2 = t1 - (Qx1/k1A)
= 30 – (3004 x 0.25)/(0.69 x 50) =8.2oC

Alternatively you can use the concrete to get the same answer {i.e. t2= t3 + (3004 x
0.05)/(0.93 x 50) = 8.2oC}

[Link] Convection

You may recall that at ordinary temperatures most heat transfer in liquids and gases is
by convection. In convection heat transfer, heat is transferred to or from an object by
the mass movement of either a liquid or gas. We will now discuss heat transfer by
convection in more detail.

[Link].1 Rate of heat transfer by convection

You should note that the rate of heat flow depends on the temperature of the moving
fluid and the rate of flow. Convection transfer can occur in any liquid or gas. There are
many factors that influence the value of convective heat transfer. Due to that, it is almost
impossible to determine individual effects of each of the factors by direct experimental

17
methods.

You may be aware that the heat transfer rate per unit area is dependent on those physical
properties which affect the flow pattern. These properties are as follows:

 Fluid viscosity and density;

 The specific heat capacity of the fluid;
 The fluid’s thermal conductivity (thermal properties);
 The linear dimension of the surface
 The velocity of flow of the fluid over the surface;
 The temperature difference;
 The factor determining the natural circulation effect caused by the expansion of the
fluid on heating; and
 Acceleration due to gravity.

Let us now define the rate of heat transfer by convection as follows:

Equation 32

where qc = convective heat transfer rate (W)

h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2. K)
A = surface area (m2)
ts = surface temperature (K)
t = free stream fluid temperature (K)

You should know that the laws governing the rate of heat transfer by convection are
very complex because complex fluid dynamic phenomena are involved. We can
determine the value of the heat transfer coefficient, h, from relationships that have been
found experimentally.

[Link].2 Radiation
Classification of Heat Transfer by Convection

18
We can classify heat transfer by convection is usually classified as either natural or
forced convection. Natural convection involves fluid motion resulting from differences
in fluid density and the action of gravity while forced convection involves fluid motion
created by a fan or pump. You should note that heat transfer coefficients for natural
convection are generally much lower than those for forced convection.

Let us now discuss an example of heat transfer by natural convection between a cold
fluid and a hot surface. The fluid in immediate contact with the surface is heated by
conduction, expands and becomes lighter, and rises due to the density differences.
Forced convection heat transfer is determined by the flow conditions and by the fluid
properties. The flow conditions may be laminar or turbulent and we can determine the
flow condition using the Reynolds number. The fluid properties in question include
density and viscosity and can be determined using the Prandtl number.

Under forced convection, the convection currents are sometimes assisted by means of
a pump to enhance the transfer of heat. For example, a small pump is set up in the
cooling system of motor vehicle engines to assist the convection currents.

[Link] Radiation

Let us now discuss heat transfer by radiation. The transfer of heat energy by radiation
requires no transfer medium. Since no medium is required for the heat energy
transmission, the phenomenon is closely allied to the transmission of light or radio
waves.

A classic example of heat energy transmission by radiation is the transfer of heat energy
from the sun to the earth. You should note that the temperature level of the emitting
surface largely controls the quantity of the heat transmitted.

We need to note that the amount of energy a body will emit or absorb by radiation is
affected by whether its surface is dark or light. Radiant energy transfer follows the same
laws as light. The laws are:
 It is transmitted through space
 It follows a straight-line path

19
  It can be reflected
 It can be absorbed
 It can produce a heating effect or be re-transmitted

It is important for us to know that radiant energy must first be absorbed by a substance
in order for it to be converted to heat. Also, heat cannot be transmitted by radiation
through an opaque material but is instead partially absorbed by and reflected from the
surface depending on the nature of the body and the wavelength of the radiant energy.
You should know that the atmosphere, glass and translucent materials pass a substantial
amount of radiant energy while absorbing and reflecting some. A glass window pane is
practically transparent to radiant energy from the sun but it is almost entirely opaque to
radiation emitted at a longer wavelength by objects within an enclosure (green house
effect).

Prevost’s theory of exchanges

We should note that a body emits radiation at a rate which is determined by the nature
of its surface and its temperature. The body will absorb radiation at a rate which is
determined by the nature of its surface and the temperature of its surroundings. Radiant
energy is transferred between two bodies in both directions and not just from a warmer
to a cooler body. However, the net transfer is from warm to cool bodies.

It follows that if the surface of a body is such that the body is a good absorber of
radiation, it must be an equally good emitter otherwise its temperature would rise above
that of its surroundings. In particular, matt black surfaces are the best absorbers and the
best emitters of radiation; highly polished silver surfaces are both poor emitters and
poor absorbers.

Black Body Radiation

You may be aware that objects vary in their capacity to absorb, reflect, and emit
radiation. For example, if you put two objects (one shiny and the other one dark) made
out of the same material under direct sunlight, the objects’ temperatures would rise at

20
different rates because of the different natures of solar radiation absorption, reflection
and emission. A "black" body absorbs all radiation it receives and reflects none. It also
emits radiation at the maximum rate for a given temperature. However, there are no
true black bodies in life. Real (gray) bodies reflect some of the incoming radiation and
emit heat at a rate less than that of a black body. Highly absorptive bodies generally
radiate readily while highly reflective ones radiate poorly. An example of a body whose
properties are close to those of a black body is a ball covered with lamp black. The ball
will receive and emit radiation at a high rate. In contract, brightly polished aluminium
is a good reflector, a poor absorber, and a poor radiator.

Emissivity and Absorptivity

From our discussion in the previous section, we can draw the lesson that all real objects
do not absorb or emit all the radiation that is incident upon them. Using a black body
as a reference, we can determine the fraction (or ratio) of incident radiation that gets
absorbed or the fraction of the absorbed radiation that gets emitted from a given body
relative to the absorption or emission of radiation by a black body. We will call these
ratios absorptivity and emissivity. Absorptivity, α, is the fraction of incoming radiation

that is absorbed. Emissivity, ε, is the ratio of the emissive power of a real body to that

of a black body at the same temperature.

We need to note that the emissivity and absorptivity of all real bodies are functions of
absolute temperature and of the radiation wavelengths being absorbed or emitted.

