BULLET NOTE - ENGLISH

PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
AGRICULTURE

The word agriculture was derived from Latin word AGER or AGRI meaning SOIL.
CULTRE means CULTIVATION or TILLING. Agriculture in India is essential for
monsoons. 70 percent of its rural households still depend primarily on agriculture for their
livelihood, with 82 percent of farmers being small and marginal.

Agriculture has been classified into two variants:

 SUBSISTENCE FARMING
 COMMERCIAL FARMING

SUBSISTENCE FARMING
There are 2 kinds of Subsistence farming . They are :
 Primitive subsistence agriculture
 Intensive subsistence agriculture

PRIMITIVE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE:

 It is practiced on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools. This type of
farming depends upon the monsoons and natural fertility of the soil. It is also called 'slash
and burn' agriculture.
 Primitive subsistence agriculture includes shifting cultivation or slash and burn
agriculture.
 It is called by different names in different regions.
 Ladang in Indonesia
 Milpa in Mexico and Central America
 Conuco in Venezuela
 Masole in Central Africa

Primitive agriculture in India

 Jhuming in North East states of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland.
 Dipa in Bastar district of Chattisgarh and Andaman & Nicobar.
 Pamlou in Manipur
 Bewar in Madhya Pradesh

INTENSIVE FARMIMG
 Large scale improvement have been brought in the farming after Independence .
 Mechanisation of agriculture increased.
 Farming techniques have been improved and facilities like irrigation , electricity ,
fertilizers have been availed .
 This type of farming is known as Intensive farming .

TYPES OF CROPS
 Food Crops -- Crops used for human consumption. For eg. rice, wheat, maize, millets
,pulses Cereals, i.e. grass like plants with starchy edible seeds having high nutritional
value.. For [Link], tur (arhar) etc.
 Cash Crops- These crops are grown for sale in raw or processed form. Some of the
examples of cash crops are - Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds, groundnut,
linseed, sesamum, castor seed, rapeseed, mustard, etc.
  Plantation Crops – These crops are grown in plantations covering large estates. Tea,
coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber and spices-cardamom, chilli, ginger, turmeric etc.
 Horticulture – It includes fruits and vegetables like onion, tomato and fruits such as
apple, orange, mango, banana, citrus fruits, etc.

Tropical Crops
 The crops that grow well in warm & hot climate are known as Tropical crops
 Some of the examples are rice, sugarcane, jowar etc.

Temperate Crops
 The crops that grow well in cool climate are known as Temperate Crops.
 Some of the examples are wheat, oats, gram, potato, apple etc.

CROPPING PATTERNS IN INDIA

RABI CROPS
 The crops grown in winter season are known as Rabi Crops.
 They are sown before retreating monsoon and harvested before summer.
 The months are from Oct to March.
 Rabi crops grow well in cold and dry weather.
 For example - Wheat, gram, sunflower etc.
 The monsoon during winter helps in the success of these crops.
 The success of Green revolution helped in this growth

KHARIF CROPS
 The crops grown in monsoon months are known as Kharif Crops
 They are sown before monsoon and harvested at the end of the monsoon.
 The months are from June to Oct-Nov.
 Kharif crops require warm, wet weather at major period of crop growth.
 For example - Cotton, Rice, Jowar, Bajara etc.

ZAID CROPS
 The crops grown in summer season are known as Zaid Crops
 They are sown and harvested in summer.
 The months are from March to June.
 They require warm dry weather for major growth period.
 For example - Pumpkins Groundnuts, Watermelon, Gourds etc.

RICE
 Rice is a kharif crop & wet and warm climate is ideal.
 It requires high temperature and rainfall
 It is majorly grown in deltaic regions of West Bengal , Krishna-Godavari delta etc.
 Among the rice growing countries in the world , India has the largest area under rice
crop.
 About one – fourth of the total cropped area in the country is under rice cultivation.

WHEAT
 It is a temperate crop & requires a cool climate with moderate rainfall . Hence , it is a
rabi crop.
 The ideal soil is the well drained fertile alluvial and black soils .
 Uttar Pradesh , Punjab , Haryana , Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh are five leading
wheat producing states.
 The yield level of wheat is very high In Punjab and Haryana whereas , Uttar Pradesh
,Rajasthan and Bihar have moderate yields.

MILLETS
 Millets are the crops that contains seed.
 Some important millets are – jowar , bajra , ragi

JOWAR
 Jowar is grown both as kharif as well as a rabi crop.
 It does not grow where the rainfall exceeds 100 cm.
 Maharashtra and Karnataka are largest producers

BAJRA
 Bajra is a rain fed kharif crop of dry and warm climate.
 It is grown in areas of 40 – 50 cm of annual rainfall.

PULSES
 Pulses are leguminous crops that constitute an important part of the vegetarian diet.
 India is largest pulse producer as well as consumer of the world.
 Madhya Pradesh is India’s largest pulse producing state , followed by Maharashtra
and Rajasthan.
 Pulses help in restoring soil fertility by fixing Nitrogen from air.
 Pulses are mostly grown in rotation with other crops

FIBRE CROPS
 Cotton and jute are the fibre crops.

COTTON
 It requires constant temperatures between 18 and 30°.
 It also need ample sunshine and fairly dry conditions.
 A minimum of 500 mm of water between germination and boll formation.
 It needs deep, well-drained soils with a good nutrient content.
 The major area where cotton grows are Northern (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan),
Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) and Southern zone (Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka).
JUTE
 India is the largest jute producing country in the world. It is grown in west Bengal,
Assam, Bihar.
 It constitute of 0.5% of the total area. India produces 3/5th of the total production
area of the world.

OTHER CROPS
These crops include sugarcane, tea and coffee.

TEA
 The tea leaves which are black in colour are fermented. The green leaves which are
green in colour are unfermented. It constitutes CAFFAIINE and TANNIN.
 Production of tea started in BRAHMAPUTRA valley of ASSAM.
 India is 1st in the production of tea in the world. 28% of the world’s production takes
places in India.

COFFEE
 This is a tropical crop. It constitutes of three varieties depending upon quality called
ARABICA, ROBUSTA and LIBERICA.
 India mostly grows ARABICA. India has emerged as the seventh largest coffee
producer globally after Brazil
 Karnataka produces 2/3rd of India’s production.

CROPPING PATTERNS IN INDIA

 Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of land under cultivation of different crops at
different points of time. This indicates the time and arrangement of crops in a particular
land area. Any change in the cropping pattern would cause:
 change in the proportion of land under different crops
 change in space sequence and time of crops
 In India, the cropping pattern is determined by rainfall, temperature, climate, technology
and soil type.
 In order to obtain maximum yields, different patterns of cropping are practiced. The
major cropping patterns include the following:

MONOCROPPING
Monocropping reduces soil fertility and destroys the structure of the soil. Chemical fertilizers
are required to upgrade production. This practice allows the spread of pests and diseases.

INTERCROPPING
Intercropping is the practice of growing more than one crop on the same field at the same
time in a definite row pattern. After one row of the main crop, three rows of intercrops can be
grown. This increases productivity per unit area.

MIXED CROPPING
 When two or more crops are grown on the same land simultaneously, it is known as
mixed cropping.
 For eg., growing wheat and gram on the same land at the same time is mixed cropping.
 This practice minimizes the risk of failure of one of the crops and insures against
crop failure due to abnormal weather conditions.
 The crops to be grown together should have a different maturation time and different
water requirements
 The crop yield increases.
 The pest infestation is minimized.
 Reduction in the risk of crop failure.
 The soil is utilized properly.
 More than one variety of crops can be harvested at the same time.

CROP ROTATION
 In this pattern, different crops are grown on the same land in preplanned succession.
 The crops are classified as one-year rotation, two-year rotation, and three-year rotation,
depending upon their duration.
 Legumes are included in the crop rotation programme to increase soil fertility. The
crops which require high fertility level (wheat) can be grown after the legumes.
 The crops which require low inputs can be grown after the crops that require high inputs

DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURE

 Initially after independence there was a shift from cash crops to food crops.
 Agriculture started expanding with cultivation of fallow and cultivable land.
 Agriculture production stagnated in 1950’s. To overcome this stagnation , Intensive
Agriculture Development Programme (IADP) got started .
 Two consecutive droughts in mid 1960’s lead to the introduction of new seed varieties
from Mexico. Wheat and rice from Phillipines were available by mid 1960’s. Due to low
yield, high yielding varieties were introduced through “Green Revolution”.
 Now government is planning to introduce second phase of this Green Revolution in
northeast region and green revolution in eastern region of India.

OTHER REVOLUTIONS

 Black Revolution - Petroleum Production

 Blue Revolution - Fish Production
 Brown Revolution - Leather, Cocoa
 Golden Fibre Revolution - Jute Production
 Golden Revolution Overall - Horticulture, Honey, Fruit Production
 Green Revolution - Agriculture Production
 Grey Revolution - Fertilizers
 Pink Revolution - Onions, Prawn
 Evergreen Revolution - overall agriculture production growth
 Round Revolution - Potato Production
 Silver Fibre Revolution - Cotton Production
 Silver Revolution - Egg Production
 White Revolution - Dairy, Milk Production
 Yellow Revolution - Oil Seed Production
 Round Revolution - Potato
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
BIOSPHERE RESERVES

 Biosphere reserves are undisturbed natural area dedicated to conservation of

biological diversity and genetic integrity of animals, plants and
microorganisms in their totality. These areas have been set aside for ecological
research and habitat preservation and any sort of disturbance is under control.
Biosphere Reserve Network Programme was launched by UNESCO in 1971 under
its Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme.
 These are marked areas covering a larger area of land which includes multiple
National Parks, Sanctuaries and reserves as well.

Core zone
It represents the natural and minimal disturbed ecosystem and in this zone the entry of human
being is strictly prohibited.

Buffer zone
Tourists are allowed in this zone to observe the wildlife for education and training.

Transition zone
This zone includes tribal settlements and their cultivated lands.

RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA

RAMSAR CONVENTION
 It is an international treaty for “the conservation and sustainable use of
wetlands”.
 It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands.
 It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran.
 The official name for the convention is the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat. It is the first and only
global treaty for the conservation of a particular ecosystem.
 Chilka Lake was the first wetland to be included in the Ramsar List.
 Uttar Pradesh has the highest number (7) of Ramsar Sites in India.

