Edexcel c l le el

Unit 2: Learning
Theories and
Development
Notes

[Link]
Part 1 — The Learning Approach: Behaviourism

A01 Introduction and Assumptions:

• The behaviourist approach is an approach to
explaining behaviour which suggests that all
behaviour is acquired and maintained through
classical and operant conditioning. Hence, only
behaviour which can be objectively measured and
observed is studied, as demonstrated by Skinner’s
Box. This is due to the founders of behaviourism,
Watson and Skinner, disagreeing with the
subjective nature of Wundt’s introspective
methods, and the inability to formulate general
laws and universal principles based on his
observations.
• From a behaviourist perspective, the basic laws
governing learning are the same across both non-
humans and humans. Therefore, non-human
animals can replace humans in behaviourist
experimental research.

Classical Conditioning and Examples:

• Classical Conditioning = A type of learning which
occurs through associations made between the
unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus. Before conditioning, the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) produces the unconditioned response (UCR). During conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS, producing an UCR. After conditioning, the
neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response.
• Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate upon hearing a bell, as follows:
1. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) produced an unconditioned response
(salivation).
2. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus
(a bell), to produce the same unconditioned response of salivation.
3. An association was made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus.
4. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus, producing the
conditioned response of salivation.
• Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no
longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus, so the
conditioned response becomes extinct/disappears.
• Spontaneous recovery occurs when the individual
carries out the conditioned response some time after
extinction has occurred.
• Generalisation occurs when slight changes in the
conditioned stimulus, such as different pitches of the
bell used in Pavlov’s experiment, still produces the same
conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning and Examples:

• Operant conditioning = A type of learning where
behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its
consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observed behaviour being
repeated, whilst punishment (an unpleasant consequence of behaviour) decreases this
likelihood.
• There are two types of reinforcement - positive and negative. Positive reinforcement occurs
when we carry out a behaviour to receive a reward e.g. completing homework to receive praise
from a teacher. On the other hand, negative reinforcement occurs when we carry out a
behaviour to avoid negative consequences e.g. completing homework to avoid being given a
detention.
• Skinner’s Box = Skinner demonstrated, using a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to

[Link]
 receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their
rewards. Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to
avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock.

A02 Potential Application Questions:

1. An understanding of the role of classical conditioning in the acquisition and maintenance of a
phobia of white rats in Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920). It would be particularly useful
to discuss the extinction of Little Albert’s phobia when the loud bang /conditioned stimulus no
longer produced the conditioned response of crying (when the loud bang was not paired with
the sight of the rat). Generalisations of his phobia to other white, fluffy objects may also be
discussed.
2. Being able to differentiate between classical and operant conditioning. These two types of
learning involve different mechanisms and have been demonstrated in different scenarios.

A03 Evaluation:
+ Scientific Rigour = In an attempt to objectively and systematically collect reliable data, the
behaviourist approach makes use of highly scientific research methods, particularly the
laboratory experiment. Strictly-controlled conditions reduce and control for the effects of
confounding and extraneous variables, increasing the reliability and internal validity of the
findings (as these are more likely to be replicated when research is conducted under the same
conditions). By focusing on behaviour which is observable and can be measured, the
behaviourist approach increases the scientific credibility of psychology.

+ Real-Life Applications = An increased understanding of classical and operant conditioning has

led to the development of treatments and therapies for serious mental disorders. For example,
token economies have been used as a way of dealing with offending behaviour: inmates who
carry out socially-desirable behaviour (such as tidying their cell and avoiding conflicts) receive
tokens (secondary reinforcers) which can be traded for privileges (primary reinforcers), such as
extra TV-time. Therefore, behaviourist principles have had positive impacts on the lives of many.

— Environmental Determinism = The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as the product of
past reinforcement contingencies, leaving no room for free will or conscious choices. This hard
deterministic stance may be a more appropriate explanation for animal behaviour, whereas
explanations of human behaviour should also account for emotions, motivations and reasoning
skills (e.g. as social learning theory does). Hence, the behaviourist approach may be a limited
explanation for human behaviour.