For real bodies, ε and α can be average values over a range of wavelengths or for a
specific wavelength.

Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law

According to Stefan-Boltzmann, the total energy radiated per unit time per unit surface
area of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the body
expressed in Kelvin. We can use the Stefan-Boltzmann equation to calculate the total
emissive power of a black body. The equation reads:

21
 3.12

where α = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 × 10-8 Wm²K4 (a numerical constant of a

perfect radiator); Eb = total emissive power of black body; T = absolute temperature

From Equation 12, we can see that radiant heat transfer of a black body is proportional
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature difference. You may recall that there
are no true black bodies in life. We can, therefore, define the emissive power of a "gray"
body as a fraction of the emissive power of a black body as follows:

3.13

where ε = emissivity

We can find the net heat, qr, transferred by radiation between two bodies at
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively, as:

3.14

where A = Area; α = Stefan-Boltzmann constant; FE is a radiation factor

allowing for part of the radiation being re-radiated to the body it came from; FA
is a geometric factor allowing for size, slope, and orientation of the two bodies

3.9 Unit Summary

In this unit, we have covered heat transfer and temperature measurement. These are
important principles in our daily living because we encounter heat and heat transfer all
the time. For example, we use solar energy to dry clothes, crops and animal feed. We
also take temperature measurements in both human and livestock housing units to
ensure that our living environment and that of livestock are conducive to optimal
productivity. Our knowledge of heat transfer will also help us understand heat transfer

22
processes that occur in farm equipment and machinery in order for us to operate and
maintain them properly.

3.10 Unit Test

3.10.1 The specific heat capacity of water vapour is 2.01 x 103 KJ/kg.K. How much
energy must be added to raise the temperature of 1 gram of steam from
110.0°C to 120°C?

3.10.2 A liquid whose mass is 600 kg occupies a volume of 0.5 m3 at a temperature

of 20oC. What is its specific gravity (to 3 sig. figs), assuming that 2,000 liters
of water at the same temperature weigh 1,982 kg?

3.11 Suggested Answers to the Unit Test

Here are the suggested answers for the Unit Test:

Model Answer for Activity 2.10.1: 20.1 x 103 J

Model Answer for Activity 2.10.2: 1.2

UNIT 4: THERMODYNAMICS
4.0 Introduction
In Unit 2 and 3 you were introduced to heat and calorimetry. The concepts acquired
from these two units shall be greatly applied in this unit. I want to welcome you to this
unit, where we shall continue to look on the relation between heat and work and discuss
various aspects of thermodynamics.
The science of thermodynamics was developed long before the atomic and molecular
was accepted. It involves the description of matter in terms of macroscopic properties
such as pressure, temperature, volume and heat flow. The laws of thermodynamics that

23
we shall discus in this unit are very important for our understanding of heat and energy
flow. The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the law of conservation of
Energy. The second law of thermodynamics sets limits on the efficiency of the
machines and processes that change one form of energy into another.

4.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe parts of a thermodynamic system
 Derive a characteristic gas equation
 State the first and second law of thermodynamics
 Apply the second law of thermodynamics in heat engines and refrigerators
 Calculate coefficient of performance of a refrigerator

Key terms
Ensure that you understand the key term phrases used in this unit as listed below.
 Characteristic gas equation  Heat engine
 Thermodynamics system  Phase
 Thermodynamics state  Entropy
 Thermodynamic process  Carnot Cycle
 Thermodynamic cycle  Refrigerator
 Thermodynamic equilibrium  Coefficient of performance

4.2 IDEAL/PERFECT GAS

This is the gas, which obeys the gas laws at all values of temperature and pressure.
Conditions of an ideal gas
1. Molecules of an ideal gas are point masses
2. There is no IMF between the molecules of an ideal gas.

4.2.1 Gas laws

BOYL’S LAW
States that, the volume of a given mass of a gas at constant is inversely proportional to
its pressure.

24
Or for a given mass of a gas at constant temperature, the product of its pressure and
volume is constant
PV = Constant or V α 1/P
If pressure changes from P1 to P2 and the corresponding volume changes from V1 to
V2
Then P1V1 = P2V2

CHALRES LAW
At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass a gas increases with temperature at a
nearly rate.
Vα T or V/T = Constant
PRESSURE LAW (GAY LUSSAC’S LAW)
The pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature at its absolute temperature at constant volume.
PαT or P/T = Constant

COMBINED GAS EQUATION

If the amount of the gas is constant, then Boyle’s, Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Laws
can be combined into one relationship.

4.2.2 Characteristic gas equation

Consider the combined gas equation

We usually call the equation PV = nRT, the Characteristic

gas equation. Where n is the number of moles and R is the universal
gas constant (8.31J/mol/K).

Activity 1

25
An automobile tyre is filled to a gas pressure of 200 K pa at 10°C. After driving 100km,
the temperature within the tire rises to 40°C. What is the pressure within the tyre now?

4.3 Thermodynamics
We define thermodynamics as the study of heat and its transformation to mechanical
energy. It is a branch of Physics that deals with the relationship between heat and work.
In thermodynamics we usually encounter the following terms; system, surrounding,
boundary and universe.
4.3.1 Classification of thermodynamic systems
Open System: a system in which both mass and energy can cross the boundary.
Closed System: One in which mass does not cross boundaries of the system, but allows
energy to pass through
Isolated System: one in which neither mass nor energy crosses the boundaries of the
system.

4.3.2 Thermodynamic properties

Property
It is defined as any measurable or observable characteristics of the substance when the
system remains in equilibrium state. (i.e.) pressure, temp, density, volume,
Energy, specific volume.
Intensive property
A property, whose value does not depend on the mass of the system is referred to as
intensive property, like temperature, pressure, density, specific volume, etc. These
properties are independent on the mass of the system and they are constant.
Extensive property

26
One whose value depends on the mass of the system, like volume, total Energy, etc.
4.3.3 Control Volume and Control Surface
Control Volume: a specified large number thermal device that has mass flow in and out
of a system called as Control volume.
Control Surface: A system in which both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume is called control surface
4.3.4 Categories of thermodynamic systems
Phase: A phase is a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in chemical
composition and physical structure.
Adiabatic system: An adiabatic system is one, which is thermally insulated from its
surroundings. It can ever, exchange work with its surroundings. If it does not, it
becomes an isolated system
Homogeneous system: a system which consists of a single phase (i.e.) mixture of air
and water vapour, water plus nitric acid.
Heterogeneous system: a system that consists of two or more phases is called
a heterogeneous system (i.e.) water plus steam, ice plus water, water plus oil.
4.3.5 A thermodynamic path and process
Any change a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is known as a
process. We shall now define a thermodynamic path as a series of states through which
a system passes during a process.

