`ASTU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

Chapter- 4: Torsion

4.1 Introduction

Torsion refers to the twisting of a structural member when it is loaded by couples that produce rotation
about its longitudinal axis. Torsional loading is pictured in Fig. 3.1, which shows a straight bar
supported at one end and loaded two pairs of forces. Each pair of forces form a couple that tends to
twist the bar about its longitudinal axis.

Couple: the pair of forces that tends to twist the bar about its longitudinal axis. The moment of a
couple is equal to the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of
action of the forces; thus the first couple has a moment T1 = P1d1 and the second has a moment T2 =
P2d2.

Fig. 3.1 Bar subjected to torsion by twisting couples T1 and T2.

Couples can also be represented by curved arrows or double-headed vectors following the right-hand
screw sign convention. Couples that produce twisting of a bar, such as couples T1 and T2 in Fig. 3.2,
are called torques, twisting couples, or twisting moments. Torque 1 in Fig 3.1 above can be represented
similarly for Torque 2

Fig 3.2 Discuss on section method of determining internal torques with an example.

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 1

ASTU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

4.2 Torsion of Circular Shafts

To establish a relation between the internal torque and the stresses it sets up in members with circular
solid and tabular cross-sections, it is necessary to make the following assumptions.

 lane circular cross-sections, perpendicular to the axis of the bar, remain plane after the
application of a torque; points in a given plane remain in that plane after twisting.

 urthermore, expansion or contraction of a cross-section does not occur nor does a shortening
or lengthening of the bar. Thus all normal strains are zero. (applies only for circular cross-
sections)

 n a circular member subjected to torque, shear strains 𝛾 vary linearly from the central axis
reaching max at the periphery. (applies only for circular cross-sections)

 f attention is confined to the linearly elastic material, Hooke’s law applies, and it follows that
shear stress is proportional to shear strain.

Consider a bar or shaft of circular cross-section twisted by couples T acting at the ends (Fig. 3.3a). A
bar loaded in this manner is said to be in pure Torsion. The cross-sections of the circular bar rotate as
rigid bodies about the longitudinal axis, with radii remaining straight and the cross-sections remaining
plane and circular. Also, if the total angle of twist of the bar is small, neither the length of the bar nor
its radius will change.

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 2

`ASTU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

Fig. 3.3 Circular bar in pure torsio

During twisting the right-hand end of the bar will rotate through a small angle ø with respect to the left-
hand end (Fig. 3.3a). The angle ø is known as the angle of twist. Because of this rotation, a longitudinal
line pq on the surface of the bar will rotate through a small angle to position pq’.

Consider an element of the bar between two cross-sections that are distance dx apart (Fig. 3.3a). This
volume element is isolated in Fig. 3.3b. On the outer surface identify a small element abcd, with side’s
ab and cd that are parallel to the longitudinal axis. During twisting of the bar, points b and c move to b’
and c’, respectively. The lengths of the sides of the element do not change during this rotation, but the
angles at the corners are no longer equal to 900 . The element is in a state of pure shear, and the
magnitude of the shear strain  is equal to the decrease in the angle at a. This decrease in angle is

r – Radius of the cross-section

𝑑∅ - Angle of twist between the two ends of the small element.

The expression for shear strain becomes,

rd∅
γ=
dx
d∅
The quantity dx represents the rate of change of the angle of twist ∅.

d∅
Let 𝜃 = angle of twist per unit length.
dx

𝑏𝑏 , rd∅
γ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 𝑟𝜃 (3.1)
𝑎𝑏 dx

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 3

`ASTU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

In general, both ∅ and θ are functions of x. However, in the special case of pure torsion, the angle of

twist per unit length is constant along the length L of the bar, because every cross-section is
∅
subjected to the same torque. Therefore, 𝜃 =
𝐿

∅
Shear strain, 𝛾 = 𝑟𝜃 = 𝑟 𝐿 for pure torsion. (3.2)