MONTREUX-RECORD
 It is a register of wetland sites in the List of Wetlands of International Importance
(Ramsar List). It includes all those wetlands where changes in ecological
character are occurring/ have occurred or likely to occur due to anthropogenic
activities. The registered was established in 1990.
 Keoladeo National Park and Loktak lake from India are included in the
Montreux Record. Earlier Chilka Lake was part, but, it has been removed in
2002.

RAMSAR SITES
 The new Ramsar sites of India are in three states – Uttar Pradesh (Nawabganj, Parvati
Agra, Saman, Samaspur, Sandi and Sarsai Nawar), Maharashtra (Nandur
Madhameshwar) and Punjab (Keshopur-Miani, Beas Conservation Reserve and
Nangal).
 02 Feb 1971 is considered as World Wetlands Day.
 Europe has the maximum number of wetland sites. The countries with the most Sites
are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142.
 Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection.
 The world’s first Site was the Cobourg Peninsula in Australia, designated in 1974.

IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS:-
1. They provide habitat for animals and plants and supports a wide diversity of life.
Many species of birds and mammals rely on wetlands for food, water, and shelter,
especially during migration and breeding. It helps to recycle nutrients that are so
important for many other surrounding ecosystems.
2. Wetlands like mangroves also protect shores from any kind of flood at least it reduces
the impacts of it by reducing the momentum of the incoming wind and water.
3. Wetlands also reduce soil erosion and increase soil fertility. Therefore agricultural
lands near the water area will not loose soil due to the presence of a wetland.
Wetlands also provide livelihood sources to humans in terms of – Agricultural produce, Craft
materials, timber production, Medicinal plants, Fishing, Hunting

 LARGEST RAMSAR SITES – Sunderbans Wetland (WB)

Vembanad Kol wetland ( Kerala)
Chilika lake (Orissa)
 SMALLEST RAMSAR SITES – Renuka Wrtlands ( Himachal Pradesh)
Chandrataal wetlands (Himachal Pradesh)
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

INDIAN RIVER SYSTEM

On the mode of origin, nature and characteristics , Indian River system is classified as :
 Himalayan river System
 Peninsular River System

HIMAYALAN RIVER SYSTEM

The major rivers of Himalayan river system are Ganga , Indus , Brahmaputra River system

GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

 The Ganga River System is the largest in India having perennial rivers and non-perennial
rivers.
 ORIGIN – Gangotri glacier in Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Here, it is known
as Bhagirathi .
 At Devprayag , the Bhagirathi river meets Alaknanda and thereafter it is known as the
Ganga.

ALAKNANDA
Source – Satopanth Glacier (Uttarakhand) above Bhagirathi
 The Tributaries of River Alaknanda are –
 Dhauliganga
 Nandakini
 Pindar
 Mandakini
 Bhagirathi
PANCH PRAYAGS

PLACE CONFLUENCE OF RIVERS

 VISHNUPRAYAG Alaknanda and Dhauliganga

 NANDPRAYAG Alaknanda and Nandakini
 KARNAPRAYAG Alaknanda and Pindar
 RUDRAPRAYAG Alaknanda and Mandakini
 DEVPRAYAG Alaknanda and Bhagirathi

RIVER GANGA
 It covers the states of Uttar Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan , Bihar , Haryana ,
Chhattisgarh , Jharkhand , Himachal Pradesh , Uttarakhand , West Bengal , Delhi .
 At Farraka , it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in
Bangladesh.
 The total length from source to its mouth is 2,525km.
 Tehri Dam on Bhagirathi is the highest dam in India (4th highest in world).
 RIGHT BANK TRIBUTARIES-
The major Right bank tributaries of Ganga River are

YAMUNA RIVER

 Yamuna is the longest tributary river of the

Ganga in northern India.
 It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal
region in Uttarakhand
 It crosses several states: Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, passing by Uttarakhand and later
Delhi.
 It joins the Ganga at Prayag or Triveni Samgam (Allahabad).
 It is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ton and the Ken on its right bank
which originates from the Peninsular plateau while Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the
Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank.
 It creates the highly fertile alluvial , Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself and the
Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain.

LEFT BANK TRIBUTARY

Hindon River
 Hindon River is a rainfed river that originates in the Saharanpur District, Uttar Pradesh.
 It flows between Ganges and Yamuna rivers and joins Yamuna river just outside
Delhi.
 Length: 400 km
BETWA RIVER
 Betwa or Vetravati originates in Vindhya Range
just north of Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh and flows north-east through Madhya
Pradesh and flow through Orchha to Uttar Pradesh.
 It meets Yamuna at Hamirpur town in Uttar Pradesh.

SINDH RIVER
 It originates on the Malwa Plateau in Vidisha district, and flows north-northeast to
join the Yamuna River in Etawah district, Uttar Pradesh.
 Manikheda Dam has been constructed across the Sindh River in Shivpuri district, Madhya
Pradesh.

Ken River
 It is one of the major rivers of the Bundelkhand region of central India & flows
through 2 states of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
 It is a tributary of the Yamuna.

TON
 Tamsa River (also known as the Tons River)
is tributary(largest) of Yamuna flowing through the Indian states of Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
 Tamsa rises in a tank at Tamakund in the Kaimur Range

CHAMBAL
 Chambal River is one of the most pollution free rivers of India.
 It is a 960 km long river that rises near Mhow in the Vindhyan Range . It flows
through the Malwa Plateau before joining Yamuna.
 It Passes through MP , Rajasthan and UP.
 Four dams have been created on this river : Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap Sagar,
Jawahar Sagar Dam and Kota Barrage .

Banas River
 Banas river is a rainfed river that flows in Rajasthan.
 Banas means hope of forests.
 It originates in Khamnor Hills of the Aravalli Range, meets the Chambal near the
village of Rameshwar in Sawai Madhopur District.

KALI SINDH RIVER:

The Kali Sindh is a river in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, that joins the Chambal
River at downstream of Sawai Madhopur in Rajasthan.

SON RIVER
 Son River is largest of southern tributaries of Ganga
that originates near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh near the source of Narmada
River,
 Its source is close to the origin of the Narmada.
 It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna district of Bihar.
 Chief tributaries of Son river are Rihand and the North Koel.
PUNPUN RIVER
 Punpun River is a tributary of the Ganges.
 It originates in Palamu district of Jharkhand and flows through Chatra, Aurangabad,
Gaya and Patna districts of the Indian states of Jharkhand and Bihar
During rains, the Punpun often causes heavy flood damages east of Patna city

DAMODAR RIVER
 It Rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows
through a rift valley in Jharkhand and West Bengal.
 Its valley is home to large – scale mining and industrial activity . The valley is called“Ruhr
of India”.
 §It has a number of tributaries and sub tributaries, such as Barakar, Konar, Bokaro,
Haharo, etc.
 It used to cause devastating floods as a result of which it earned the name‘ Sorrow of
Bengal ’ . Now the river is tamed by constructing numerous dams.
 It joins the Hugli River 48 km below Kolkata.

GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

LEFT BANK TRIBUTARIES

The major LEFT bank tributaries of Ganga River are :
 RAMGANGA
 GOMATI
 GAMDAK
 GHAGHRA
 KOSHI
 MAHANADA

RAMGANGA RIVER
 The Ramganga river rises in the Garhwal of Uttarakhand.
 It enters Ganga Plain near Kalagarh
 An annual festival of Ganga Dassahra is organised on its banks annually during the
months of September and October at Chaubari village near Bareilly

GOMATI RIVER
 Gomti, Gumti or Gomati River is a tributary of the Ganga.
 The Gomti originates from Gomat Taal which formally known as Fulhaar jheel,
Pilibhit, India.
 It extends 900 km through Uttar Pradesh and meets the Ganga River near Saidpur, Kaithi
in Ghazipur.
GHAGHRA RIVER
 Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak, south of
Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans-Himalayan origin).
 It is known as the Karnaili in Western Nepal.

KOSHI RIVER
 The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet.
 The Kosi river consists of seven streams namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha, Doodh
Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun and Tamber and is popularly known as Saptakoshi.
 Seven streams mingle with each other to form three streams named the Tumar, Arun and
Sun Kosi.
 The river channel shifts its course frequently. This has resulted in frequent devastating
floods and has converted large tracts of cultivable land into waste land in Bihar.
 •Thus the river is often termed as the “Sorrow of Bihar‟.

MAHANANDA RIVER
 Mahananda River is a trans-boundary river that flows
through the Indian states of West Bengal and Bihar, and Bangladesh.
 The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga rising in the
Darjeeling hills.
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY
GEOGRAPHY

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

 Human geography deals with how human activity is influenced by the surface of the
earth.
 Some examples of human geography include settlement geography, and population
geography.

POPULATION GEOGRAPHY
 Population Geography is the study of ways in which variations in the distribution,
composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to their environment or
location.
 World population is the total number of people living on planet earth. The present
population of the world is 7.7 billion. 90% of the population lives on 30% of land area.
70% is sparsely populated or inhibited.
 India has a population of 1.3 billion and is the second largest country in terms of
population in the world. Youth (15-24 years) in India constitutes one-fifth (19.1%) of
India's total population..

POPULATION DENSITY
 It is the ratio of number of people residing to the area available. It is given as
person/square kilometre..
 India as a whole has a population density of 416 people per square kilometres, which
ranks 31st in the world.
 Bihar is the most thickly populated state (1106 persons/sq km.) which is followed by
West Bengal-1028 and Kerala 860.
 The occupancy of a land by increasing population in that area is the cause of
increased density and the rate at which this increase takes place is the rate of
increase of density.

POPULATION GROWTH
 Population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population.
 When the growth of population is natural then it is called natural growth.
 It is the total number of deaths deduced from total number of births in a particular
time period.

GROWTH RATE OF POPULATION

 Growth rate is the rate at which the population of an area is growing.
 Positive growth of population – It is where the birth rate is more than the death rate.
 In simple terms , Birth rate > Death rate. This increases the population of an area.
 Negative growth rate – It is where the birth rate is below the death rate.
 In simple terms , Birth rate < Death rate. This decreases the population of an area.

MIGRATION
 Migration is a way to move from one place to another in order to live and work.
 Movement of people from their home to another city, state or country for a job,
shelter or some other reasons is called migration. Migration from rural areas to
urban areas has increased in past few years in India.
 There are two factors which effect migration which are:
 push factors
 pull factors
  Push factors: The factors which encourage the migrants to leave their home are called
push factors. These include unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil,
unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics, religious conflict etc.
 Pull factors: The factors which attract people to an area are called pull factors. These
include potential employment, safe environment, greater wealth, fertile land, less risk of
natural hazard, better service provision, etc.