State 2
Property B

Path
State 1
Property A State 2 State 1

A Cycle
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its original state at the end of
the process. Thus, for a CYCLE, the initial and the final states are identical.

27
 State 2
Property B

State 1
Property A
[Link] Thermodynamic Processes
Isothermal process: temperature is constant.
Isobaric process: pressure is constant
Isochoric process: volume is constant
Adiabatic process: no heat enters or leaves the system.
Isenthalpic process: enthalpy is constant
Isentropic process: entropy is constant

28
 V=Const
Isochoric
Pressure (P)

P=Const
Isobaric

Volume (V)

h=Const s=Const
Isenthalpic Isentropic
Temperature (T)

T=Const
Isothermal

Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)

[Link] Reversible and irreversible process

Reversible process: Process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
Surroundings. i.e. Both, System and Surroundings are returned to their initial states at
the end of the Process. This is only possible when net Heat and net Work Exchange
between the system and the surroundings is ZERO for the Process.
Irreversible process: Most of the Processes in nature are irreversible, i.e. Having taken
place, they cannot reverse themselves spontaneously and restore the System to its
original State.
4.3.6 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermal Equilibrium - The temperature of the system does not change with time and
has same value at all points of the system. Under thermal equilibrium, there is no
transfer of heat.

29
Mechanical Equilibrium - There are no unbalanced forces within the system or between
the surroundings. The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not change
with respect to time.
Chemical Equilibrium - No chemical reaction takes place in the system and the
chemical composition that is same throughout the system does not vary with time.
Phase equilibrium – Occurs to a system having more than one phase. Mass of each
phase is in equilibrium

Activity 2
Explain the relationship between an isobaric process and mechanical equilibrium.

4.4 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

We have seen in section 4.3.6 that in thermal equilibrium there is no heat transfer
between or among the substances in contact. In Zeroth law we are simply applying the
principal of heat transfer under thermal equilibrium.
Zeroth law states that, “If two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium with the third body,
then they are also in Thermal Equilibrium with each other.”
For instance, if A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and B is in thermal equilibrium with
C, then A and C are in thermal equilibrium with each. Zeroth law serves as a basis of
validity for temperature measurement in science.

A B
C

25 ºC 25 ºC 25 ºC

4.5 First law of thermodynamics

You may recall from unit 5 in Physics module 1, that we discussed the law of
conservation of energy. The first law of thermodynamics is the application of the law
of conservation of energy to thermal systems. The law states that:
“Whenever heat is added to a system, it transforms to an equal amount of some other
forms of energy.”

30
We may alternatively define the first law as
“The change in internal energy of a system is equal to heat added to the system minus
the work done by system.”

4.1
You may deduce from this law that whenever you add heat to a system, it will be turned
into internal energy of the system or it will do some work.
In order to avoid confusion of signs when dealing with the first law of thermodynamics
we are going to summarize all sign conversion in a table.
VARIABLES SIGNS
Work done by the system Negative [- ve]
Work done on the system Positive [+ ve]
Heat released by the system Negative [+ ve]
Heat added to the system Positive [+ ve]
Increase in internal energy Positive [+ ve]
Decrease in internal energy Negative [- ve]

Example
If 60J of work is done on a gas and the gas loses 150J of heat to its surroundings.
What is the change in internal energy?
Solution:
60J of work is done on the system, and then work done is positive (+W)
W = 60J
150J of heat is released by the system, and then heat in the system is negative (- Q), Q
= - 150J

Δ U = - 150 + 60J = - 90J

Application of the first law of thermodynamics
We want to apply the first law of thermodynamics to some simple processes.
Limitations of the first law of thermodynamics
1. It does not indicate the direction of transfer of heat
Does not explain why heat cannot flow from cold to hot
2. It does not tell anything about the conditions under which heat can be converted into
work

31
 3. It does not tell why the whole of heat energy cannot be converted into mechanical
work continuously.

Activity 3
A gas starts with 400J of internal energy. When 360J of heat is added to the gas, the
gas does 140J of work. What is the final internal energy?

4.6 Second law of thermodynamics

Having discovered shortfalls in the first law of thermodynamics, scientists came up
with a more clear explanation on heat transfer. The second law of thermodynamics
stipulates that, “Heat flows naturally from a hot body to a cold body; heat will never
of itself flow from a cold body to a hot body.”
Or “When work is done by a heat engine, running between two temperatures, TH
(Hot) and TL (cold), only some of the input energy at TH can be converted to work
otherwise the rest is rejected as heat at TL.”

4.6.1 Kelvin-Plank and Clausius statements

a) Kelvin-Planck Statement
“It is impossible to construct a system which when operating in a cycle will extract heat
energy from a single source and do an equal amount of work on the surroundings”.Ie
never possible to achieve 100% thermal efficiency
b) Clausius Statement
“It is impossible to construct a device which when operating in a cycle has no other
effect than the transfer of heat energy from a cool to a hotter body”.Ie some work is
done on or by the working fluid to the surroundings or vice versa.
32
4.4.2 Entropy
May be defined in the following ways:
We may define entropy in a number of ways: It is the measure of the disorderliness of
a system. Alternatively
Entropy is the measure of the amount of energy, which is unavailable to do work.
Is a state variable whose change whose change is defined for a reverse process at T
where Q is heat absorbed
Entropy (S) = Heat absorbed (Q) / Temperature (T)
The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics says that during any process:
 Suniverse =  Ssystem +  Ssurroundings  0 4.2
Change in entropy
When a system goes from state one to state two, its entropy changes by the same
amount ΔS, whether a hypothetical reversible path is followed or a real irreversible
path is taken.