— Cost-benefit analyses with the use of animals in experimental research = Skinner’s box caused
considerable physical harm to the rats, breaching the BPS ethical guideline of protection from
harm. Watson and Rayner’s classical conditioning experiments on Little Albert failed to protect
him from psychological harm, as well as not offering him the opportunity to withdraw. Therefore,
much behaviourist research, at least by modern standards, would be viewed as unethical.
However, a cost-benefit analysis may show that the benefit of increased understanding of the
different types of learning (classical and operant conditioning) outweigh the ethical costs.

Part 2 — The Learning Approach: Social Learning Theory

A01 Introduction and Assumptions:

• Social learning theory (SLT) suggests that learning occurs both directly, through classical and
operant conditioning, and indirectly, through vicarious reinforcement.
• Assumes that learning occurs through the following stages: An observer identifies themselves
with a desirable role model. This role model displays or models a specific behaviour, which is
imitated by the observer. The likelihood that the observed behaviour will be imitated is increased
if the role model is seen to be ‘vicariously reinforced’ or rewarded. Therefore, the consequences
of the observed behaviour are more important than observing the behaviour alone.
• Role Model = A person with whom the observer identifies with. The role model is usually
attractive, has high social status, is of a similar age and the same gender to the observer. This
model can exert influence indirectly by not being physically present in the environment but, for
example, seen in the media.

[Link]
• Identification = The process by which an observer relates to/ associates themselves with a role
model and aspires to become more like that role model.
• Vicarious reinforcement = A type of indirect learning which occurs when an observer sees their
role model being rewarded for displaying a certain behaviour. The observer is then motivated to
imitate this behaviour, in an effort to receive the same reward.
• Mediational processes = Cognitive processes which mediate/intervene between stimulus and
response. The 4 mediational processes are: Attention, retention, motor reproduction and
motivation.
• The first two mediational processes are involved with the observation and understanding of the
behaviour, whilst the latter two are involved in the actual imitation of the behaviour. This
separation means that observed behaviours do not always need to be reproduced at the same
time.

A02 Potential Applications:

1. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1961) - 36 boys and 36 girls, aged
between 3 and 6 years old, were tested. 1There were three experimental groups, with the first
being exposed to real-life aggressive models, a second group observing the same models
displaying aggressive acts on film and a third group viewing an aggressive cartoon character.
The researchers found that the children who’d observed an aggressive role model behaved
more aggressively themselves towards the Bobo doll compared to the non-aggressive role
model control group. Links can be made to the process of social learning theory.
2. Questions may be based upon why some individuals are chosen as role models rather than
others, why some children will not reproduce the observed behaviours (individual differences
in the use of mediational processes) and the influence of the media on behaviour, according
to SLT.
3. Comparisons with other approaches, specifically about why SLT may be a better explanation
for human, rather than animal, behaviour.

A03 Evaluation:

— Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment ignores the biological differences between boys and girls =
Social learning theory suggests that we learn from experience, and so ignores other biological or
psychological factors, thus adopting environmental determinism. However, Bandura ignored the
finding that 2“boys, in relation to girls, exhibited significantly more imitative aggression, more
aggressive gun play, and more nonimitative aggressive behaviour”. This may be explained due to
boys having higher levels of the hormone testosterone, which has been linked to increased
aggressiveness. Therefore, this suggests that SLT may not be a complete explanation for gender
differences in behaviour, due to not accounting for the biological and hormonal differences
between the sexes.

— Demand characteristics in Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment = Bandura’s study may lack
internal validity, due to not entirely investigating the effect of aggressive role models because the
Bobo doll is specifically designed to be hit. The study may also lack mundane realism because it
may not represent or measure how children would be aggressive in day-to-day situations,
perhaps towards objects or people that are not meant to be struck. Therefore, participants may
have deliberately acted more aggressively towards the doll in order to please the experimenter
(the ‘Please-U effect’). This reduces the generalisability of the findings.