POPULATION COMPOSITION
 Sex ratio is the total number of males per 1000 females.
 Sex ratio = (male population/female population)*1000
 In India sex ratio is determined by dividing the total female population by male
population. That gives number of females per 1000 males.
 Sex ration in India = (female pop./male pop.)*1000

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
 Human development is defined as the process of enlarging people's freedoms and
opportunities and improving their well-being. Human development is about the real
freedom ordinary people have to decide who to be, what to do, and how to live.
 Dr. Mahboob-ul-Haq developed Human Development Index (HDI) in 1990.
 Since 1990 human development reports are published by United Nations
development programme annually.
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
India and its Extent

The largest democracy in the world, the land also known as Bharat or Hindustan is unique
with its incredible diversity, both culturally and physically. The second largest populous
country, India is home to around 17.5 per cent of world's population. INDIA is the seventh
largest country in the world in terms of area.
The top 6 are :
1) Russia
2) Canada
3) USA
4) China
5) Brazil
6) Australia

LOCATION OF INDIA
 India lies wholly in the Northern Hemisphere.
 The India mainland extends from -
 Latitudinal - 8°4’ North to 37°6’ North.
 Longitudinal - 68°7 ’ East to 97°25 ’East.
EXTREME POINTS OF INDIA
 India is located in North-Eastern Hemisphere , the eastern most State is Arunachal
Pradesh , westernmost State is Gujarat , northernmost State is Jammu and Kashmir
and the Southernmost state is Tamil Nadu .
 The Four extreme points of India are
 SOUTH – Indira Point (Great Nicobar) in India’s territory . Kanyakumari is the southern
most point on mainland.
 NORTH – Indira Col near Siachin Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir.
 WEST – Guhar Mota in Kutch region of Gujarat
 EAST – Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh.

LONGITUDES AND LATITUDES

 LONGITUDES are the imaginary lines joining the North poles and the South poles across
the equator. Such lines are also known as Meridians.
 The average distance between two consecutive latitude is taken as 111 km (69miles).
 LATITUDES are the imaginary lines joining all the points having similar angular distance
on the Earth’s surface measured in degrees from Centre of earth.
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
INDUS RIVER SYSTEM

 Indus River (locally called Sindhū) is one of the longest rivers in Asia. Originating in the
Tibetan Plateau in the vicinity of Lake Manasarovar
 India got her name from Indus.
 “The Indus Valley Civilization” was born around this river.
 It’s length is about 2,900 km.
 Its total drainage area is about 1,165,000 square km [more than half of it lies in
semiarid plains of Pakistan].
 It is joined by Dhar River near Indo-China border.
TRIBUTARIES
The Five eastern tributaries-
 the Jhelum,
 the Chenab,
 the Ravi,
 the Beas
 and the Satluj.
 Other tributaries are :
 Shyok from Siachin glacier
 Suru (Obsequent tri) – originate from Deosai mt. , Burzil la pass, kargil on it, chutak dam
 Gilgit – last tributaries in India

CHENAB RIVER
 Chenab known traditionally as the
Chandrabhaga River, is a major river that flows in
India and Pakistan, and is one of the 5 major rivers of the Punjab region.
 Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the Zaskar
Range.
 The waters of the Chenab are allocated to Pakistan under the terms of the Indus
Waters Treaty

RAVI RIVER
 The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
 It drains the area between Pir Panjal & Dhola Dhar ranges.
 It is a transboundary river crossing northwestern India and eastern Pakistan.
  The waters of Ravi are allocated to India under Indus Water Treaty.

BEAS
 It is a river in north India.
 This river rises in the Himalayas in central Himachal Pradesh, India.
 The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the
southern end of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi.
 It crosses the Dhola Dhar range and it takes a South-Westerly direction and meets the
Satluj river at Harike in Punjab.
 It is a comparatively small river but lies entirely within the Indian territory.
 The Beas river flows into the Satluj and feeds into the Indus .

SATLUJ

 The Satluj rises from the Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes in western Tibet at a height of
4,570 m within 80 km of the source of the Indus.
 The river basin area in India is located in Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Jammu and
Kashmir, Rajasthan and Haryana states
 The famous Bhakra Dam has been constructed.
 From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it forms the boundary between India and Pakistan.

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM

 The Source is Chemayungdung Glacier (Kailash Range),
very close to sources of Indus and Sutlej.
 Its course abruptly takes a southward turn around Namcha Barwa.
 Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and emerges
from the mountains near Sadiya in the Assam Valley .
 Majuli (world’s largest river island )is located on this river.
 The river serves as an excellent inland water transport route in the North East
 Left Bank Tributaries :Dibang , Lohit , Dhansiri , Kolongetc.
 Right Bank Tributaries : Kameng ,Manas , Teesta , Subansiri etc.
 TEESTA RIVER
 It is the major tributary of Brahmaputra.
 It Rises from Sikkim.
 It is also Known as lifeline of Sikkim.
 It makes a border between Sikkim and West Bengal before joining the Brahmaputra
as a tributary in Bangladesh.
 Just before the Teesta Bridge, which joins Kalimpong with Darjeeling, the river is
met by its main tributary, the Rangeet River.
 The river then courses its way to Jalpaiguri and then to Rangpur District of
Bangladesh, before finally merging with the mighty Brahmaputra at Fulchori.

MANAS RIVER
 Manas River flows in India and Bhutan and is the largest river system of Bhutan.
 Three other river systems of Bhutan are Amo Chu or Torsa, Wong Chu or Raidak, Mo
Chu or Sankosh.
 It is met by three other major streams before it again debouches into India in western
Assam.
 Country : India, Bhutan, China.
 Its river valley is home to Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan and the contiguous
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary of India which is a Project Tiger Reserve, an Elephant
Reserve and a Biosphere Reserve as well as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .

LOHIT RIVER
 Lohit River or Zayü River is a river in India and China.
 It is a tributary to the Brahmaputra River.
 It flows through Arunachal Pradesh .
 Along with river Dihang merges into Brahmaputra, at Sadia town (Arunachal
Pradesh) .
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

Matter : Matter is the term for any type of material. Matter is anything that has mass and
takes up space. At a minimum, matter requires at least one subatomic particle, although
most matter consists of atoms. The word matter is sometimes used to refer to a pure
substance.

Examples of Matter
Matter can include any of the following : Proton, Atoms (e.g., a helium atom), Molecules (e.g.,
water, sugar) ,Compounds (e.g., table salt, silicon dioxide).

Examples That Are Not Matter

 Not everything we can perceive consists of matter. Examples of things that aren't matter
include:
 Light from a torch , heat from a fire , sound of a police siren etc.

MASS VS VOLUME

CHARACTERISTICS
There are four main characteristics of particles of matter
 Particles of matter are very tiny in size.
 They have spaces between them.
 Particles of matter move constantly.
 They are attracted towards each other.
States of Matter
Matter exists in different phases (solid, liquid and gas)

SOLIDS
 A solid’s particles are packed closely together. The forces between the particles are
strong enough that the particles cannot move freely; they can only vibrate.
 As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape and a definite volume. Solids can only
change shape under force, as when broken or cut.
 A solid can transform into a liquid through melting, and a liquid can transform into a
solid through freezing.
 A solid can also change directly into a gas through a process called sublimation

LIQUIDS
 A liquid is a fluid that confines to the shape of its container but that retains a nearly
constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite (does not change) if the
and pressure are constant.
 The highest temperature at which a particular liquid can exist is called its critical
temperature.
 A liquid can be converted to a gas through heating at constant pressure to the
substance’s boiling point or through reduction of pressure at constant temperature.
This process of a liquid changing to a gas is called evaporation.

GASES
 Gas molecules have either very weak bonds or no bonds at all, so they can move freely
and quickly. Because of this, not only will a gas confine to the shape of its container, it
will also expand to completely fill the container.
 Gas molecules have enough kinetic energy that the effect of intermolecular forces is
small (or zero, for an ideal gas), and they are spaced very far apart from each other;
the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much greater than the size of
the molecules themselves.
 A gas at a temperature below its critical temperature can also be called a vapor.

CHEMICAL
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

 On the basis of chemical composition, matter can be classified as

 Elements - Metals Non -Metals Metalloids
 Compounds Organic Inorganic
 Mixtures - Homogeneous Heterogeneous

 Elements are chemically the simplest substances and hence cannot be broken down using
chemical reactions. Presently there are 118 elements out of which 92 are naturally
occurring elements.
 Examples: Gold, Silver, Iron, Oxygen, Nitrogen.....
 Metals: Any chemical element that is an effective conductor of electricity and heat is
defined as metal.
 A metal is also good at forming bonds and cations with non-metals.
 Atoms inside of a metal quickly lose electrons in order to make positive ions or cations.
 They tend to be lustrous, ductile, malleable, and good conductors of electricity.
 Examples: Aluminum, Copper, Iron, Tin, Gold, Lead, Silver, Titanium.
 Non Metals: A nonmetal tends to have a relatively low melting point, boiling point, and
density.
 A nonmetal is typically brittle when solid and usually has poor thermal conductivity and
electrical conductivity.
 They gain or share electrons when they react with other elements and chemical compounds.
 Examples: Hydrogen, Helium, Oxygen, Chlorine, Argon, Krypton, Bromine, Carbon,
Phosphorus.

Metalloids: A metalloid is a chemical element that exhibits some properties of metals and
some of nonmetals.
 Metalloids have properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals.
 In the periodic table , metalloids form a jagged zone dividing elements that have clear
metallic properties from elements that have clear nonmetallic properties.
 Examples: Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, and Tellurium. The rare
elements Polonium and Astatine are also sometimes included.

COMPOUNDS
 A compound is a substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically
bonded together.
 In mixtures, the substances present are not chemically bonded together.
 The type of bonds holding elements together in a compound can vary: two common types
are covalent bonds and ionic bonds.
 Compounds are classified into two types—
 Organic Compounds : The compounds obtained from living sources are called organic
compounds. The term organic is now applied to hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
 Examples -Carbohydrates, Proteins, Oils, Fats etc.
 Inorganic Compounds : The compounds obtained from non-living sources such as rocks
and minerals are called inorganic compounds.
 Examples: Common Salt, Marble, Washing Soda etc.