4.4.3 HEAT ENGINES

A heat engine is a device that converts heat into mechanical work
Characteristics of Heat Engines:
[Link] receive the Heat from High-Temp Reservoir ( i.e. Source )
[Link] convert part of this Heat to Work
[Link] reject the remaining Heat to Low-Temp Reservoir ( i.e. Sink )
They operate on a CYCLE.
Heat Engines are generally Work – Producing devices,

33
e.g. Gas Turbines, I.C. Engines, Steam Power Plants, etc.

HEAT ENGINE :

High
Temp
4.3
Qin

4.4
Heat Engine Wnet

Qout

Low
Temp

Efficiency of a heat engine

Is the ratio of the work done (W) to the input Heat (Qin ) at higher temperature

4.5

4.6

4.7

A Carnot cycle consist of two reversible adiabatic and two isothermal processes
operating between temperature TH and TC

34
 4.4.4 CARNOT CYCLE
The very best theoretically possible heat engine is the Carnot engine. The efficiency
of a Carnot engine depends on the temperature of the hot and cold reservoirs.

Tcold
eCarnot  1
Thot
Note : The temperatu res must
Consider the following two equations
be measured in Kelvins!!!
for efficiency of Carnot engine

4.8

4.9

Equating equations 4.8 and 4.9 we have

4.10

35
Example
A carnot engine absorbs 1000J of heat from a reservoir at 127°C and rejects 600J
during each cycle. Calculate
a. Efficiency of the engine
b. The temperature of the sink
c. The amount of useful work done in each cyle

Solution:
Lets first identify what we have from the given information;
QH = 1000J, QC = 600J, TH = 127°C.
Since all temperatures must be in Kelvin, we have to convert 127°C to Kelvin
TH = 127 + 273 = 400K
a. Efficiency of the engine
Since we have QH and QC, we are going to apply equation number 4.7:

= 1 – 0.6

η = 0.4 or 40%

b. Temperature of the sink TL

Here we are going to use equation 4.10

TL = = 240K or -33°C

c. Useful work
We will use equation 4.4
W = QH - QL
W = 1000J – 600J = 400J

36
Types of Engines
External combustion Engine: the one in which the working substance is produced
by burning the fuel outside the cylinder, E.g. steam engine
Internal combustion engine: fuel is burned inside the cylinder e.g. petrol engine
Activity 4
1. A glass rod is heated and then blown by a glassblower. When it is at 185°C it is
brought outside to cool. 3200 J of heat are transferred from the glass to the air, which
is at 18°C. Find the change in entropy of the universe.
2. A Carnot absorbs 1000J of heat from a reservoir at 127°C and rejects 600J of heat
during each cycle. Calculate
a. The efficiency of the engine
b. The temperature of the sink
c. The amount of useful work done during each cycle

4.5 REFRIGERATOR
A refrigerator is a heat engine running in reverse
It transfers heat from a colder body (sink) to a hotter body (source).
This is achieved by doing work on the refrigerator

37
 Surrounding Air
Q
H
Condenser

Wnet, in
Expansion
Valve

Compressor
Evaporator
QL
Refrigerated Space

[TH] Warm
Environment

QH
Wnet
Refrigerator

QL
Refrigerated
Space [TL]

4.5.1 Coefficient of Performance (COP)

Performance of a refrigerator is measured by its coefficient of performance.
Coefficient of Performance of a refrigerator is the ratio of heat extracted per cycle at
low temperature to the work input required.

4.11

But we saw in equation 4.4 that: W = QL - QL if make we substitute for W in equation

4.11, we get

4.12

Sometimes we calculate coefficient of performance of a refrigerator, using sink and

source temperatures. In this case quantities in equation 4.12 are represented in terms of

38
their corresponding temperatures, thus TL for QL and TH for QH as shown in equation
4.13.

4.13

Example
A farm shop refrigerator has a coefficient of performance of 6. If the room temperature
outside the refrigerator is 30°C, what is the lowest temperature that can be obtained
inside the refrigerator.
Solution
The easier way to solve this problem is to know the right equation to be used by first
identifying given terms and missing terms. In our case we are given COP = 6 and
temperature outside the refrigerator TH. We have been asked to calculate (are missing)
the temperature inside the refrigerator TL.
In this case we are going to apply equation 4.13,

1818K - 6TL = TL
7TL = 1818K
TL = 260K.

Activity 5
A household refrigerator has a coefficient of performance of 6.0. If the room
temperature outside the refrigerator is 30°C, what is the lowest temperature that can be
obtained inside the refrigerator?

4.6 Practice Activity

An Agricultural Economist wants to buy a very effective refrigerator for Bunda farm
shop. On the market there are two models of refrigerators. Model A works between -
10°C and 27°C while model B works between -27°C and 17°C. Both A and B can
remove 2000J of heat from the freezer. Which refrigerator should she buy and why?
(Show your working)

39
 4.7 Unit summary
In this unit we have discussed important concepts in the transformation of heat to
mechanical energy. Pressure, temperature, volume, enthalpy and entropy are
parameters that are involved in the transformation of heat. This transformation follows
a particular thermodynamic process which takes a specific path.

Unit Test
1. In a refrigerator, heat from inside at 277K is transferred to a room at 300K. How
many joules of heat shall be delivered to the room for each joule for each joule
of electrical energy consumed ideally?

2. What amount of work has to be done in converting 1kg of water into steam at
100°C and normal atmospheric pressure? [The volume of 1 kg of water at 100°C
is 10-3 m3 and that of 1 kg of steam is 1.671m and the normal pressure is 105
Nm-2.

3. Calculate the change in internal energy of a block of copper of mass 200g when
it is heated from 25°C to 75°C. Assume the change in volume is negligible.
Specific heat of copper is 0.1/g/K

4. 1.0 m3 of water is converted into 1671 m3 of steam at atmospheric and 100°C

temperature. The latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.3 × 106 J/kg. If 2.0 kg
of water is converted into steam at atmospheric pressure and 100°C temperature,
then how much will be the increase in its internal energy? [Density of water =
1×103 kg m-3 and atmospheric pressure = 1.01×105 Nm-2].

