DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Engineering Physics Subject Code: BPHYC102/202

IA Marks: 40

Hours/ Week: 04 Exam Hours: 03

Total Hours: 50 Exam Marks: 100 reduced to 60

Module – II

Elastic Properties of Materials

Elasticity: Stress-Strain Curve, Stress hardening and softening. Elastic Moduli, Poisson’s
ratio, Relation between Y, n and σ (with derivation), mention relation between K, Y and σ,
limiting values of Poisson’s ratio. Beams, Bending moment and derivation of expression,
Cantilever and I section girder and their Engineering Applications, Elastic materials
(qualitative). Failures of engineering materials - Ductile fracture, Brittle fracture, Stress
concentration, Fatigue and factors affecting fatigue (only qualitative explanation), Numerical
problems.

10 Hours

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 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
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Engineering Physics Subject Code: BPHYC102/202

Why to study Elasticity?

Mechanical Strength of every object around us is related to its elastic property.
Study of elastic properties of various materials and search for new materials is essential for
the better development of various engineering and scientific fields which includes
Mechanical, Civil, Electronics, Aeronautical, Aerospace and etc.
One of the most fundamental question that an engineer has to know is how a material
behaves under stress, and when does it break. Ultimately, it is the answer to those two
questions which would steer the development of new materials and determine their survival
in various environmental and physical conditions.
Elasticity is an elegant and fascinating subject that deals with determination of the stress,
strain and displacement distribution in an elastic solid under the influences of external forces.
Civil engineering applications include stress and deflection analysis of structures like rods,
beams, plates, shells, soil, rock, concrete etc. Mechanical engineering uses elasticity
in numerous problems thermal stress analysis, fracture mechanics, fatigue, design of
machine elements.
Materials engineering uses elasticity to determine the stress fields of crystalline solids,
dislocations, micro structures.
Applications in Aeronautical engineering include stress, fracture, and fatigue analysis in
aero structures.

ELASTIC MATERIALS
 Elastic materials are materials which show high elasticity (i.e) which can be stretched
several times its original length (at least 300%) and upon releasing of the stress
(stretching force), it returns back to its original shape and dimensions.
 Quartz fibre and Phosphor bronze are examples of near perfect elastic bodies.
 Rubber materials, both natural and synthetic are examples of elastic materials.
 Elastomers are the class of polymer materials with high elastic nature. Elastomers
show entropy dependant elasticity.
Eg. Natural Rubber (NR),Synthetic Polyisoprene (IR)
Polybutadiene (BR),Styrene-butadiene Rubber (copolymer of
polystyrene and polybutadiene, SBR)

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Engineering Physics Subject Code: BPHYC102/202

Introduction
Elasticity: The property of a material, by virtue of which materials regain their original shape
and size after the removal of deforming forces.
Examples: Spring, rubber, Skin etc.,
Plasticity: The property of a material, by virtue of which body does not regains its original
size and shape after the removal of deforming force.
Examples: Plastic paper, clay, etc.,
Rigidity: The property of a material, by virtue of which body does not change its original
size and shape in presence of applied deforming force.
Examples: Wall, Black board, duster etc.,
In these elasticity is a important and fascinating subject deals with determination of stress,
strain, displacement, distribution in an elastic solid materials under the influence applied
deforming force.
Stress:
When a body is subjected to deforming force, a restoring force is developed in the body. The
restoring force per unit area is known as stress (T). This restoring force is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the applied force. If F is the force applied and A is the area of
cross section of the body, then T = F/A.
Under the action of the external force, the material changes its form due to molecules inside it
are displaced from their initial position. In this process, the molecules inside it are displaced
from their previous position. In this process, the molecules develop a tendency to come back
to their original position because of intermolecular binding forces. The aggregation of the
restoring tendency of molecules force is known as restoring force.
The SI unit of stress is Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ML-1T-2].
Strain:
Stain is the change in the shape of the body, means the deformation produced by the external
force accompanies a change in dimensions of the material. Then the stain is defined as the
ratio of change in dimension ( ΔD ) of a body to the original dimension (D).
Strain= ΔD/ D
Strain has no units or dimensions.