MIXTURES
 Mixtures : A material obtained by mixing two or more substances in any indefinite
proportion is called a mixture. The properties of the components in a mixture remain
unchanged.
 Examples: Milk, Sea water, Petrol, Paint, Glass, Cement, Wood etc.
 There are two types of mixtures
 Homogenous Mixture
 Heterogenous Mixture
  Homogeneous mixture : A mixture is said to be homogeneous if it has a uniform
composition throughout and there are no visible boundaries of separation between
constituents. Moreover, the constituents cannot be seen even by a microscope.
 Examples: Common salt dissolved in water, sugar dissolved in water, iodine dissolved in
CCl4, benzene in toluene and methyl alcohol in water.
 Heterogeneous mixture : A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if it does not have a
uniform composition throughout and has visible boundaries of separation between the
various constituents.
 The different constituents of the heterogeneous mixture can be seen even with naked eye.
 Examples : A mixture of Sulphur and Sand, A mixture of Iron filings & Sand etc.

METHODS OF SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

 Some methods of separation of mixtures of are:
 Sublimation: In this process, a solid substance passes directly into its vapours on
application of heat. The vapours when cooled give back the original substance.
 This method can be used for the substance which are sublime in their separation from non
sublimate materials.
 Examples of sublimes are : Naphthalene, Iodine, Chloroform, Benzoic acid, Dry ice,
Camphor, NH4Cl,HgCl2 are separated by this technique.
 Filtration: This is a process for quick and complete removal of suspended solid particles
from a liquid, by passing the suspension through a filter paper.
 Removal of solid particles from the engine oil in car engine.
 Filtration of tea from tea leaves in the preparation of tea etc.
 Evaporation : The separation of volatile components from non-volatile components is
called evaporation. If a solution of solid substance in a liquid is heated, the liquid gets
converted into its vapours and slowly goes off completely.
 Examples:
 Evaporation of water in summer from Ponds, wells & lakes.
 Preparation of common salt from sea water by evaporation of water.

SUBLIMATION

 Vapour pressure :The pressure exerted by the vapours of liquid in equilibrium with liquid at
a given temperature is called vapour pressure.
 Vapour pressure upon: its nature and temperature. Higher the vapour pressure of a particular
liquid lesser will be the magnitude of intermolecular forces present in molecules.
Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase in temperature
 Condensation (Liquefaction) : Condensation is the process of change of a substance
from its gaseous to liquid state at a particular temperature.
 On cooling, the gas particles lose their kinetic energy. So, motion of particles slows down
and they come very close to one another and ultimately they are liquefied.
 Solute : The component of solution that is dissolved and present in smaller quantities in a
solution is known as solute.
Example:
 common salt in case of solution of common salt in water and
 ammonia in case of solution of ammonia in water.
 Solvent : The component of solution in which solute is dissolved is known as solvent. It is
always present in larger amount in a solution.
Example:
 Water in case of the solution of common salt or ammonia in water.
 Saturated Solution : A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature is called Saturated solution.
 Unsaturated Solution : It is a solution in which more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature.

CHANGE IN STATE
 Melting Point: Melting point is the temperature at which a material changes from a solid to
a liquid (melts).
The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium at a
specified pressure (normally taken to be atmospheric pressure).
 Boiling Point: The boiling point is the temperature at which a material changes from a
liquid to a gas (boils).
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid
equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
 Evaporation :The
 process of conversion of a liquid into its vapours at room temperature is called
evaporation. Evaporation causes cooling. Actually, during evaporation; the molecules
having higher kinetic energy escape from the surface of the liquid.

PHYSICAL CHANGE
 Physical and Chemical Changes: Every substance possesses certain characteristics called
properties from which it can be identified. These properties are of two types:
 Physical Properties : The properties associated with physical change which can be
determinedby simple physical observation are known as physical properties.
 Examples : Melting point, boiling point, density, solubility, colour, odour, thermal and
electrical conductivity etc.
 Physical change: It is a temporary change in which no new substance is formed and can be
reversed by simple physical means.
 Only physical properties of a substance such as state, colour, shape etc. change whereas
chemical properties remain unchanged during a physical change.
 Examples of Physical Changes :
 Dissolution of sugar in water , Magnetization of iron , Freezing of water , Melting of wax,
 Melting of butter, Ringing of an electric bell, Expansion and contraction of substances
,Sublimation of iodine, Dissolution of sodium chloride in water, Evaporation of water.

Characteristics of a Physical Change

 It is a temporary change.
 There is change in physical properties of a substance.
 The composition of the substance does not change.
 No new substances are produced.
 This change can be easily reversed.
 There is no energy change.
 There is no change in mass.

PHYSICAL CHANGE

 Chemical Properties : The properties associated with chemical change which can be
determined by chemical reaction are known as chemical properties.
 Examples : Chemical properties include action with air, water, acids, alkalies, oxidising
agents, reducing agents etc.
 Chemical change : It is a permanent change in which the original substances give rise to
new substances having different compositions and properties. It is irreversible and is
always accompanied by energy change.
Characteristics of a chemical change :-
 It is a permanent change
 New substances are produced
 The compositions of the substances change
 This change cannot be reversed.
There is a gain or loss of energy

Examples of chemical changes

 Burning of paper --Paper burning producing new substances i.e. carbon dioxide and water.
 The substances produced on burning do not give back paper when combined. Therefore, it
is a permanent change. There is change in mass on burning. Energy given out in the form of
heat or light.
 Rusting of iron, ripening of fruit, curding of milk, burning of candle, burning of LPG
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
MINERALS

 India is richly endowed with a variety of minerals.

 Geologists defines minerals as a homogenous , naturally occurring substance with a
definable internal structure .
 India’s large size and diverse geological formation have favoured India in providing
wider variety of minerals .

CLASSIFICATION OF MIERALS

MINERALS

METALLIC NON METALLIC

NON –
FERROUS(IRON , MICE , LIMESTONE
FERROUS(BAUXITE
MANGANESE) ,MARBLE
, COPPER

IRON ORE
 IRON ORE is the backbone of modern civilization.
 It is the foundation of our basic industry.
 Iron is taken out from the mines in the from of iron ores which contains varying
percentage of iron.
 India is the fourth largest Iron Ore producing country in the world.
 The largest 3 are Australia , Brazil , China .
 The two main types of ores found in our country are Haematite and magnetite .

LOCATIONS OF IRON ORES

 The major belts of Iron ore are :
 Jharkhand (Singhbhum , Daltonganj , Palamu)
 Odisha (Sundergarh , Mayurbhanj , Keonjhar)
 Karnataka (Baba Budan Hills , Kudremukh , Bellary )
 Andhra Pradesh (Rayalaseema)
 Goa
 Chhattisgarh (Bailadila , Durg)
 Tamil Nadu (North Arcot)
MANGANESE
 MANGANESE is mainly used for the manufacturing of steel.
 Nearly 6kgs of manganese is required for the production of one tonne of steel.
 It is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder, insecticides , paints , batteries.
 The major reserves of MANGANESE are found in Odisha(Sundargarh) followed by
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (Balghat,Chhindwara) and Jharkhand.

BAUXITE
 BAUXITE is the raw material for making aluminium.
 It is not a specific mineral but a rock mainly consisting of hydrated aluminium
oxides.
 Odisha is the largest bauxite producing state in India .
 In Odisha (Kalahandi , Bolangir , Koraput) which is the largest reserve followed by
Andhra Pradesh , Gujarat , Jharkhand (Ranchi,Lohardaga).

COPPER
 COPPER is a malleable and ductile metal .
 This non-ferrous metal is used for the electrical goods , utensils and coins as it is a
good conductor of electricity.
 Rajasthan , Jharkhand and Bihar are the largest producers.
MICA
 MICA is a mineral made up of series of plates . It splits easily into thin sheets .
 Mica can be green , yellow , brown .
 Mica is used in electronics and electrical industries .
 It is produced mainly in Andhra Pradesh , Godavari and Krishna belts

GOLD
 Gold mines are located in Kolar (Kolar Gold Field ) , Dharwad , and Raichur (Hutti
Gold Field ) districts.
 Sands of the Subarnarekha (gold streak) river have some alluvial gold.

SILVER
Rajasthan (Bharak deposits accounts for 87% reserves in terms of ore ) , Jharkhand 5% ,
Andhra Pradesh 3% and Karnataka 2% .

NICKEL
Odisha has about 92% reserves in India . Remaining reserves are found in Jharkhand ,
Nagaland , Rajasthan and Karnataka.
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
MOUNTAIN PASSES OF INDIA

Mountain pass is a connectivity route through the mountain run. It is a gateway to connect
different parts of the country, and also with neighboring countries for different purposes.

JAMMU AND KASHMIR

 BANIHAL PASS – It is across the Jawahar Tunnel (1956). The road now passes
through the tunnel and the Banihal Pass is no longer used for road transport.
 PIR PANJAL PASS – It provides the shortest and the easiest metal road between
Jammu and Kashmir Valley. But this route had to be closed down as a result of
partition of the subcontinent.
 BURZIL PASS - This pass joins the Astore Valley of Kashmir with the Deosai Plains
of Ladakh.