5. What amount of heat must be supplied to 2×10-2 kg of nitrogen (at room

temperature) to raise its temperature by 45°C at constant pressure (molecular
mass of N2 = 28; R=8.3J/mol/K; CP = 3.5R)

6. Let temperatures T1 and T2 of the two heat reservoirs in the ideal Carnot engine
be 1500°C and 500°C respectively. Which of these, increasing T1 by 100°C or
decreasing T2 by 100°C, would result in a greater improvement in the efficiency
of the engine?

40
 7. Calculate the efficiency of the Carnot engine working between the steam point
and ice point.

8. A Carnot engine whose low temperature reservoir is at 7°C, has an efficiency

of 50%. It is desired to increase the efficiency to 70%. By how many degrees,
the temperature of the high-temperature reservoir is increased?

Suggested Answers to Unit Activities

Activity 1
232 Pa.
Activity 2
They both occur at constant pressure
Activity 3
620 J.
Activity 4
1. 4J/K
2. a.) 40% b.) 240K c.) 400J

Activity 5
260 K
Practice Activity
She should buy refrigerator A. Refrigerator A has a high coefficient of performance
than refrigerator B, hence more effective.
Unit Test
1. 13J
2. 1.670 x 105J
3. 4200J
4. 4.263 x 106 J
5. 934 J
6. Decreasing the temperature by 100°C
7. 26.81%
8. 373.3K

41
UNIT 5: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
5.0 Introduction
Before the fifteenth century, man used other sources energy for lighting, cooking and
even production. There was little Electrical phenomena have been studied since
antiquity; though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity
were few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able
to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology
at this time transformed industry and society. Electricity's extraordinary versatility
means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which
42
include transport, heating, lighting, communications, agriculture and computation.
Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society.

5.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe the structure of an atom in relation to static and current electricity
 Differentiate static electricity from current electricity
 Design parallel and series circuits
 Apply Kirchhoff’s rules in circuit analysis
 Explain the applications of Faraday’s law

Key terms
Ensure that you understand the key term phrases used in this unit as listed below:
 Charge  Magnetic flux
 Circuit  Faraday’s law
 Kirchhoff’s rules  Transformers
 Lenz law  Magnetic field
 Ohms law  Electric Field

5.2 Atomic Structure

As you have learnt from secondary school physical science, an atom is made up of
neutrons, protons and electrons. Electrons are found in the outer most shells and have
a negative charge and a negligible mass. Protons and neutrons are found at the center
of an atom. Protons are positively charged and have a unit mass. Neutrons have a zero
charge and a unit mass. Figure 5.1 is shows a structure of an atom.

43
 Figure 5.1: Atomic Structure

Activity 1
Explain how does the position of electrons and protons in an atom affect their
movement when conducting current.

5.3 Electric Charge and Fields

In most cases you wonder when you see sparks or hear a sparkling sound when
putting off nylon clothes. In this case, the sparks are the result of transfer of electric
charges.

5.3.1 Electric Charge

We shall define electric charge as the intrinsic characteristic of the fundamental
particles making up insulators. Electricity in insulators is transferred through negative
charge carriers (electrons) and positive charge carriers (protons). An insulator that
increases the number of charges by getting extra positive charges becomes positively
charged. On the contrary, an insulator that has a deficit of positive charges (has more
electrons that protons) is considered as negatively charged.
The SI Unit for electric charge is a Coulomb (C). Q or q represents electric charge.

5.3.2 Electric Field

When you rub your pen against your hair and bring it close to a heap of small small
pieces of papers, a pen attracts pieces of paper; hence they jump to the pen. But the

44
attraction forces excreted on the pieces of paper by the pen depend on pen’s distance
from the pieces of papers. This illustrates to us that it is only within a certain distance
that pieces of papers will jump to the pen. The area around an electric charge where
electrostatic forces are experienced is referred to as an electric field.
We represent the intensity of an electrostatic field at any point as force per unit charge.
Mathematically is given as in equation 5.1

5.1

The SI Unit for electric field intensity is Newton per coulomb or volts per meter; N/C
or V/m.
Example 1
Find the magnitude of the force acting on a 2.5 C charge, placed in an electric field with
an intensity of 10N/C.
Solution:
Here we have Q = 2.5C, E = 10N/C and F =?
To work out F we have to make F subject of the formula in equation 5.1
Then F = EQ = 2.5 C x 10N/C = 25N.

Activity 2
Calculate the value of the magnetic field intensity, given that a force of 0.02N is being
exerted on a 10μC charge

5.4 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law is sometimes defined as the inverse square law. It describes the
relationship between the force of attraction between two or more charges and the
distance between them. We state coulomb’s law as:
“The electrostatic force (F) between two point charges (q1) and (q2) is directly
proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance (r) between their centres.”
We can express Coulomb’s law mathematically as shown in equation 5.2

5.2

45
Example 2
Calculate the value of two equal changes if they repel each other with a force of 0.1 N
when situated at 50 cm apart in vacuum.
Solution:
To successfully solve this problem we have to first identify what we have:
F = 0.1N; r = 50 cm; k = 9 x 10 9 C2/N/m2; q1 = q2 =?
Lets convert 50cm to meters, which is 50/100 = 0.5 m
Now we are going to apply equation 5.2

let us now substitute the given values

But we are told in the question that and we can equate this to , then

, then

Making q the subject of the formula, we have:

or

Activity 3

5. 5 Resistivity and Conductivity

Resistivity
Resistivity is the measure of how strong a conductor resist the flow of electric current.
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (Ωm). Equation 5.3 shows an equation for
resistivity:

46
 5.3

Where, R is resistance of the conductor

A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor
l is the length of the conductor and
ρ is the resistivity of a conductor

Conductivity
Conductivity is the inverse (opposite) of resistivity. We may define conductivity as the
measure of how well a metal allows the flow of current. Conductivity is measured in
Ω-1m-1.
In this case we may deduce that the higher the resistivity of a conductor the lower the
conductivity. Mathematically is represented as shown in equation 5.4.

5.4

Activity 4
A metal rod is 2m in long and 8mm in diameter. Compute its resistance if the resistivity
of the metal is 1.76 x 10-8 Ωm.