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Engineering Physics Subject Code: BPHYC102/202

Types of Stress and Stain:

Depending on the type of application, materials of different shapes are employed and
subjected to appropriate type of stresses. Under the action of the particular type of stress
acting, corresponding type of deformation is produced in the body. The deformation can
happen in various ways. These resulting deformations are broadly classified into three
categories. They are
Types of Stress Types of Stains
 Normal/Longitudinal Stress  Longitudinal Strain
 Shearing/Tangential stress  Shearing Strain
 Volume /Compressive stress  Volume Strain

Types of Stress:
Normal/Longitudinal stress: If a force is applied normal to the
cross section of the body, then the restoring force developed per
unit area is called normal or longitudinal stress. Longitudinal
stress may be of two type’s i.e. tensile stress or compressive stress
i.e. it can cause either extension (tensile stress) or
compression (compressive stress) depending on the direction.
In both cases, there is change in length of the body.
Longitudinal stress = Force (F)/ Area (A)
Shearing/Tangential stress: If a deforming force is applied
parallel to the surface area of the body, there is relative
displacement between opposite faces. The restoring force per
unit area developed due to applied tangential force is known as
tangential or shearing stress.
Shear Stress = Tangential force/ Area
Volume /Compressive stress: If the applied force produces change
in volume of a body, the stress associated is called as Volume
Stress.

Volume Stress = A⋅dP/ A=dP

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Types of Strain:
Longitudinal strain: The ratio of change in the length ( ΔL ) to the original length
(L) of the body is known as longitudinal strain.

Longitudinal 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ΔL/ L

Shearing strain: As a result of applied tangential force, there is

relative displacement Δx between opposite faces of the body as
shown in figure. The strain so produced is known as shearing
strain.
Shearing strain is defined as the ratio of relative displacement of the
faces Δx to the height ‘h’.
Δx
tan θ=
i.e. Shearing strain= h

where, θ is the angular displacement of the surface from the vertical (original position).
Δx
tan θ≈θ=
Usually θ is very small and hence h

Volumetric strain: If forces are applied normal to the surface

of a body in all directions it undergoes change in volume. The
ratio of change in volume ( ΔV ) to the original volume (V), without
any change in shape is called volumetric strain and stress causing is
called normal stress.
Volume Strain = dV/V

Hooke’s Law:
Irrespective of the type of deformation of a body under the action of external force, “Hooke
found that stress is always proportional to strain but only when deformation is small”.
Stress∝Strain
Stress=M ×Strain
where M = proportionality constant called as modulus of elasticity.
Stress
Stress= M =
Therefore, Strain

It is a characteristic property of the material.

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Stress-Strain Curve
Further to understand better way the stress vs
strain curve for metallic wire or a rod is
considered as shown in figure. In this curve OA is
the portion of linearity where stress is directly
proportional to strain. In this region only Hooke’s
law is valid. Even though the body continues to
exhibit perfect elastic property up to the point B.
that means the curve will be retraced if the applied
force is removed at any point even between A and
B. however linear behaviour is not observed in this
range. The point A and B are known as
proportional limit and the elastic limit respectively. Further, by knowing the elastic limit of
the material, one can find the maximum deforming force so that the body should not undergo
permanent deformation. Deforming force is the force is the force that can produce change in
either size or shape or both of the body. Then point B can also be called as “yield point’.
After the point B and E, the body fails to regain its original length if the applied force
removed but traverses the dashed line as shown in figure. Therefore the material is said to be
“permanent set”. Such a deformation is called “plastic deformation”.
At the point E, the deformation becomes large enough to pull the molecules for apart so that
the binding force breaks and after that the body will become two parts. The point E is called
as “fracture point’. The force per unit area for which the wire breaks is called ‘breaking
stress’.
The range in between B and E is plastic range. These are subdivided into two regions named
as (1) Strain hardening region (2) Strain softening region.
(1) Strain hardening region:
In certain materials, the plastic deformation is again
stressed to show up an increase yield point. This effect is
known as strain hardening.