LADAKH

 ZOZI-LA – It lies in Zaskar Range. It is an important road link between Srinagar on one
side and Kargil and Leh on the other side. The road passing through this pass has been
designated at the National Highway (NH-1D)
 Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible for maintaining the road and cleaning it
off snow during winter. In spite of all these efforts, the road through this pass remains
closed from December to mid-May.
 PENSI – LA – It is a vital link between the Kashmir Valley and Kargil. It remains closed
to traffic from November to mid-May due to heavy snowfall.
 MINTAKA PASS - It connects Kashmir and China. It lies at the trijunction of India-
China and Afghanistan border.
 AGHIL PASS – It lies in the Ladakh region of India with the Xinjiang (Sinkiang)
Province of China. It is in the north of K2 Peak (the highest peak in India and the second
highest peak in the world).
 LANAK LA – It lies in the India and China (Akasai-Chin area of Jammu and Kashmir)

HIMACHAL PRADESH
 BARA LACHA LA - Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. National highway
connecting Mandi in Himachal Pradesh with Leh in Jammu and Kashmir passes through
this pass. Being situated at high altitude, it remains snow covered in winter and is not used
as a transport route.
 ROHTANG PASS – The road link between Kullu, Lahul and Spiti Valleys. Border Road
Organisation (BRO) is responsible for constructing and maintaining roads in this
area. Rohtang pass is a great tourist attraction and traffic jams are very
common because this route is widely used by military, public and private vehicles.
 SHIPKI LA – It lies in Himachal Pradesh and Tibet. It is located on Indo-China border

UTTARAKHAND
 LIPU LEKH – It lies at the trijunction of Uttarakhand (India), Tibet (China) and Nepal
borders. This pass is used by pilgrims to Kailash-Mansarowar.
 MANA PASS – It lies at Uttarakhand with Tibet. It is situated a little north of the holy
place of Badhrinath.
 NITI PASS – This pass lies in Uttarakhand with Tibet

SIKKIM
 NATHU LA : It is located in the state of Sikkim. This famous pass is located in the
India- China border was reopened in 2006. It forms a part of an offshoot of the ancient
silk route. It is one of the trading border posts between India and China.
 JELEP LA : Sikkim-Lhasa . TISTA river has created this pass.
This pass passes through the Chumbi valley. It connects Sikkim with Lhasa, the capital
of Tibet.
ARUNACHAL PREADESH
 BOMDI-LA: ARUNACHAL PRADESH-LHASA
The Bomdi-La pass connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa, the capital city of Tibet. It is
located in the east of Bhutan.
 DIPHU PASS: ARUNACHAL PRADESH- MANDALAY
The Diphu pass also provides easy and an alternate route to Myanmar. This pass remains
open throughout the year for the transportation and trade.

RAJASTHAN
1. GORAM GHAT
2. HALDIGHATI PASS

 THAL GHAT:- Connects Mumbai to Nasik aka KASARA GHAT (in Maharashtra)
 BHOR GHAT :- Near Khandala Maharashtra connects Mumbai to Pune.
 PAL GHAT (Palakkad Gap) :- It connects Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu to Palakkad in
Kerala It lies in between Nilgiri and Annamalai
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY
GEOGRAPHY
NATIONAL PARKS

 National park is an area which is strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife and
biodiversity, and where activities like developmental, forestry, poaching, hunting and
grazing on cultivation are not permitted.
 The government can declare an area as a national park with adequate ecological, and
natural significance.. In national parks, the emphasis is on the preservation of a single
floral or fauna species.

JAMMU AND KASHMIR

 Kishtwar National Park
 Dachigam National Park
 City Forest (Salim Ali ) National Park
LADAKH
Hemis National Park

HIMACHAL PRADESH
 Great Himalayan National Park
 Pin valley National Park
 Khirganga National Park
 Inderkila National Park
 Simbalbara National Park

HARYANA
 Kalesar National Park
 Sultanpur National Park

UTTAR PRADESH
 Dudhwa National Park

UTTARAKHAND
 Corbett National Park
 Gangotri National Park
 Nanda Devi National Park
 Rajaji National Park
 Valley of Flowers National Park
 Govind Pashu National Park

RAJASTHAN
 Desert National Park
 Keoladeo National Park
 Sariska National Park
 Ranthambore National Park
 Mukundra National Park

GUJARAT
 Vansda National Park
 Gir National Park
 Blackbuck National Park
 Marine (Gulf of Kutchh) National Park

BIHAR
Valmiki National Park
 MADHYA PRADESH
 Kanha National Park
 Bandhavgarh National Park
 Madhav National Park
 Panna National Park
 Indira (Pench)National Park
 Sanjay National Park
 Fossil National Park
 Satpura National Park
 Van Vihar National Park

JHARKHAND
Betla National Park

ODISHA
 Bhittarkanika National Park
 Simlipal National Park

WEST BENGAL
 Buxa National Park
 Gorumara National Park
 Jaldapara National Park
 Neora National Park
 Singalila National Park
 Sundarbans National Par
CHATTISGARH
 Guru Ghasidas National Park
 Indravati National Park
 Kanger Valley National Park

MAHARASHTRA
 Chandoli National Park
 Gugamal National Park
 Navegaon National Park
 Sanjay Gandhi (Borivali ) National Park
 Tadoba National Park
 Pench (Jawaharlal Nehru ) National Park

GOA
Mollem National Park

SIKKIM
Khangchendzonga National Park

ASSAM
 Kaziranga National Park
 Manas National Park
 Nameri National Park
 Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park
 Dibru – Saikohwa National Park

ARUNACHAL PRADESH
 Mouling National Park
 Namdapha National Park

TRIPURA
 Clouded Leopard National Park
 Bison (Rajbari) National Park

MIZORAM
 Murlen National Park
 Phangpui Blue Mountain National Park

MEGHALAYA
 Balphakram National Park
 Nokrek Ridge National Park

MANIPUR
Keibul-Lamjao National Park

NAGALAND
Intanki National Park
KARNATAKA
 Anshi National Park
 Bannerghatta National Park
 Bandipur National Park
 Kudremukh National Park
 Nagerhole National Park

KERALA
 Anaimudi National Park
 Eravikulam National Park
 Periyar National Park
 Silent valley National Park
 Pambadun National Park
 Mathikettan National Park

ANDHRA PRADESH
 Papikonda National Park
 Sri Venkateshwar National Park
 Rajiv Gandhi (Rameshwaram ) National Park

TELANGANA
 Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park
 Mrugavani National Park
 Kasu Brahmananda National Park

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

 Mahatma Gandhi (Marine ) National Park
 Camphbell National Park
 Middle button National Park
 North button National Park
 South button National Park
 Mount Hariett National Park
 Rani Jhansi National Park
 Saddle Peak National Park
 Galathea National Park

TAMIL NADU
 Gulf of Mannar National Park
 Guindy National Park
 Mudumalai National Park
 Mukhurthi National Park
 Annamalai National Park
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY
GEOGRAPHY

PENINSULAR RIVERS

 Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal: The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna, the Cauvery and several smaller rivers drains south-east into the Bay of
Bengal.
 Rivers that drain into Arabian Sea: The Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi
flowing west as well as several small streams originating from the Western Ghats
flow westwards into the Arabian Sea.
 Rivers that drain into the Ganges: Tributaries of the Ganga and the Yamuna
such as the Chambal, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son and the Damodar flow in the
north-easterly direction.

MAHANADI RIVER
 The Mahanadi river extends over states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and
comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh.
 It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on
the south and east and by the Maikal range on the west.
 The Mahanadi is known as “Great River”.
 At Sambalpur, the Hirakud Dam (one of the largest dams in India) on the river
has formed a man-made lake 35 miles (55 km) long.
 Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous pilgrimage site.
 Olive Ridley Turtles: Gahirmatha beach, Orissa: Nesting turtles
 GODAVARI RIVER

 The Godavari is the largest river system of the Peninsular India

 and is also known as Dakshina Ganga.
 The Godavari extends over states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and
Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Union territory of
Puducherry (Yanam) .
 The river is bounded by Satmala hills, the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills on the
north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east and by the Western Ghats on the
west.
 Godavari River rises from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of Maharashtra

KRISHNA RIVER
 The Krishna is the second largest east flowing river of the Peninsula.
 The Krishna Basin extends over Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
 It is bounded by Balaghat range on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the
east and by the Western Ghats on the west.
 The Krishna River rises from the Western Ghats from the north of
Mahabaleshwar

KAVERI RIVER
 Cauvery River rises at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range Coorg district of
Karnataka.
 Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and
Union Territory of Puducherry
 Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha and the Arkavati.
  Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the
Noyil and the Amaravati .

NARMADA RIVER
 It is located mainly in Madhya Pradesh.
 Narmada River is also known as Rewa River.
 The River is originated from Maikala range near Amarkantak .
 Narmada is the largest West flowing river of the peninsular India.
 Narmada flows westwards through a rift valley between the Vindhyan Range on
the north and the Satpura Range on the south .
 The River flows through Gujarat, Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh, and
Maharashtra .
 It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, Maikala range on the east,
Satpuras on the south and by the Arabian Sea on the west.

MAHI RIVER
 Mahi river originates from the northern slopes of
 Vindhyas in Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh.
 Mahi is one of the major interstate west flowing rivers of India.
 The river flows through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
 The river drains in Gulf of Cambay .
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

THE INDIAN DESERT

 The Great Indian Desert named as Thar desert is a large arid region in the northwestern
part of the Indian subcontinent. It is the world’s 17th largest desert, and the world’s
9th largest subtropical desert.
 They are located to the North-West of the Aravali hills.
 It covers Western Rajasthan and extends to the adjacent parts of Pakistan.
 It forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan.
 About 85% of the Thar Desert is located within India, rest 15% lies in Pakistan
 60% of the desert lies in the Indian state of Rajasthan, and it spreads into other the states of
Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana, and the Pakistani province of Sindh

COASTAL PLAINS
 India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197
Indian islands] touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).
 However, the long coastline also means India needs to invest a lot in securing its borders.
Also, it makes India vulnerable to many disasters such as Cyclones and Tsunamis.
 The west coast strip extends from the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the north
to Cape Comorin (Kanniya kumari).

The western coast is further divided into:

1. Kachchh and Kathiawar coast
2. Konkan coast
3. Kannada coast
4. Malabar coast
EASTERN COAST
 The East coast extends from the Bay of Bengal to the tip of the Eastern Ghats which
includes the states of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
 The Eastern coast is further divided into:
1. Utkal coast
2. Andhra coast
3. Coromandel coast

ISLANDS OF INDIA
 India has 615 islands.
 The majority of them, around 572 islands are located in the Bay of Bengal and remaining
43 islands are located in the Arabian Sea. The Indian Island groups are generally grouped
into two:
1. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bay of Bengal)
2. The Lakshadweep and Minicoy Islands (Arabian Sea)

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

 They are formed due to the collision between the Indian plate and Burma plate.
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands situated in the Bay of Bengal.
 The main islands under the Andaman and Nicobar Islands group are:
 North Andaman
 Middle Andaman
 South Andaman
 Little Andaman
 Car Nicobar
 Little Nicobar
 Great Nicobar

 Andamans are separated from Nicobar by 10-degree channel

 The South Andaman and Little Andaman are separated by Duncan Passage.
 The administrative capital of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is Port Blair which is
located in South Andaman
 The southernmost point of India is The Indira Point, (formerly known as Pygmalion Point
and Parsons Point) which is the southern point of the Great Nicobar Islands.
 The highest peak of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is Saddle Peak, located in the
North Andaman.
 A & N comprises of 572 islands . 37 are inhabited.
 Barren Island, located in the east of Middle Andaman is India’s only active volcano.
 There lies the Sentinel Island which is occupied by the Sentinelese tribes.
 The Kolkata High Court has the jurisdiction over the Andaman and Nicobar islands.
LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS
 Lakshadweep Islands situated in the Arabian Sea is a group of 36 islands having an area
of 32 square kilometers and extending between 8 N and 12 N latitude.
 The main islands under the Lakshadweep Islands group are:
 Kavarati
 Agatti
 Minicoy
 Amini
 It is the smallest Union Territory of India.
 Kavaratti is the administrative capital of the Lakshadweep Islands
 The name Lakshadweep in Malayalam and Sanskrit means 'a hundred thousand islands'.
 The Lakshadweep Islands are located at a distance of 280 km to 480 km off the Kerala
coast.
 The entire Lakshadweep islands group is made up of coral deposits.
 Fishing is the main occupation on which livelihoods of many people depend.
 8 Degree Channel separates islands of Minicoy and Maldives.
 9 Degree Channel separates the island of Minicoy from the main Lakshadweep
archipelago.
 In the Lakshadweep region, there is an absence of forests.
 Pitti Island is an important island here.
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
PLATEAUS OF INDIA

CENTRAL HIGHLANDS
 It is also called the Madhya Bharat Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau.
 It is to the east of the Marwar or Mewar Upland.
 Most of plateau comprises the basin of the Chambal river .
 The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana Prataph Sagar, The Banas flowing through Mewar
plateau
 It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow here.
 It consists of Malwa Plateau , Bundelkhand Plateau , Baghelkhand Plateau and
Chhotanagpur Plateau.