5.6 Electric Current

Each time we hear the term electric current; our mind begins to visualize a number of
electrical appliances (bulbs, electric iron, a kettle, a cooker, radio cassettes, etc.) that
we have ever handled in our lives. You may recall from your secondary school physical
science that electrons in insulators localized (stationary) and hence cannot produce
electric current but rather static electricity. On the contrary, electrons in metals are
delocalized (move randomly). When a cell is connected to a conductor the free moving
electrons in a wire align themselves and flow uniformly in one specified direction. The
uniform flow of electric current is known as electric current.
You may also express electric current as the rate of change of electric charge. Electric
current is measured in Coulomb per second (Coulomb/s) or Amperes (A). Relation 5.5
shows an equation for electric current.

47
 5.5

5.6.1 Ohms Law

Ohms law describes the relationship among current, voltage and resistance in a
circuit. Ohms law may be stated in a variety of ways but all meaning the same thing.
In this section we shall define Ohms law as:
“The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current
passing through the conductor.”
Or, “Voltage is equal to the product of resistance and current.”
5.6

5.6.2 Ohms Law and Resistance

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current and is measured in Ohms.
The behavior of current, voltage and resistance in circuit depends on the arrangement
of each circuit. We can arrange our circuit as a parallel circuit or a series circuit.

5.6.3 Series Circuit

When you connect three resistors connected as shown in figure 5.2, the following facts
follow:

FIGURE 5.2
Facts on Series Resistors
1. Current is the same through all resistors
2. Total voltage (PD) = sum of individual voltages (pds): V = V1+ V2+ V3
3. Individual potential difference (voltage) is directly proportional to individual
resistances V1=IR1, V2= IR2, V3= IR3
4. Total resistance is greater than individual resistance. R=V/I = R1+R2+R3
5. Total resistance = sum of individual resistances

48
5.6.4 Parallel Circuit
Facts on Parallel Resistors
1. Potential difference (voltage) is the same across each resistor.
V = V1 = V2 = V3 or V = I1R1 = I2R2 = I3R3
2. Total current = sum of individual currents
i. I = I1+ I2 +I3 +
3. Individual currents inversely proportional to individual resistances
4. Effective resistance less than least individual resistance
i. I/V = 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Example
A farmer designed a simple circuit for his chicken kraal. The arrangement of resistors
in his circuit is shown in figure 5.6. If R1 = 3Ω, R2 = 9Ω, R3 = 12Ω and R4 = 6Ω.
Find the value of current passing through R1.

Solution:
We first of all should find the effective resistance of the parallel arrangement,
Effective resistance:
1/RT = 1/3+1/9+1/12
= (12+4+3)/36
= 19/36
RT = 36/19 = 1.9Ω
Then we will consider series resistors: 1.9 Ω
Rnet = 1.9+6 =7.9 Ω

Total current will be given by

49
I = V/R
= 6/7.9
= 0.76A
But we know that voltage in series is divided, then 6V will shared between a R4
resistor and the set of 3 parallel resistors. In this case let us find the voltage across a
3Ω resistor.
VR4 = IR = 0.76A x 6Ω = 4.56V
Then voltage across a set of parallel resistors will simply be the difference between
circuit voltage (6V) and voltage across R4.
VAcross a set of parallel resistors = 6V – 4.56V = 1.44V
At this point we know that voltage across parallel resistors is the same, thus R1, R2
and R3 are all 1.44V.
Finally, it will be easier to calculate the value of current passing through R1, since we
know the values of voltage (1.44V) and resistance (3Ω).

5.6.5 Electrical Power

You may recall that electrical power is the product of voltage and current. We usually
use Ohms law to derive at other equations of power. The SI unit for power is Watt
(W)
P = VI
P = I2R
P = V2/R

5.7 Potential Difference and Internal Resistance

The potential difference is the work done in moving a unit charge from one point to
another. In every cell there is some resistance

50
W = QV = ItV
To calculate power generated by the source:
EI = I2r + I2R
Dividing both sides by I
E = Ir + IR
E = I ( r + R)
Making I subject
I = E/(R+r)
PD across AB: VAB = E – Ir = IR
Then VAB = IR = [E/(R+r)] R

5.7.1 Potential Divider Rule

In order to find the voltage of a single resistor amongst several resistors connected in
parallel, we apply potential divider rule.

I = V0/R = V0/ (R1+R2)……. 1

V1 = IR1 ........................... 2
Sub. Eqn 1 into 2

51
V1 = R1V0/(R1+R2)

5.8 Kirchhoff’s Rules

5.8.1 KIRCHOFF’S JUNCTION RULE
It’s also known as Kirchhoff's current rule
States that, “the sum of the currents entering any junction must be equal to the sum
of currents leaving the junction.”
Alternatively can be defined as, the algebraic (net) sum of the currents at a junction
is zero

I1 = I2 + I3 or ΣI = 0.
Its applied in case where we have more than one loop
Junction rule is based on the conservation of charge
FACTS ON KCL
1. If the direction of the loop is in the same direction of the current, current is positive
2. If the direction of the loop is in the opposite direction to current, current is negative
3. The direction of the loop should be the same in every loop

5.8.2 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE RULE

States that, the algebraic sum of voltages around a closed circuit loop is zero.
ΣV=0
FACTS ON KVL
1. If the direction of the loop moves from positive to negative side o0f a cell, V is
negative
2. If the direction of the loop moves from positive to negative side of the loop
3. The direction of the loop should be same in every loop

Activity 5
Find the value of I1, I2 and I3 in figure 5.8

52
 5.9 Electric and magnetic Fields
5.9.1 Magnetic Fields
A region where magnetic forces are experienced
B = FB / qv
FB = B|q|v
If we have an angle between ϕ B and V then
FB = B×|q|× v × sin ϕ
Where B = Magnetic field
FB = Magnetic force
q = Charge
V = velocity
SI unit of B is Tesla (T)

5.9.2 Magnetic Properties of Matter

Diamagnetic substances: substances in which the magnetic moment is weak and

opposite the applied magnetic field.
Paramagnetic substances: substances in which the magnetic moment is weak and in
the same direction as the applied magnetic field.
Ferromagnetic substances: interaction between atoms cause magnetic moments to
align and create a strong magnetization that remains after the external field is
removed.
5.9.3 Electromagnetism

53
Magnetic forces created due to the flow of current in a conductor. The magnetic force
is affected by the magnitude of current and the number of turns in a coil.
Magnetic Field Pattern Round a Flat Coil
A solenoid is obtained by increasing the number of turns of a flat coil. The resulting
magnetic field pattern of a solenoid resembles that of a bar magnet.