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Also it can be defined as it is the process of making a material harder by plastic

deformation. In this process the yield point can be increased under higher stress.
Cause of strain hardening:
A crystal lattice is defined by the periodic arrangement of
atoms. Sometime the position of atoms is slightly shifting or
dislocated known as lattice distortion of dislocations.
Dislocation is an irregularity caused within the crystal structure.
The dislocation is shown at A. these displacements of atoms
result in setting up locally compressive stresses above A and
tensile stress below it. When an external stress acts, these dislocations move and similar type
of dislocations repel each other because of similar stress around them. The lattice of the
material has a regular pattern, nearly difect free region when the material is stressed, the
relulting plastic deformation produces an increase in the number of dislocations. Sometime
by adding some impurities, it increases the elastic modulus and also the yield strength.
(2) Strain softening region:
For certain materials such as concrete or soil, the stress-strain will
be typically anshown in figure. The curve shows negative slope
soon after the elastic region. The negative slope indicates that
there is softening effect of the material over this range. This effect
is known as strain softening.
Factors effecting elasticity:
The factor effects on elasticity of materials are (a) temperature, (b) Annealing, (c) Adding
impurities.
Effect of continuous stress and temperature:
Elastic materials are subjected to continuous stress at elevated temperatures and this
phenomenon is known as “creeping”. Creep is the property by means of which a material
under a stress and forms deformation continuously. It is a type of slow bending effect of
materials due to plastic deformation and leads to fracture. This effect is due to high
temperature.
Examples-Boilers, turbines, jet engines etc.,
Effect of Annealing:

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This is a type of heat treatment. Heat treatments are used to alter the physical and mechanical
properties of metals or alloys without changing its shape. In this process a metal or an alloy
becomes soft by heating and cooling it slowly. It increases the strength, hardness and
toughness. Also it improves the elasticity of the material and increases the ductility.
Effect of impurities:
Adding impurity to metal results in either increase or decrease of elasticity. It depends on
types of impurity added. If the impurity obstructs the motion of dislocation in the lattice, it
increases the elastic modulus. If it enables the moment of dislocation it causes cracks, and
thus reduces the elasticity of the material.
Types of Elastic Modulus and its Relation

Young’s Modulus (Y):

Young’s Modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal (linear) stress to longitudinal strain
within the elastic limit.

Y = Longitudinal stress /Longitudinal strain

F
A
Y=
ΔL
L

S.I unit of Y is N/m2 Dimensions are [L-1 M1 T-2]

Bulk Modulus (K):

The ration of volume stress to the volume strain of the body with in the elastic limit is called
Bulk modulus.

Bulk modulus= volume stress

K=
dp
=
Vdp
volume strain
dv dv
V
S.I unit of Y is N/m2 Dimensions are [L-1 M1 T-2]

Rigidity Modulus (n):

The ratio of tangential stress or shearing stress to the shearing strain.
Rigidity modulus (n) = Shearing stress/ Shearing strain
n={ ( F / A ) / θ } Nm-2

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Poisson’s Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain of the body with in the elastic limit.

Poisson’s ratio (σ ) =Lateral strain ( β )/ Longitudinal

strain (α )

Lateral strain ( β ) = Change in dimension/ original

dimension
Longitudinal strain (α ) = Change in length/ Original
length
d1
d d1 . L
σ= =
L 1 dL
L

Relation between the elastic constants:

If we consider a body under an elastic deformation, the body is studied under any one of the
three elastic moduli depending upon the type of deformation. However these three moduli are
related to each other.
Further, will study moduli relations can be understood by knowing how one type of moduli
deformation could be equated to a combination of other type of deformation.

Relation between shearing strain, elongation strain and compression strain:

Consider a cube whose lower surface is fixed to a rigid

support. Let ABCD be one of its face with the side. AD
is fixed along the support. When a deforming force is
applied to its upper face along BC, it causes relative
displacement at different part of the cube so that B
moves to B1 and C to C1.
Let θ be the angle of shear which is very small in
magnitude.
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Now it can be observed that the diagonal BD of the cube is now shrink to the length B 1C and
that of AC is stretched to the length AC 1, these two variations takes place at right angles to
each other.
If CX is drawn perpendicular to C1A and B1Y to BD, then AC=AX and B1D=YD.
Then the length C1X is the extension in an original length CA and the length BY is the
contraction in an original length BD.

