EVOLUTION (DETAILED NOTES)
6.1 ORIGIN OF LIFE
Introduction
Evolutionary Biology deals with the origin and development of life forms on Earth.
To understand evolution, we must also understand:
Origin of Earth
Origin of Universe
Origin of Universe (Big Bang Theory)
The Big Bang Theory explains the origin of the universe.
About 13.8 billion years ago, a massive explosion occurred.
After the explosion:
Universe expanded
Temperature decreased
Formation of Hydrogen & Helium
Formation of galaxies and stars
Formation of Earth
Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago
Early Earth conditions:
No oxygen
High temperature
Atmosphere contained:
Methane (CH₄)
Ammonia (NH₃)
Water vapour
CO₂
Formation of Oceans
Cooling of Earth → Water vapour condensed
Heavy rainfall → Formation of oceans
UV rays broke water into H₂ and O₂
Theories of Origin of Life
1. Panspermia Theory
Life came from outer space
Early scientists believed spores travelled between planets
2. Spontaneous Generation (Rejected)
Life arises from non-living matter
Example: maggots from meat
Disproved by Louis Pasteur
Proved life arises from pre-existing life
3. Chemical Evolution Theory (Accepted)
Proposed by:
Alexander Oparin
J. B. S. Haldane
Key Idea:
Life originated from non-living organic molecules
Conditions:
High temperature
Reducing atmosphere (no oxygen)
Miller-Urey Experiment (1953)
Scientist:
Stanley Miller
Experiment:
Simulated early Earth conditions:
CH₄, NH₃, H₂, H₂O
Electric sparks (lightning)
Result:
Formation of:
Amino acids
Sugars
Nitrogen bases
Conclusion: Organic molecules can form from inorganic substances
First Life Forms
Appeared around 3–4 billion years ago
Initially:
Non-cellular (RNA, proteins)
Later:
Single-celled organisms (prokaryotes)
6.2 EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS – THEORY
Theory of Special Creation (Rejected)
Life created by God
No change over time
Earth is only ~4000 years old
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Scientist:
Charles Darwin
Voyage:
Ship: HMS Beagle
Key Observations
1st Organisms show variation
2ndSome survive better than others
3rdExtinction occurs
4th New species arise
Natural Selection
Survival of the fittest
“Fitness” = reproductive success
Better adapted organisms:
Survive
Reproduce more
Pass traits to next generation
Alfred Wallace Contribution
Alfred Russel Wallace
Independently proposed similar theory
6.3 EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
1. Fossil Evidence
Fossils = remains of organisms
Found in sedimentary rocks
Importance:
Show:
Extinct species
Evolutionary sequence
2. Embryological Evidence
Proposed by Ernst Haeckel
Later corrected by Karl Ernst von Baer
Example:
Vertebrate embryos show gill slits
3. Morphological Evidence
Homologous Organs
Same structure, different function
Example:
Human hand
Whale flipper
Bat wing
Indicates common ancestry
Analogous Organs
Different structure, same function
Example:
Bird wing vs insect wing
Indicates convergent evolution
4. Biochemical Evidence
Similar DNA & proteins across species
Suggests common origin
5. Artificial Selection
Humans create new breeds
Example:
Dogs
Crops
6. Industrial Melanism
Example:
Peppered moth
Before industrialization:
White moths survived
After pollution:
Dark moths survived
Shows natural selection in action
6.4 ADAPTIVE RADIATION
Definition
Evolution of different species from a common ancestor in a given area
Example: Darwin’s Finches
Observed in Galápagos Islands
Different beaks for different diets
Example: Australian Marsupials
Many species evolved from one ancestor
Convergent Evolution
Similar adaptations in unrelated species
Example:
Marsupial wolf vs placental wolf
6.5 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
Key Concept
Evolution begins with variation
Important Points
Fitness depends on:
Survival
Reproduction
Evolution is:
Gradual
Continuous
Lamarck’s Theory (Rejected)
Scientist:
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Idea:
Use and disuse of organs
Acquired traits inherited
Example: Giraffe neck
Darwin vs Lamarck
Darwin Lamarck
Natural selection Use & disuse
Variation important Acquired traits
Accepted Rejected
6.6 MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
Mutation Theory
Scientist:
Hugo de Vries
Idea:
Evolution occurs by sudden mutations
Sources of Variation
1st Mutation
2ndGenetic recombination
3rdGene flow
4th Genetic drift
6.7 HARDY–WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
Definition
Allele frequency remains constant in a population
Formula
p2+2pq+q2=1p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1p2+2pq+q2=1
Conditions (Equilibrium)
No mutation
No migration
Large population
Random mating
No selection
Factors Affecting Equilibrium
1st Gene flow
2ndGenetic drift
3rdMutation
4th Natural selection
5th Recombination
Types of Natural Selection
1st Stabilizing
2ndDirectional
3rdDisruptive
6.8 BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
Timeline
Time Event
4.5 bya Earth formed
3.5 bya First life
2 bya Cells formed
500 mya Invertebrates
350 mya Fish
320 mya Plants
200 mya Reptiles
65 mya Dinosaurs extinct
Present Mammals dominate
Key Evolutionary Steps
Fish → Amphibians → Reptiles → Birds & Mammals
6.9 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN
Early Ancestors
Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus
Ape-like
Lived ~15 million years ago
Australopithecus
Walked upright
Small brain
Homo habilis
Brain: 650–800 cc
Used tools
Homo erectus
Brain: ~900 cc
Used fire
Neanderthals
Brain: ~1400 cc
Used tools & buried dead
Homo sapiens
Modern humans
Developed:
Language
Culture
Agriculture
SUMMARY (EXAM READY)
Life originated through chemical evolution
Evolution occurs via natural selection
Evidence comes from:
Fossils
Anatomy
Embryology
Variation + selection = evolution
Humans evolved from primates