Finally, it can be observed that the preceding equations are based only upon geometric concepts, and
therefore they are valid for any circular bar, regardless of whether the material behaves plastically or
elastically, linearly or nonlinearly. The shear stresses τ in the circular bar act on an element in the
directions shown in Fig.3.2. For a linearly elastic material, the shear stresses, are related to the shear
strains by Hooke’s law in shear; therefore,

Shear stress, τ = Gγ = Grθ (3.3)

Where G is the shear modulus of elasticity. Equations (3.1) and (3.3) relate the strains and stresses for
an element at the surface of the bar to the angle of twist per unit length. Following the same procedure
as for an element at the surface of an interior cylinder of radius ρ (Fig. 3.2d)

γ = 𝜌𝜃 τ = Gρθ (3.4, a, b)

These equations show that the shear strains and stresses in a circular bar vary linearly with the radial
distance ρ from the center, with the maximum values occurring at the outer surface (Fig. 3.2d). The
shear stresses acting on a cross-sectional plane are accompanied by shear stresses of the same
magnitude acting on longitudinal planes (Fig.3.4). This conclusion follows from the fact that equal
shear stresses always exist on mutually perpendicular planes.

Fig. 3.4 Longitudinal shear stresses in a circular bar

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 4

`ASTU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

The relationship between the applied torque T and the angle of twist Ø (Fig. 3.3a) may now be
determined from the condition that a resultant couple of the shear stresses acting over the cross-section
(Fig 3.3d) must be statically equivalent to the applied torque T. To determine the resultant couple,
consider a ring-shaped element of an area having radius ρ and thickness dρ (Fig. 3.5). Within this
element take another element (labeled dA in the figure) that extends over a small length of an arc. The
elemental shear force acting on an element of area dA is equal to 𝜏𝑑𝐴, where 𝜏 is the shear stress at

radius 𝜌. The moment of this force about the axis of the bar is 𝜏𝜌𝑑𝐴 .

Figure 3.5 cross section of the shaft containing ad differential element of area dA loaded at the radial
distance ρ from the axis of the shaft

But, τ = Gρθ

⇒ 𝑑T = (Gρθ)ρ dA = Gθρ2 . dA

Therefore, the total torque,

T = ∫ dT = ∫ Gθ ρ2 . dA=Gθ ∫ ρ2 . dA = GθIp (3.5)

Where 𝐼𝑝 = ∫ 𝜌2 . 𝑑𝐴 is the polar moment of inertia of the circular cross-section

𝑑
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝜌𝑑𝜌 and 𝜌 runs from 0 to r ( 2 )

r r r
3 3
ρ4 πr 4 πd4
Ip = ∫ 2πρ dρ = 2π ∫ ρ dρ = 2π [ ] = or Ip =
4 0 2 32
0 0

T
𝜃= (3.6)
GIp

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 5

`AMU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

Equation (3.6) shows θ, the angle of twist per unit length, is directly proportional to the torque T and
inversely proportional to the product 𝐺𝐼𝑝 , known as the torsional rigidity of the shaft.

The total angle of twist, ∅, equal to 𝜃𝐿, is

𝑇𝐿
∅ = 𝐺𝐼 Where ∅ is in radian (3.7)
𝑝

In SI units; T is in N-m, L in m, G in Pascal’s & Ip = m4

𝐺𝐼𝑝
The quantity , called the torsional stiffness, is the torque required to produce a unit angle of rotation
𝐿

of one end of the bar with respect to the other.

𝐿
The torsional flexibility is defined as the reciprocal of the stiffness, or , which is the angle of
𝐺𝐼𝑝

𝐸𝐴
rotation produced by a unit torque. These expressions are analogous to those for axial stiffness and
𝐿
𝐿
axial flexibility 𝐸𝐴.

𝑇𝑟
For circular bars 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (3.8)
𝐼𝑝

Equation (2.8) is known as the torsion formula.