Changinlength C1 X
= = −−−−−(1 )
Then the Elongation strain Initiallength CA
BY
=−−−−−(2 )
and Compression strain BD

If L is the length of each side of the cube then BD=CA=√2 L−−−−−(3 )

Now consider a triangle CC1X
C1 X
cos ∠CC 1 X =
CC 1
1 1 1
Then ⇒C X =CC cos ∠ CC X
It is similar to the triangle BC1A
⇒C 1 X =CC 1 cos ∠ BC 1 A
o
In the isosceles right angle triangle BCA, ∠C=45
CC 1 CC 1
1 o ShearStrain ( θ )= =
Since θ is very small ∠ BC A =∠ BCA=45 CD L
CC 1
⇒C 1 X =CC 1 cos 45o = −−−−−(4 ) ⇒CC 1 =θL
√2
Substitute equation (3) and (4) in equation (1)
CC 1 θL θ
⇒ Elongation strain √ 2×√ 2 L 2 L 2
= = = −−−−−(5 )

θ
= −−−−−(6 )
Similarly, compression strain observed along BD 2
Adding equation (5) and (6)

Elongation Strain+ Compression Strain=Shearing Strain

θ θ
⇒ + =θ
2 2

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Relation between Young’s modulus (Y ), Bulk modulus ( K ) and Poisson’s ratio (σ ) in

terms of Longitudinal (α ) and Lateral ( β ) strain coefficients

Let us consider a cube of unit length with the origin coinciding with the origin ‘O’. The three
sides of the cube are assumed to be parallel to the three mutually perpendicular axis as shown
below.
Let ‘α ’ represent the increase in length per unit length per unit force along the direction of

the applied force. Also, let ‘ β ’ represent the compression in length per unit length per unit
force in the direction perpendicular to the applied force.
The force Fx Fx; Fy Fy and Fz Fz represent pairs of forces applied along x, y and z direction
respectively.
The length OA, OB, and OC after application of the force
have the expressions
OA=1+αF x−βF y −βF z -------- (1)

OB=1+αF y −βF x −βF z -------- (2)

And
OC =1+αF z −βF y−βF x -------- (3)

Volume of the cube is OA×OB×OC -------- (4)

Substitute OA, OB and OC values in equation (4)
=( 1+ αF x−βF y−βF z ) ×( 1+αF y −βF x −βF z )×( 1+ αF z −βF y −βF x )
Then volume ------ (5)
Neglecting higher power of α and β terms, then the simplified equation (5) can be written as
=1+ ( α−2 β ) ( F x + F y + F z )
Volume --------- (6)
If Fx = Fy = Fz = F, the above equation reduces to

Volume=1+ ( α−2 β ) ( 3 F ) --------- (7)

Since original volume is 1

Therefore change in volume= ( α−2 β ) ( 3 F ) ---------- (8)

3 F ( α −2 β )
=
Then volume strain 1 --------- (9)
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Stress
Bulk mod ulus ( K ) =
Volumestrain ----------- (10)
From equation (9) and (10)
F 1
K= =
3 F ( α−2 β ) 3 ( α−2 β ) This is the relation between K, α and β
Divide the numerator and denominator of R H S by ‘α ’
1
α
K=
3 ( α α−2 β α )
Y
K= −−−−−(1 )
3 ( 1−2 σ )
K 1 Y
⇒ = ⇒ =( 1−2 σ )
Y 3 ( 1−2 σ ) OR 3K ------- (2)

Relation between rigidity modulus (n ), Young’s modulus (Y ) and Poisson’s ratio (σ )

in terms of Longitudinal (α ) and Lateral ( β ) strain coefficients

Consider a cube of side length L. The tangential stress S
is applied on a face of the cube as shown in figure. As a
consequence of applied stress the cube gets distorted to
B1C1DA form original BCDA. The diagonal BD
contracts and the diagonal AC expand though the same
magnitude. Let draw a CE perpendicular line on the new
diagonal C1A.
The tangential stress S is equivalent to a corresponding stress along the diagonal BD and a
tensile stress along the diagonal AC. Let ‘α ’ represents the longitudinal strain per unit stress

and ‘ β ’ represents the lateral strain per unit stress.