MALWA PLATEAU
 The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills, bounded by
the Aravali Range in the west and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north and
Bundelkhand to the east.
 In the north it is drained by the Chambal and many of its right bank tributaries like the
Kali, the Sindh and the Parbati

BUNDELKHAND PLATEAU
 It has Yamuna river to the north, Madhya Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyans to
the east and south-east and Malwa Plateau to the south.
 It spreads over South Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
 The area is marked by a chain of hillocks (small hill) made of granite and sandstone.
 Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow through the plateau.

BAGHELKHAND PLATEAU
It is bounded by the Son river on the north

CHHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU
 It lies mostly in Jharkhand, northern part of Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of West
Bengal.
 The Son river flows in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga.
 It is the mineral rich region of our country
  Rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, the South Koel and
the Barkar have developed extensive drainage basins.
 The Rajmahal Hills forming the north eastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau are mostly
made of basalt and are covered by lava flows.

DECCAN PLATEAU
 It covers an area of about five lakh sq km.
 It is triangular in shape and is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the north-west,
the Mahadev and the Maikal in the north, the Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern
Ghats in the east.
 Its general slope is from west to east which is indicated by the flow of its major rivers.
 The rivers have further subdivided this plateau into a number of smaller plateaus.

PENINSULAR HILLS

ARAVALI HILLS
 They are one of the oldest (very old) fold mountains of the world and the oldest in India.
 They run for about 800 km between Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat.
 Guru Sikhar (1,722 m), the highest peak, is situated in Mt. Abu.
 Some rivers like River Luni , River Sabarmati and River Banas flows from here.

VINDHYAS
 It runs from Jobat in Gujarat (Eastern) to Sasaram in Bihar .
 The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as the Bharner and Kaimur hills.
 The slope of Vindhyas is drained by rivers like Chambal , Ken , Betwa

SATPURA HILLS
 Satpura range is a series of seven mountains. (‘Sat’ = seven and ‘pura’ means
mountains)
 It runs in an east-west direction south of the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada and the
Tapi, roughly parallel to these rivers.
 Satpura range is a combination of Satpura, Mahadeo, and Maikala hills.
 Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on Mahadev Hills is the highest peak.
 Amarkantak (1,127 m) is an another important peak.

WESTERN GHATS
 They form the western edge of the Deccan tableland and runs parallel to the Arabian
Sea.
 It runs from the Saller Muller peak to a little north of Kaniyakumari for a distance of
1,600 km.
 It is the first highlands of India that encounters South West monsoon .
 They have rich level of Biodiversity.
 They are divided into three sections - northern section, middle section, and southern
section.

Northern section
 The Western Ghats of this section is also known as the Sahyadris. They are located in
Maharashtra.
 Mahabaleshwar plateau is the highest region of the Sahyadris. River Krishna has its origin
from this plateau.
 Important peaks of the Sahyadris include - Kalasubai peak( the tallest peak of the
Sahyadris),
 Some of the important passes of this section include the Thalghat gap and Bhorghat gap .

Middle section
 This section runs through the States of Karnataka and Goa. It terminates in the Nilgiris,
where it joins the Eastern Ghats.
 Bababudan hills of Karnataka are a part of this section. They are famous for their coffee
plantations. River Tungabhadra has one of its originating streams (Bhadra) coming from
these hills.
 They are made of igneous and metamorphic rocks like the granite and gneiss.

Southern section
This includes the hill ranges of Annamalai and Cardamom.

EASTERN GHATS
 Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the east coast of India
 It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from the Mahanadi in Odisha to
the Vagai in Tamil Nadu.
 They almost disappear between the Godavari and the Krishna.
 They are mainly composed of Dharwar igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 Unlike the Western Ghats, these are low lying hills. They are a discontinuous mountain
range, unlike the Western Ghats.
 They comprise a series of discontinuous hill ranges such as - Odisha hills (Maliya hills),
Nallamala hills, Palakonda hills, Velikonda hills, Javadi hills, and Shevaroy hills.
 Mahendragiri peak (1501m) is the highest point of Odisha hills.
 Between Odisha hills and the Godavari basin, there are some prominent hill ranges . Arma
Konda is the highest peak.
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
TYPES OF FORESTS

Indian forests can be broadly divided into 5 types-

1. Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests
2. Tropical Deciduous Forests
3. Tropical Thorn Forests
4. Montane Forests
5. Littoral and Swamp Forests

TROPICAL EVERGREEN
 The word Tropical means ‘Tropical Region’, and Evergreen means ‘green leaves
throughout the year’.
 They are mainly found in Western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the Northeastern
region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 They usually occurs in areas having an annual mean temp of 22°C and annual rainfall of
over 200 cm.
 The trees found in these forests are dense, tall and very green.

The forest structure is as follows –

 Ground level – shrubs, creeper plants
 Short trees of 20 – 30 mtrs
 Long trees of 60 mtrs & above. (The reason of being these trees are high because of the
competition to achieve sunlight). The upper layer if these trees acts like a canopy and they
allow very little sunlight to reach the ground.
 The leaves of the trees are large, long and have a narrow ending (drip tip) because they
that have adapted to the high rainfall of the tropical forests. This shape of the leaves help
the raindrops to runoff quickly.
 These trees don’t shed their leaves at once like deciduous trees.
 Some of the trees include – rosewood, mahogany, ebony .

SEMI-EVERGREEN FORESTS
 They are same as Tropical Evergreen Forests, ‘semi’ implies these forests are found in
the less rainy parts of the tropical region.
 It has a mixture of Evergreen and moist deciduous trees.
 Tropical evergreen forests will make a transition to semi-evergreen forests due to human
interference or climate change.
 Some of the tree species of semi-evergreen forests are white cedar, hollock, and kail.

TROPICAL DECIDUOUS
 The word Tropical means ‘Tropical Region’, and Deciduous means ‘plants, tress that
shed their leaves each year’.
 They are found in both Tropical and Subtropical region.
 They are also called Monsoon forests . The leaves regrow during monsoon and shed
during summer.
 These forests occurs in places that receive rainfall between 70 to 200 cm.
 Based on the availability of water, Tropical Deciduous forest is subdivided into –
 Moist deciduous forests
 Dry deciduous forests

MOIST DECIDUOUS
 The word moist means ‘moisture’.
 These forests are found in regions that have rainfall between 100-200 cm.
 They are found in the states of foothills of Himalayas , Eastern coastal plains of
Odisha, eastern foothills of western ghats (Kerala, Karnataka, and Maharashtra).
 These trees shed their leaves during dry winter and dry summer due to lack of
moisture.
 These forests are a victim of human activities like – irrigation and agricultural activities.
 Some of the common trees include – teak, sal, shisham ,kusum, bamboo, and
sandalwood.

DRY DECIDUOUS
 The word dry means the region where rainfall is lesser (between 70 to 100 cm) than Moist
deciduous forests.
 They are similar to Moist deciduous forest, the only difference is Dry deciduous forest
can grow in areas of less rainfall.
 They suffer from overgrazing, forest fire and vast clearance due to agricultural
activities.
 They are found in – Punjab, Haryana, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
South-east of Rajasthan. Basically Central Deccan plateau.
 Some common trees include – teak, sal, bel, khair, .

THORN FORESTS
 The word tropical means ‘Tropical Region’, and Thorn means ‘a sharp pointed wood’.
 It is a dense, and scrub like vegetation.
 They occur in areas that receive rainfall less than 50 cm (semi-arid regions).
 The trees remain leafless for most part of the year and water is stored in stem of the
trees.
 They are found in the areas of – southwest Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. They are also found on the lower side of the Western Ghats
covering large areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil
Nadu.
Some common trees are – Babul, Palm, Acacia, Ber, Neem

MONTANE FORESTS
 The word Montane means ‘mountainous region’.
 In mountainous region, with increase in altitude temperature decreases.
 In India, mountains are located in –
1. North India – The Himalayan mountains from Jammu & Kashmir – (Sikkim, Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland, Meghalaya and
Mizoram) Purvanchal mountains in the extreme east of India.
2. South India – Western Ghats, the Vindhya range and the Nilgiris.

LITTORAL AND SWAMP

 The word Littoral and Swamp means ‘wetlands’.
 In India, wetlands exists in the Himalayan region, desert, coastal plains, and near river
plains.
 These are found in – Sunderban delta, Eastern coastal plain of river Godavari, Krishna,
Kaveri, Mahanadi, desert region of Rajasthan and Gujarat, Kashmir and Ladakh, Andaman
& Nicobar islands, Lakshadweep islands, Western coastal plains of Malabar coast to
Konkan coast.