Shear stress at distance ρ from the center is

𝑇𝜌
𝜏= (3.9)
𝐼𝑝

The above equations are applicable to circular tubes. It is necessary, however, to modify 𝐼𝑝 . For a tube
as may be seen in Fig. 3.6, the limits of integration for polar moment of inertia extend from 𝑟1 𝑡𝑜 𝑟2 .
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐼𝑝 = (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 4 ) = (𝑑 4 − 𝑑1 4 )
2 32 2

Fig. 3.6 Hollow circular tube

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 6

ASTU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

For very thin tubes, if 𝑟1 is nearly equal to 𝑟2 and 𝑟2 -𝑟1 = 𝑡 the thickness of the tube, 𝐼𝑝 reduces to a
simple approximate expression: 𝐼𝑝 ≈ 2𝜋𝑟 3 𝑡 Where r is the average radius. Hollow bars or tubes are
much more efficient in resisting torsional loads than are solid bars. As explained in the preceding
paragraphs, the shear stresses in a solid circular bar are maximum at the outer boundary of the cross-
section and zero at the center. Therefore, most of the material in a solid shaft is stressed significantly
below the maximum shear stress.

4.3 Non-uniform torsion

Pure torsion refers to the torsion of a prismatic bar subjected to torques acting only at the ends. Non-
uniform torsion differs from pure torsion in that the bar need not be prismatic and the applied torques
may vary along the length. The figure below shows a bar made of two segments of different diameters
and torques applied at several cross-sections. Each region of the bar between applied loads or between
changes in cross-section is in pure torsion, and therefore the formulas derived in the preceding section
may be applied to each part separately. For this purpose, it is necessary to determine the magnitude and
direction of the internal torque in each region. Then knowing the internal torque, we can calculate the
angle of twist and maximum shear stress for each part from Equations. (3.7) and (3.8).

Fig. 3.7 Bar in non-uniform torsion.

The total angle of twist of one end of the bar with respect to the other is obtained by summation, using
the general formula:
𝑛
𝑇𝑖 𝐿𝑖
∅ = ∑( ) ( 3.10)
𝐺𝑖 𝐼𝑝 𝑖
𝑖=1

Where i- Is the numbering index for various parts of the bar

n- Is the total number of parts

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 7

`AMU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

Ti –the internal torque in the ith part

Li- the length of the ith part

Gi- the shear modulus of the ith part

Ipi- the polar moment of inertia of the ith part

𝑇 𝐿
The expression 𝐺 𝑖𝐼 𝑖 gives the angle of twist ∅𝑖 for part i.
𝑖 𝑝𝑖

Another case of non-uniform torsion occurs when either the torque or the cross-section changes
continuously along the axis of the bar as shown in the fig. below.

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.8 Bar with varying cross-section and varying torque.

The figure shows a tapered bar subjected to a torque of intensity q per unit distance along the axis of
the bar. The differential angle of rotation dø for an element of length dx (Fig. 3.8a) is

T ( x)d ( x)
d 
GI p ( x)

Where T(x)- the torque at cross-section x distance from one end.

Ip(x)- the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section at x-distance from one end.

The total angle of twist between the ends of the bar is

L
T ( x) dx
   d 
0
 GI p ( x) (3.11)

The above equations can be used for either solid or hollow bars having circular cross-sections.

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 8

ASTU,FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

4.4 Transmission of power by circular shafts

The most important use of circular shafts is to transmit mechanical power from one device or machine
to another. Consider a motor-driven shaft (Fig 3.9) rotating at an angular speed 𝜔, measured in radian
per second (rad/sec). The shaft is transmitting the torque T to a machine that is performing useful work.

Figure 3.9 Shaft transmitting a torque T at an angular speed ω

In general, the work W done by any torque of constant magnitude T is equal to the product of the
torque and the angle through which it rotates. i.e.

𝑊 = 𝑇∅

Where ∅ is the angular rotation in radian. Power is the time rate at which work is done, or

𝑑𝑊
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡

Where P is power and t is time

∅
The rate of changed of the angular displacement ∅ is the angular speed ω, and therefore the
dt
preceding equation becomes,

𝑝 = 𝑇. 𝜔

This formula gives the power transmitted by a rotating shaft. If angular speed is expressed as the
frequency of rotation,

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑇 (f=Hz=S-1)

By Dereje.F (MSc by Structural Engineering) Page 9