Magnetic field pattern around a straight wire

The resulting magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire.

The Right-Hand Grip rule can be used to predict the direction of the magnetic field.

5.9.4 Magnetic Flux and Faraday’s Law of Induction

54
[Link] Induced Electromotive Force

Faraday’s experiment: closing the switch in the primary circuit induces a current in
the secondary circuit, but only while the current in the primary circuit is changing.

The current in the secondary circuit is zero as long as the current in the primary circuit,
and therefore the magnetic field in the iron bar, is not changing.
Current flows in the secondary circuit while the current in the primary is changing. It
flows in opposite directions depending on whether the magnetic field is increasing or
decreasing.
The magnitude of the induced current is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic
field is changing.

55
[Link] Magnetic Flux (Φ)
Φ = ABCos θ
The SI unit is 1T.m2 or Weber (Wb)

Magnetic flux is used in the

calculation of the induced emf.

Faraday’s law of Induction

Faraday’s law: An electromotive force (E) is induced only when the magnetic flux
(Φ) through a loop changes with time (t).

which can be presented as

[Link] Lenz law

Lenz law is a law that is applied in generating electromotive force. It relates the
direction of current and the magnetic flux that causes it. Lenz law states that,
“An induced current always flows in a direction that opposes the change that caused
it.”

56
For instance, if we have a bar magnet and a conductor carrying current as shown in
figure 5.7, When the magnetic field is increasing, the magnetic field created by the
induced current will be in the opposite direction; if decreasing, it will be in the same
direction.

[Link] Electric and Magnetic Fields

There is a direct relationship between magnetic field (B) and an electric field (E). We
now want to consider equations of electric and magnetic fields and establish their
relationship.
Electric Force: Fe = qE
Magnetic Force: FB = qvB
At equilibrium in a conductor having both E and B fields: Fe = FB
Thus qE = qvB
Making q subject:
E = Bv

5.10 Generators and Motors

5.10.1 Generators
An electric generator converts mechanical energy into electric energy. An outside
source of energy is used to turn the coil, thereby generating electricity.

57
5.10.2 Electric Motors
An electric motor is exactly the opposite of a generator – it uses the torque on a
current loop to create mechanical energy.

5.11 Transformers
A transformer is used to change voltage in an alternating current from one value to
another.

58
By applying Faraday’s law of induction to both coils, we can come up with
transformer equations:

Where V is voltage, N is number of turns, p is primary circuit, and s is secondary

circuit.
The power in both circuits must be the same; therefore, if the voltage is lower, the
current must be higher.

Activity

5.5 Practice activity

5.6 Unit summary

Unit Test

Suggested Answers to unit Activities

UNIT 6: LIGHT, OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

6.0 Introduction
What do you see in front of you? We are all able to see just because of light. You can
verify this at night in a dark place; most of us would fail to see anything in the dark.
Light and optical instruments enable us to see very small things, things very far away
and things hidden inside other objects. In this unit we shall be discussing the elementary
principles of light, optics and optical instruments.

6.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Explain the dual nature of light
 Calculate angles of reflection and refraction

59
  State real life examples of reflection and refraction
 Draw the ray diagram for a lens and a mirror showing the object and image
 Describe the difference between a real image and a virtual image and give an example
of each

Key terms
Ensure that you understand the key term phrases used in this unit as listed below.
 Specular
 Diffuse
 Retroreflection
 Critical angle
 Lens
 Mirror
 Light ray
 Medium
 Index of refraction
 Snell’s law
 Prism
 Virtual image
 Real image
 Internal reflection
 Lens Equation

60
 6.2 Nature of light
There are two historical models for the nature of light. The speed of light has been
measured in many ways. Reflection and refraction are the fundamental phenomena in ray
(geometric) optics. Internal reflection is the basis for fiber optics
Before the beginning of the nineteenth century, light was considered to be a stream of
particles. The particles were either emitted by the object being viewed or emanated from
the eyes of the viewer.

Newton was the chief architect of the particle theory of light. He believed the particles left
the object and stimulated the sense of sight upon entering the eyes.
Christian Huygens argued that light might be some sort of a wave motion.
Thomas Young (in 1801) provided the first clear demonstration of the wave nature of light.
He showed that light rays interfere with each other. Such behavior could not be explained
by particles.

Christian Huygens
He lived from 1629 to 1695. He is best known for his contributions to fields of optics and
dynamics. He thought light was a type of vibratory motion. It spread out and produced the
sensation of light when it hit the eye. Huygens deduced the laws of reflection and refraction.
He explained double refraction

6.2.1 Wave nature of light

During the nineteenth century, other developments led to the general acceptance of the
wave theory of light. Thomas Young provided evidence that light rays interfere with one
another according to the principle of superposition. This behavior could not be explained
by a particle theory.
Maxwell asserted that light was a form of high-frequency electromagnetic wave. Hertz
confirmed Maxwell’s predictions.

6.2.2 Particle nature of light

1
In the pursuit to a certain the nature of light, scientists carried out several experiments and
the wave model of light could not explain some experiments. The photoelectric effect was
a major phenomenon not explained by waves.
When light strikes a metal surface, electrons are sometimes ejected from the surface.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electron is independent of the frequency of the light.
Einstein (in 1905) proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect that used the idea of
quantization. The quantization model assumes that the energy of a light wave is present in
particles called photons.
E = hƒ
Where h is Planck’s Constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s and f is frequency
6.2.3 Dual Nature of light
In view of these developments, we consider light as having a dual nature. Light exhibits
the characteristics of a wave in some situations and the characteristics of a particle in other
situations.