There is an intergovernmental treaty for the protection and sustainable use of the
wetlands, it’s called the ‘Ramsar Convention
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
TYPES OF LAKES

LAKE
 A lake is a body of water of considerable size, localized in a basin, that is surrounded
by land apart from a river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake.
 Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from lagoons,
and are also larger and deeper than ponds.
 The majority of lakes on Earth are fresh water, and most lie in the Northern Hemisphere at
higher latitudes.
 Canada, Finland and Siberia contain most of the fresh water lakes.
 They vary tremendously in size, shape, depth and mode of formation. The tiny ones are
no bigger than ponds or pools, but the large ones are so extensive that they merit the name
of seas, e.g. the Caspian Sea.
 The Caspian Sea is the largest lake regarding the area. The deepest lake in the Lake
Baikal in Siberia.
 Lakes are mainly classified on the basis of:
 Nature of Inflow-outflow
 Origin
 Trophic levels

TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT LAKES

1. Temporary Lakes -These lakes may exist temporarily by filling up small depressions of
undulating grounds after a heavy shower. In such lakes rate of evaporation is much greater
than the rate of recharge through precipitation. They are usually saline. Example - Badhkal
Lake, Faridabad
2. Permanent lakes Permanent lakes carry more water than could ever be evaporated. These
are very deep. They have some perennial source of inflow of water such as a glacier. They
are usually freshwater lakes. Example : Dal Lake

FRESHWATER AND SALT LAKES

1. Freshwater lakes : Most of the lakes in the world are freshwater lakes. They are usually
found in low lying areas and are fed from streams, rivers and runoff from the
surrounding area. e.g. Great Lakes of North America, Lake Baikal in Russia, Lake Wular
and Loktak Lake in India.
2. Salt Lakes : Salt Lake is an inland body of water situated in an arid or semiarid region,
having no outlet to the sea, and containing a high concentration of dissolved salt. Because
of intense evaporation, the concentration of salts increases in the water body, turning them
saline. Playas or salt lakes are a common feature of deserts. Example - Great Salt Lake of
Utah, USA, Dead Sea etc.
TECTONIC LAKES
 These lakes are formed by filling up with water in the tectonic depressions created due to
warping, bending and fracturing of the earth s crust.
 These depressions give rise to lakes of immense sizes and depths.
 Example : Lake Titicaca, the Caspian Sea etc.

Rift Valley Lakes

 These lakes include some of the oldest, deepest and largest lakes around the globe.
 Due to faulting, a rift valley is formed by the sinking of the land between two parallel
faults, deep, narrow and elongated in character.
 Water is collected in these troughs.
 Often their floors are below sea level.

VOLCANIC LAKE
 During a volcanic explosion the top of the cone may be blown off leaving behind a natural
hollow called a crater.
 This may be enlarged by subsidence into a caldera.
 Examples: Lonar in Maharashtra and Krakatao in Indonesia.

GLACIAL LAKE
A lake formed by melting of glacier is called a glacial lake. Most of the lakes in the
Himalayan region are glacial lakes.

OX-BOW LAKES
In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow in straight courses. Loop-like channel
patterns called meanders develop over flood and delta plains.

ARTIFICIAL LAKES
 Besides natural lakes, man has now created artificial lakes.
 Artificial lakes are created by erecting a concrete dam across a river valley.
 These dams help in creating a reservoir by impounding river water
 Guru Gobind Sagar Lake which supports the Bhakra Nangal Hydel Project is an
example of an artificial lake in India.

LAKES OF INDIA
1. Wular lake is one of the biggest freshwater lakes in Asia and it was formed as a result of
tectonic activity.
2. Upper lake in Madhya Pradesh is the largest artificial lake in Asia.
3. Chilika Lake in Odisha is the largest saline water lake in India.
4. Vembanad Lake in Kerala is the longest lake in India.
5. Cholamu Lake in Sikkim is the highest lake in India.
Lonar Lake is a notified National Geo-heritage Monument, saline, soda lake, located at Lonar
in Buldhana district, Maharashtra

 JAMMU AND KASHMIR

 Nagin Lake
 Dal Lake
 Tso Moriri Lake
 Pangong Lake
 Manasbal Lake
 Wular Lake

DAL LAKE
 Dal Lake is a lake in Srinagar and is integral to tourism known as the "Jewel in the
crown of Kashmir" or "Srinagar's Jewel".
 Asia's largest Tulip garden is on the banks of Dal Lake.
 Mughal gardens, Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh are on the banks of Dal Lake.

WULAR LAKE
 It is the largest Freshwater lake in India.
 Wular lake can spread over nearly 200-sq-kms but its actual surface area tends to vary
during the year.
 The Jhelum River flows into the lake, 40-km downstream from Srinagar, and then out
again.

 HIMACHAL PRADESH
 Chandratal
 Rewalsar Lake
 Dhankar Lake
 Kareri Lake
 Pongdam Lake
 HARYANA
 Damdama Lake
 Nako Lake
 Chandratal
 Blue Bird lake

 UTTARAKHAND
 Bhimtal
 Nainital

Bhimtal Lake
 Bhimtal Lake is a lake in the town of Bhimtal, in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, with a
masonry dam built in 1883 creating the storage facility
 It is the largest lake in Kumaon region, known as the "lake district of India".
 It is a"C" shaped lake.

 UTTAR PRADESH
 Ramgarh tall
 Moti Jheel
 Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar

 BIHAR
 Kanwar Lake
 The Kanwar Taal or Kabar Taal Lake is Asia’s largest freshwater oxbow lake.

 RAJASTHAN
 Sambhar Lake
 Pushkar lake
 Jal Mahal
 Nakki Lake

Nakki Lake
 ‘Nakki Lake is situated in the Indian hill station of Mount Abu in Aravalli range.
 Mahatma Gandhi’s ashes were immersed in this Holy Lake on 12 February 1948 and
Gandhi Ghat was constructed.

Sambhar Lake
 India's largest inland salt lake.
 It is a bowl shape lake encircles historical Sambhar Lake Town along National Highway 8
in Rajasthan.
 Mahabharata mentions the Sambhar lake as part of the kingdom of the demon king
Brishparva.

Pushkar Lake
 It is located in the town of Pushkar in Ajmer district of the Rajasthan.
 Pushkar Lake is a sacred lake of the Hindus.

 MADHYA PRADESH
 Bhojtal
 Sagar lake
 Bhojtar Lake- Madhya Pradesh
 It is also known as Upper Lake lies on the western side of the capital city of Madhya
Pradesh, Bhopal.
 It is the largest artificial lake in Asia.

 GUJARAT
 Nal Sarovar
 Damodar lake
 Sardar Sarovar.

Nalsarover Lake- Gujarat

The lake – Nalsarovar – and the wetlands around it were declared a bird sanctuary in 1969.

 MAHARASHTRA
 Lonar Lake
 The Lonar lake was formed 50,000 years ago after a meteorite hit the Earth.
 Recently, the colour of the Lonar lake turned pink overnight and hence, this news has
been in the news.
 Some experts suggest that the pink colour might be due to the presence of algae and low
level of water
 Salim Ali Lake
 It has been renamed after the great ornithologist, naturalist Salim Ali and also known as
birdman of India.
 Salim Ali Sarovar (lake) popularly known as Salim Ali Talab is located near Delhi Gate,
opposite Himayat Bagh, Aurangabad.

 ANDHRA PRADESH
Kolleru Lake
 It is one of the largest fresh water lake in India.
 It is located between Krishna and Godavari delta.
 Atapaka Bird Sanctuary is a located on the Kolleru Lake.

Pulicat Lake
 It is the second largest brackish – water lake or lagoon in India.
 The large spindle-shaped barrier island named Sriharikota separates the lake from the Bay
of Bengal.
 The island is home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre , the launch site of India's
successful first lunar space mission, the Chandrayaan-1.

 KERALA
Sasthamcotta Lake
 It is the largest fresh water lake in Kerala.
 The purity of the lake water for drinking use is attributed to the presence of large
population of larva called cavaborus that consumes bacteria in the lake water.

Vembanad Lake
 Vembanad (Vembanad Kayal or Vembanad Kol) is the longest lake in India, and the
largest lake in the state of Kerala.
 It is known as Punnamada Lake in Kuttanad and Kochi Lake in Kochi.
 The Nehru Trophy Boat Race is conducted in a portion of the lake.
 ODISHA
Chilka Lake –Odisha
Chilika Lake is a brackish water lagoon, spread over the Puri, Khurda and Ganjam districts
of Odisha state on the east coast of India, at the mouth of the Daya River, flowing into the Bay
of Bengal,

 MANIPUR
 Loktak Lake -Manipur
 The largest freshwater lake in North -East India
 Keibul Lamjao the only floating national park in the world floats over it, which is the last
natural refuge of the endangered sangai or Manipur brow-antlered deer.
 It is designated a wetland of international importance under Ramsar Convention in 1990.
 Tsomgo Lake – Sikkim
 Tsongmo Lake or Changu Lake, is a glacial lake in the East Sikkim.
 The lake is the venue for the Guru Purnima festival in which Jhakris of Sikkim assemble at
the lake area to derive benefits from the healing qualities of the lake waters.
 Barapani Lake- Meghalaya
 Barapani or Umiam Lake is in Shillong.
 The origin of Lake in 1965 is due to the UmiamUmtru Hydro Electric Power Project, the
first Hydel power project in the North-east region of India.
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY
GEOGRAPHY
TYPES OF SOILS

Soil survey of India was established in 1956 to study the soils in India. Earlier to this
institutions establishment , soils were identified upon their cultivation capabilities as

URVARA (fertile) and USARA (sterile).

 Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s crust comprising rock particles mixed with
organic matter.
 Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment
*** Note : The ideal ratio of fertilizers in the soil is 4:2:1 for N:P:K.

SAND , CLAY AND SILT

 CLAY – Clay is the super fine particles that cling together and prohibit water and
nutrient movements.
 SAND – Sand has course particles which allow water and nutrients to leach too easily
.
 SILT – The particles which has size in between Sand and clay is silt .
 LOAM – It is a mixture of these sizes and is the most favorite of soil being rich in
nutrients and humus .
ALLUVIAL SOIL
 These are 40% in composition of all the soils available in India.
 They are formed by the sediments brought by the rivers. They are rich in potash, poor
in phosphorous. They have calcareous concentrations (kankar).
 Their colour is light grey to ash grey.
 Khaddar is called new alluvium and bhangar is called old alluvium.
 In this , maize , wheat , sugarcane is cultivated .
 Location : In Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal the soil is in
abundance. However, in states like Gujarat, parts of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh also
have this soil.