By considering the triangle CAC1 from the figure, we can observe that
EC 1
Strain= =S ( α+β )−−−−−(1 )
AC
Also from triangle CC1E

EC 1=CC 1 cos ( CC 1 E )

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ΔL
EC 1= −−−−−(2 )
√2
Then from the triangle ACE

AC= √ L2 +L 2=√ 2 L−−−−−(3)

Substitute equation (2) and (3) in (1)
ΔL
S ( α + β )= √ 2 = ΔL √ 2 L−−−−−( 4 )
√2 L 2 L
ΔL
≈θ
For smallθ , we can consider L
θ
S ( α + β )=
Thus, equation (4) can be written as, 2
S 1
⇒ = −−−−−(5)
θ 2 ( α+β )
S
=n=
But, θ rigidity modulus
Then equation (5) can be written as
1
n= −−−−−(6 )
2 ( α +β )
Divide both numerator and denominator of equation (6) with ‘α ’
1/α
n= −−−−−(7 )
2 ( 1+β /α )
Y
n=
2 ( 1+σ ) ----------- (8)
This is the relation betweenY , n and σ

Relation between Young’s modulus (Y ), Bulk modulus (K), Rigidity modulus (n ) and
Poisson’s ratio (σ )
I. Relation between Y, n and K
Consider the relation of n, Y and σ
Y n 1 Y
n= ⇒ = =2 ( 1+ σ )
2 ( 1+σ ) Y 2 ( 1+σ ) OR n -------- (3)
Adding equation (2) and (3)
Y Y
+ =1−2 σ +2+2 σ
3K n

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⇒Y ( n+3
3 nK )
K
=3

9 nK
⇒Y =
n+3 K ----------- (4)

II. Relation between σ, K and n

Divide the equation (2) by (3)
Y
3 K ( 1−2 σ )
=
Y 2 ( 1+σ )
n
n ( 1−2 σ )
⇒ =
3 K 2 (1+ σ )

That is ⇒ 2n+ 2nσ =3 K−6 Kσ

2 nσ +6 Kσ=3 K −2 n
σ ( 2 n+6 K )=3 K−2 n
3 K−2 n
⇒ σ=
2 ( n+3 K ) ------------- (5)
Limiting value of Poisson’s ratio (σ ):

Consider the relation between Y, n and σ and Y, K and σ

That is Y =2n ( 1+σ ) and Y =3 K ( 1−2 σ )

From these two relations we can write as 2 n ( 1+σ ) =3 K ( 1−2σ )

If Poisson’s ratio (σ ) is positive value, then the left side of the equation will be positive. But
for right side of the above equation bill be positive only when σ value takes the value less
1
than 2 . That means2 σ will become more than 1 due to that ( 1−2 σ ) becomes negative. This
implies σ can takes the value lesser than 0.5 only on positive side.
On the other side, if σ is given negative values, then for any value of σ the right side of the
equation will become positive which implies that, left side should also be positive. This is
possible only if σ does not take the value above -1 on left side.

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This implies the σ value lies between -1 and +0.5. However negative value of σ means
elongation of the body accompanied by a lateral expansion which is not observed in practice,
the limiting value usually taken between 0 to +0.5.

Bending of Beams

A homogenous body of uniform cross section whose length is larger compared to its other
dimensions is called a beam.
When a beam is bending, shearing stresses between different layers come into play. However,
the beam is long and bending moment is larger compared to which the shearing stresses
become negligible. If one end is fixed to rigid support and other end is with load such
arrangement is called single cantilever or cantilever.
Neutral surface and neutral axis:
Consider a beam MN which is fixed to a rigid surface at
one end. The beam is thought of as made up of a number
of parallel layers. Also it is assumed that each layer have
the longitudinal filaments or fibers arranged closely next to
the other in the plane. If a cross section of the beam along
the length and perpendicular to these layers is taken, the
filament of the each layer appear like straight line
stacked one above the other along the beam length.
If we consider a layer, all the constituent filaments are
assumed to undergo identical changes when the layer is
strained. If load is attached to the free end of the beam, the beam bends. The successive
layers along with the constituent filaments are strained.
The filaments like AB of the upper layer will be
elongated to A1B1 and the one like EF of a lower layer
will be contrasted to E1F1. But there will always be a
particular layer whose filaments do not change their length as shown for CD. Such layer is

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called neutral surface or neutral plane. The line along which a filament of it is situated is
called neutral axis.
Neutral surface or neutral plane:
Neutral surface is that layer of a uniform beam which does not undergo any change in its
dimensions when the beam is subjected to bending within its elastic limit.