Activity 1
Explain two experiments that scientists used to establish:
a. The wave nature of light (one experiment)
b. The particle nature of light (one experiment)

6.3 Reflection and Refraction

6.3.1 Reflection
A ray of light, the incident ray, travels in a medium. When it encounters a boundary with
a second medium, part of the incident ray is reflected back into the first medium. This
means it is directed backward into the first medium. For light waves traveling in three-
dimensional space, the reflected light can be in directions different from the direction of
the incident rays.
[Link] Specular Reflection
Specular reflection is reflection from a smooth surface. The reflected rays are parallel to
each other. All reflection in this unit is assumed to be specular.

2
 Figure 6.1: Specular Reflection
[Link] Diffuse Reflection
Diffuse reflection is reflection from a rough surface. The reflected rays travel in a variety
of directions. A surface behaves as a smooth surface as long as the surface variations are
much smaller than the wavelength of the light.

Figure 6.2: Diffuse Reflection

[Link] Law of Reflection
The law of reflection states that, the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie
in the same plane and the incident angle is the same as the reflected angle.
The normal is a line perpendicular to the surface. It is at the point where the incident ray
strikes the surface. The incident ray makes an angle of θ1 with the normal. The reflected
ray makes an angle of θ1’ with the normal.

3
 Figure 6.3: Law of Reflection
[Link] Multiple Reflections
To achieve multiple reflections we need to have more a single mirror. The incident ray
strikes the first mirror. The reflected ray is directed toward the second mirror. There is a
second reflection from the second mirror. This trend continues up to the last mirror
depending on the number of mirrors used. Figure 6.4 shows multiple reflections.

Figure 6.4: Multiple Reflections

[Link] Retroreflection

4
Assume the angle between two mirrors is 90o. The reflected beam returns to the source
parallel to its original path. This phenomenon is called retroreflection.
Applications include: Measuring the distance to the Moon, Automobile taillights
Traffic signs

Activity 2
Find the values of θM2, θM2’, γ and δ in the Figure 6.4.
6.3.2 Refraction
When a ray of light traveling through a transparent medium encounters a boundary leading
into another transparent medium, part of the energy is reflected and the other part enters
the second medium.
The ray that enters the second medium changes its direction of propagation at the boundary.
This bending of the ray is called refraction.
The incident ray, the reflected ray, the refracted ray, and the normal all lie on the same
plane. The angle of refraction depends upon the material and the angle of incidence.

v1 is the speed of the light in the first medium and v2 is its speed in the second.
The path of the light through the refracting surface is reversible.
For example, a ray travels from A to B.
If the ray originated at B, it would follow the line AB to reach point A.

5
 Figure 6.5: Law of refraction
Refraction V1 > V2
Light may refract into a material where its speed is lower. The angle of refraction is less
than the angle of incidence. The ray bends toward the normal

6
 Figure 6.6: Refraction at V1 > V2
Refraction V2 > V1
Light may refract into a material where its speed is higher. The angle of refraction is greater
than the angle of incidence. The ray bends away from the normal.

Figure 6.7: Refraction at V2 > V1

6.3.3 Light in a medium
The light enters from the left and it may encounter an electron on the way. The electron
may absorb the light, oscillate, and reradiate the light. The absorption and radiation cause
the average speed of the light moving through the material to decrease.

7
 Figure 6.8: Light in a medium
6.3.4 Index of refraction
The speed of light in any material is less than its speed in vacuum.
The index of refraction, n, of a medium can be defined as:

For a vacuum, n = 1
We assume n = 1 for air also
For other media, n > 1
n is a dimensionless number greater than unity.
n is not necessarily an integer.
6.3.5 Indices of refraction

8
 6.4 Snell’s law of refraction
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
θ1 is the angle of incidence
θ2 is the angle of refraction
The experimental discovery of this relationship is usually credited to Willebrord Snell and
is therefore known as Snell’s law of refraction.
Refraction is a commonplace occurrence, so identify an analysis model as a wave under
refraction.

Activity 3.
Light travels from air into optical fiber with an index of refraction of 1.44.
a. In which direction does the light bend?
b. If the angle of incidence on the end of the fiber is 22°, what is the angle of refraction inside
the fiber?

6.5 Practice activity

A light ray of wavelength 589 nm traveling through air is incident on a smooth, flat slab of
crown glass at an angle of 30.0° to the normal. Find
1. The angle of refraction
2. The speed of this light once it enters the glass
3. The wavelength of this light in the glass

9
 6.6 Unit summary

Unit Test

Suggested Answers to Unit Activities

Activity 1
a. Superposition principle
b. Photoelectric effect

Activity 2
θ
M2 = 55°, θM2 = 55°, γ = 35° and δ = 25°
Activity 3
a. Towards the normal
b. 15°

Practice Activity
1. 19.2°
2. 197 x 108 m/s
3. 388 nm

10
References and Bibliography

Brown, R.G. 2013. Introductory physics I: Elementary mechanics. Duke University

Physics Department. Durham, North Carolina.

Bueche, F.J. 1989. Schaum's outline of theory and problems of college physics. 8th Edition.
McGraw-Hill. New York.

Bueche, F. and E. Hecht. 2010. Schaum's outline of theory and problems of college physics.
McGraw-Hill.

Constant F.W. 1967. Fundamental principles of physics. Adson- Wesley Publishing

Company Incorporated.

Giacoli D.C. 1980. Physics. Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey.

Marion J.B. 1979. General Physics with Bioscience Essays. John Wiley and Sons
(International Edition). New York.

McDonough J.M. 2009. Lectures in elementary fluid dynamics: Physics, Mathematics and
Applications. Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mathematics, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

Muncester R. 1990. A level physics. 3rd Edition. ELBS.

Nelkon, M. and P. Parker. 1987. Advanced Level Physics, 6th Edition. Heinmann. London.

Nelkon, M. and P. Parker. 1995. Advanced Level Physics, Pearson Education.

Titcomb G.R.A. and M. Jackson (1970). Fundamentals of engineering science. Hutchinson.

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Titherington D. and J.G. Rimmer. 1970. Applied mechanics. McGraw-Hill. London.

Todd, K.D. and L.W. Mays. 2005. Groundwater Hydrology. 3rd ed. Hoboken, N,J,: John
Wiley and Sons.

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