RED AND YELLOW SOIL

 They constitute 19% of the total area.
 They have red color due to the presence of iron oxide and moving into lower layers
turns yellow. Yellow is due to its hydrated form.
 They are developed on crystalline igneous rocks in low rainfall areas.
 They are poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.
 Some of the crops are red gram, Bengal gram, green gram, groundnut
Location: Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Odisha, some parts of
Karnataka and southeast Maharashtra

RED SOIL

LATERITE SOIL
 Laterite is derived from latin word later which means BRICK. They are found in regions
of high temperature and high rainfall.
 Iron and silica are leached away due to heavy rainfall.
 Excess in iron oxide and potash. Poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and
calcium.
 Crops: tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut.
 Location: Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Orissa
and Assam.
LATERITE SOIL

BLACK SOIL
 It occupies 15% of the area.
 It is mostly found in Deccan Plateau. Hence, it is also known as DECCAN TRAP.
 This soil is known for clay content
 Black colour of the soil is due to TITANIFERROUS MAGNETITE.
 They are rich in lime, iron, magnesium and alunminia.
 They lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
 Location: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and parts
of Tamil Nadu.
Suitable crops: cotton, tobacco, chilly, oil seeds, jowar, ragi and maize

BLACK SOIL

ARID – DESERT SOIL

 They are red to brown in colour. They have sandy structure and saline in nature.
 They lack moisture, humus, nitrogen, phosphate. Lower layers are called ‘KANKAR’
due to increasing calcium content.
 Crops: wheat, cotton, corn (maize), millers, pulses and barley.
 Location: parts of Western Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab and extends up to the Rann
of Kutch in Gujarat
ARID – DESERT SOIL

MOUNTAIN SOILS
 They are loamy and silty on valley sides. Fertile in lower valleys.
 Location: Punjab to West Bengal and Assam. It is also found in deltas of different rivers
such as Krishna, Godavari, Kaveri and Mahanadi in peninsular India.
 PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY
VOLCANO

 The process through which the magma is erupted from interior of earth is called
volcanism. The temperature in the interior of the earth is around 6000 degree centigrade.
The earth is cooling from outside to inside. Magma is a molten material which is formed
due to intense heat, reduction of pressure leading to reduction of melting point of
materials.
 This is mostly present in the aesthenosphere.
 Magma which comes out from the interior of the earth releases the heat trapped
inside the earth. The magma which comes out of the volcano is called lava.
 Volcanoes act as chambers through which heat is transferred to the atmosphere. Volcanoes
are erupted from different depths from around 150kms from the surface.

MAGMA VS LAVA
 Magma is the term used to denote the molten rocks and related materials seen inside earth.
A weaker zone of the mantle called asthenosphere, usually is the source of magma.
 Once this magma came out to the earth surface through the vent of a volcano, it is called as
the Lava. Therefore, Lava is nothing but the magma on earth surface.
 The process by which solid, liquid and gaseous material escape from the earth’s
interior to the surface of the earth is called as Volcanism.

STRUCTURE OF VOLCANOS
 The structures through which magma comes out of the earth are volcanoes.
 Under the surface of the earth there exists a chamber which contains magma which flows
onto the surface of the earth. The flow is through vent of the volcano.
 The increase in pressure pushes the magma from its chamber onto the surface of the earth
where it flows as lava. When the upper part of the volcano is denuded then it is called
crater.
 When the lava erupts from the crater and later another crater is developed within it,
it is called ‘NESTED CRATER’.
 When the crater is filled with water they are called ‘CRATER LAKES’. The largest
crater lake is in world is lake toba.
 CAUSE OF VOLCANOS
 The first and foremost reason is the crustal disturbance in the zone of weakness due to
deep faulting or mountain folding.
 Heat generated by degeneration of radioactive elements inside the earth which causes
an increase in temperature inside the earth, thus causing eruptions of the inside
materials.
 Weak Earth Surface: Because of high pressure in the earth’s interior, the magma and
gases escape with great velocity as the pressure is released through eruptions where
opportunity is provided by weak zones along the earth’s surface.
Formation of gases due to high temperature

PLATE TECTONICS AND VOLCANOES

Divergent plate boundaries

 At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates move apart from each other.
 The release of pressure leads to partial melting of the mantle causing volcanism and
creating new oceanic crust.
 Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore most volcanic
activity is submarine, forming new seafloor.

Convergent plate boundaries

 These occurs where two plates (oceanic and continental) slide toward each other to
form a subduction zone.
 In this case, the oceanic plate subducts or submerges under the continental plate
forming a deep ocean trench just offshore.
 Water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the
overlying mantle wedge, creating magma.
 This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high silica content so that it often does not
reach the surface and cools at depth. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed.

CENTRAL VOLCANIC TYPE

 In the central volcanic eruptions, the lava comes out to the surface through narrow pipes
and thus causes an explosion, during the ejection of magma onto the surface.
 The explosive nature of eruptions leads to the formation of mountains which are known
as volcanic mountains.
 The different volcanic Islands throughout the world are actually volcanic mountains formed
through Central eruptions.

FISSURE VOLCANIC TYPE

 In Fissure volcanic eruptions, the Lava comes out to the surface through the cracks of the
rock strata and hence the fissure eruptions are not much explosive.
 The fissure eruptions are smooth and the Lava spreads to a larger area, so they form
landscapes such as plateaus etc
VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

 The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into igneous
rocks.
 The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or from the inside itself.
 Depending on the location of the cooling of lava, igneous rocks are classified as

INTRUSIVE TROPOGRAPHY
EXTRUSIVE TROPOGRAPHY

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

INTRUSIVE TROPOGRAPHY
 When the cooling of magma takes place in the interior of the earth, the topography
thus formed is called Intrusive topography.
 When the magma solidifies and disturbs the rock structure, then it is called discordant
intrusive topography.
 When the magma solidifies without disturbing the overlying rock structure it is called
cordant intrusive topography.
 If igneous rocks cools at the surface, it is called volcanic rocks .If igneous rocks cools on
the crust, it is called plutonic rocks.

INTRUSIVE LANDFORMS
1. Sill : When lava moves upward while volcano eruption but some portion of lava moves in
the horizontal direction and cooled within the crust is called a sill.
2. Dyke :When lava moves upward towards the surface but cooled within crust in
perpendicular to the ground. A wall-like structure is called a Dyke
3. Batholiths : It is long, irregular, and generally, dome-shaped Magna that cooled in great
depth.
As of now, many batholiths are exposed to surfaces, Chhota Nagpur and Ranchi plateau
are examples of Batholith rocks.
4. Laccoliths: It is like Batholith but found in mushroom-shaped and in shallow depth within
connected to the pipe

EXTRUSIVE VOLCANO LANDFORMS

 They are formed when the Igneous rocks are formed and when molten lava is cooled on
the earth's crust.
Some of the examples are-
 Cinder cone
 Composite cones
  Lava plateau
 Caldera with a cinder cone
 Volcano rock

ACIDIC LAVA
 These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point.
 They are light-coloured, of low density, and have a high percentage of silica.
 They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying.
 The resultant volcanic cone is therefore stratified (hence the name stratovolcano) and
steep-sided.
 The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava,
resulting in loud explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
 Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they form a lava plug at the crater like that
of Mt. Pelée in Martinique (an island in the Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Islands).
 Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the destructive boundaries (convergent
boundaries).

BASIC LAVA
 These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000 °C and are highly fluid.
 They are dark coloured basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica.
 They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are not very explosive.
 Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour.
 They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before they
solidify.
 The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms a flattened shield
or dome.
 Shield type lava flow is common along the constructive boundaries (divergent
boundary).

TYPES OF THE VOLCANOS

 Shield volcano
 Composite volcano
 Caldera volcano
 Flood basalt volcano
 Mid-ocean ridge volcano.
 Active volcano: Release of lava in recently.

TYPES OF VOLCANOS
Shield volcano
 It is the largest of all volcano on the earth. Example, Hawaiian volcano.
 It is made up of basalt lava and very fluid when erupted.
 It became explosive if water gets into vent otherwise less explosive.
 At the top vent, it develops into a cinder cone.

Composite volcanoes
 It is characterized by cooler eruptions and vicious lava than basalt.
 Erupted Materials accumulated in layers; thus called composite material.

Caldera:
It is most explosive when erupts. It collapses rather than building a tall structure. It makes
depression is called a caldera.

Flood basalt province:

It is the highly flood lava that spread in the large distances.
For example : Deccan traps in India.

Mid-ocean ridge volcano:

It occurs in the ocean, central portions of this ridge experience frequent eruption.

BASED ON THE FREQUENCY

 Active volcanoes: Those volcanoes which get erupted frequently are active volcanoes.
Example: Barren Island of Andaman and Nicobar
 Dormant volcanoes: Those volcanoes which are lying dormant from a very long time but
have the possibility of eruption are called as dormant volcanoes.
Example: Mount Ararat of Turkey
 Extinct volcanoes: Those volcanoes which once were active but became extinct due to non
eruption are called extinct or dead volcanoes. The magma chambers of such volcanoes lose
all the magma which causes them to become extinct.
Example: The Deccan Plateau of India

VOLCANOS IN INDIA
 There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or the Indian peninsula.
 Barren Island (only active volcano in India) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands became
active in the 1990s.
 It is now considered an active volcano after it spewed lava and ash in 2017.
 The other volcanic island in Indian territory is Narcondam, about 150 km north-east of
Barren Island; it is probably extinct. Its crater wall has been destroyed.

DISTRIBUTION
 Circum-Pacific region popularly termed the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, has the greatest
concentration of active volcanoes. Volcanic belt and earthquake belt closely overlap along
the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’.
 Regions with active volcanism along ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’
 The Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan,
 the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra in particular),
 Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and North Island, New Zealand.
 Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and
right up to Alaska.
The countries with the most volcanoes United States – 173 (most of them are in Alaska)
1. Russia – 166
2. Indonesia – 139
3. Iceland – 130
4. Japan – 112

NEGATIVE EFFECTS
The following are negative effects:
 There is a lot of destruction of property and human life.
 The loss of crop and forest is there.
 It reduces the isolation of sunlight.
 It increases acid rains.
 It may create a Tsunami if occurred in oceans.
 In 1883, the Mt. Krakota volcano created a tsunami that has killed more than 30,000
people.

POSITIVE EFFECTS
The following are positive effects:
 The decomposition of volcanic rocks creates fertile soils.
 Volcanic dust and ashes also add fertility around the regions.
 Crater lakes and hot spring may be created form this
 It is a source of valuable minerals.