+ Acknowledges the role of human cognition = Human cognitive and decision-making processes
may be considered as more complex than that of animals. SLT has the advantage, over
behaviourism, that it recognises the role of mediational processes as the conscious and
cognitive insight that humans have into their behaviour. Therefore, SLT may be a better
explanation of human behaviour, compared to behaviourism.

1Bandura, Ross and Ross, Imitation of Film-Mediated Aggressive Model, Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 1963, 66(1), 3-11.
2
Bandura, Ross and Ross, Imitation of Film-Mediated Aggressive Model, Journal of Abormal and
Social Psychology, 1963, 66(1), 3-11.

[Link]
Part 3: Introduction to Key Study - Becker et al (2002)
• Becker investigated the link between exposure to media/TV and the incidence rates of eating
disorders, and particularly looked towards classical conditioning/social learning theory to
explain this. The island of Fiji was studied in a natural experiment, as this location was one of
the last in the world to receive satellite TV.
• The researchers used a total of 128 participants between 1995 and 1998 (girls with an average
age of 17), who all completed the EAT-26 questionnaire before being interviewed about any
potential diet changes and the importance of weight.
• The researchers found a 30% increase in the incidence of TV exposure in the girl’s households,
with 74% having reported that they were dissatisfied with their body image in 1998, despite
Fijian culture seeing ‘plump’ women as the ideal for beauty. The qualitative data gathered from
the interviews showed that the girls made comparisons between themselves and the role
models on TV, which supports the idea of modeling and social learning theory as a mechanism
for disordered eating behaviour.

— There are issues of generalisability with this study. Since Fiji had been so isolated from the
world, they had developed strong cultural beliefs about norms and standards for beauty, which
differ significantly from that of the Western world. This, alongside the small sample size, suggests
that the findings are culture-bound, and so cannot readily be applied to Western cultures where
teenagers are typically exposed to ‘skinny’ role models from an early age by growing up with TV
as a cultural norm.

+ A particular strength related to the methodology is that the interviews were recorded. This
means that a content analysis could be carried out (coding the qualitative data) and then these
results could be statistically analysed, to assess the significance of the frequency of each of the
comments. This means that the data could be interpreted objectively, increasing the validity of
the conclusions drawn.

— The main issue of validity stems from the fact that the Becker et al study was a natural
experiment. This means that extraneous and confounding variables were not controlled for, and
so these variables may have caused the changes in eating behaviour, as opposed to social
learning theory through the influence of the introduction of TV. For example, it is naive to assume
that the only influence of TV would be on eating behaviour, as there would be many changes in
society and the way in which citizens spent their free time when TV was introduced.

Part 4: The Behavioural Approach to Explaining Phobias

Mowrer suggested that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and then maintained
through operant conditioning. Watson and Rayner demonstrated how Little Albert associated the
fear caused by a loud bang with a white rat. He was exposed to a white rat (NS), producing no
response. When paired with the loud bang (UCS), this produced the UCR of fear. Through several
repetitions, Albert made the
association between the rat
(CS) and fear (CR). This
conditioning then generalised
to other objects e.g. white fluffy
Santa Claus hats. Operant
conditioning takes place when
a behaviour is rewarded or
punished. For example,
phobics practice avoidance
behaviours, meaning that they
avoid the phobic stimulus. By
avoiding this phobic stimulus,
they avoid the associated fear.
By avoiding such an
unpleasant consequence, the
avoidance behaviour is
negatively reinforced and likely

[Link]
to be repeated again, hence maintaining the phobia.

+ The main advantage of this theory is that it can explain the mechanism behind the acquisition
and maintenance of phobias, which classical or operant conditioning alone cannot do. This
translates to practical benefits in systematic desensitisation and flooding. Mowrer emphasises
the importance of exposing the patient to the phobic stimulus because this prevents the negative
reinforcement of avoidance behaviour. The patient realises that the phobic stimulus is harmless
and that their responses are irrational/disproportionate, thus translating into a successful therapy.

— = Buck suggested that safety is a greater motivator for avoidance behaviour, rather than simply
avoiding the anxiety associated with the phobic stimulus. For example, he uses the example of
social anxiety phobias - such sufferers can venture out into public but only with a trusted friend,
despite still being exposed to hundreds of strangers which would usually trigger their anxiety. This
means that Mowrer’s explanation of phobias may be incomplete and only suited for some.

— = Alternative explanation for the acquisition of phobias - Seligman suggested that we are more
likely to develop phobias towards ‘prepared’ stimuli. These are stimuli which would have posed a
threat to our evolutionary ancestors, such as fire or deep water, and so running away from such a
stimulus increases the likelihood of survival and reproduction, and so this behaviour has a
selective evolutionary advantage. This means that alternative theories can explain why some
phobias (i.e. towards prepared stimuli) are much more frequent than other phobias (i.e. towards
unprepared stimuli).

Part 5: The Behavioural Approach to Treating Phobias

Systematic desensitisation is a behavioural therapy designed to reduce phobic anxiety through
gradual exposure to the phobic stimulus. It relies upon the principle of counterconditioning i.e.
learning a new response to the phobic stimulus i.e. one of relaxation rather than panic. This works
due to reciprocal inhibition i.e. it’s impossible to be both relaxed and anxious at the same time.
Firstly, the patient and therapist draw up an anxiety hierarchy together, made up of situations
involving the phobic stimulus, ordered from least to most nerve-wrecking. The therapist then
teaches the patient relaxation techniques e.g. breathing techniques and meditation, to be used at
each of these anxiety levels. The patient works their way up through the hierarchy, only
progressing to the next level when they have remained calm in the present level. The phobia is
cured when the patient can remain calm at the highest anxiety level.

+ Supporting evidence = Gilroy et al. followed up 42 patients treated in three sessions of

systematic desensitisation for a spider phobia. Their progress was compared to a control group
of 50 patients who learnt only relaxation techniques. The extent of such phobias was measured
using the Spider Questionnaire and through observation. At 3 and 33 months, the systematic
desensitisation group showed a reduction in their symptoms as compared to the control group,
and so has been used as evidence supporting the effectiveness of flooding.

+ Systematic desensitisation is suitable for many patients, including those with learning difficulties
= Anxiety disorders are often accompanied with learning disabilities meaning that such patients
may not be able to make the full cognitive commitment associated with cognitive behavioural
therapy, or have the ability to evaluate their own thoughts. Therefore, systematic desensitisation
would be a particularly suitable alternative for them.

+ More acceptable to patients, as shown by low refusal and attrition rates. = This idea also has
economical implications because it increases the likelihood that the patient will agree to start and
continue with the therapy, as opposed to getting ‘cold feet’ and wasting the time and effort of the
therapist!

Flooding is a behavioural therapy designed to reduce phobic anxiety in one session, through
immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus. This occurs in a secure environment from which the
patient cannot escape - without the option of practising avoidance behaviour, such behaviour is not

[Link]
reinforced and so the phobia is not maintained. Thus, in the case of a spider phobia, the patient will
instantly be exposed to a room full of large spiders, which can crawl over them. This relies on the
principle that it is physically impossible to maintain a state of heightened anxiety for a prolonged
period, meaning that eventually, the patient will learn that the phobic stimulus is harmless.

+ = Cost-effective - Ougrin compared flooding to cognitive therapies and found it to be cheaper.

This is because the patient’s phobia will typically be cured in one session, thus alleviating their
symptoms as quickly as possible and so allowing them to continue living a normal life. This also
means that such a theory is relatively non-invasive in the normal lives of patients, and so is yet
another reason to choose flooding over systematic desensitisation.

— = Less effective for complex phobias. Social phobias involve both anxiety and a cognitive
aspect i.e. thinking unpleasant thoughts about a situation. Thus, in such cases, cognitive therapy
may be more appropriate because this therapy can target the distal causes of the phobia, as
opposed to the mere proximal (indirect) causes. This suggests that alternatives may be more
effective.

[Link]