Neutral axis:

Neutral axis is a longitudinal line along which the

neutral surface is intercepted by any longitudinal
plane considered in the plane of bending.
Due to stress acting on it, above neutral the force
of reaction developed an inward pull towards the fixed end. For all the layers below neutral
surface the force of reaction push outward direction from fixed end. These two group of
forces result in a restoring couple which balances the applied couple acting on the beam. The
moment of restoring couple are known as restoring moment. The moment of the applied
couple subjected to which the beam undergoes bending longitudinally is called bending
moment. In case of equilibrium condition the bending moment and the restoring moments are
equal.
Relation for bending moment of a beam:

Consider a long uniform beam MN whose one end

is fixed to rigid surface. The beam is considered to
be made up of a number of parallel layers like AB,
CD, EF, etc. If now a load is attached to the beam at
N, the beam bends. The successive layers now are
strained. The layers like AB which is above the
neutral surface will elongate to A 1B1 and the one
below neutral surface like EF will be contrasted to
E1F1. Where, CD is the neutral surface which does
not change its length.
The shape of different layer is considered as a concentric circle of varying radii.

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Let R be radius of the circle to which the neutral surface forms a part.
ThenCD=Rθ
Let θ is the common angle subtended by the layers at the common centre ‘O’ of the circles.
Now, the layer AB has been elongated to A1B1
Therefore, change in length= A1B1- AB
But AB=CD=Rθ
1 1
If the successive layers are separated by a distance ‘r’ then A B =( R+r ) θ

Then, change in length= ( R+ r ) θ−Rθ=rθ

Original length=Rθ
rθ r
linearstrain= = −−−−−(1)
Rθ R

But, Young’s modulus (Y)=Longitudinal stress / Linear strain

⇒longitudinal stress= Y X Linear strain

=Y( Rr )−−−−−(2)
Stress=( )−−−−−(3 )
F
a
Where ‘F’ is the force acting on the beam and ‘a’ is the area of the layer AB
From equation (2) and (3)
F
a
=Y
r
R ( )
Yar
⇒ F=
R
Therefore, moment of the force about the neutral axis= F X (its distance from neutral axis)
Yar 2
=F×r =
R
Yar 2
=∑
Apply moment of force acting on the entire beam R
Y
=
R
∑ ar 2 −−−−−( 4 )

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∑ M
The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis is given by∑ Mr where
2
is the

mass of the body. Similarly, ∑ ar2 is called the geometric moment of inertia I g .
Therefore I g = ∑ ar 2= AK 2 where A is the area of cross section of beam and K is the radius
of gyration about neutral axis.
Y
=
Ig
Then, moment of the force R
Y
Ig=
OR Bending moment R --------- (5)

Expression for bending moment of rectangular and circular cross section:

Generally, the expression for

I g varies with the geometrical shape of the beam’s cross
section. Due to that the expression for bending moment also varies. Therefore, bending

moment for a beam of rectangular cross section is

= ( )
Y bd 3
R 12 where b and d are breadth and
thickness of the beam respectively.
Y π
= × ρ4
Also the bending moment for a beam of circular cross section is R 4 where ρ - radius
of the beam.

Single cantilever theory:

Consider a uniform beam of length L fixed at M. Let a
load W act on the beam at N. As a result beam bends.
Let consider a point P on the free beam at a distance
‘x’ from the fixed end which will be at a distance of
(L-x) from N.
Let P1 be its new position after the beam is bent.
Therefore,
Bending moment= Force X Perpendicular distance

Bending moment=W ( L−x )

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Y
Ig=
Now consider the relation for bending moment of a beam R
Then, above relation can be written as

Y 1 W ( L−x )
I g =W ( L−x ) = −−−−−( 1 )
R OR R YI g

But, if ‘y’ is the depression of the point P then it can be consider approximately
1 d2 y
= −−−−(2 )
R dx 2 where R is the radius of the circle to which the bent beam becomes a
part. Now compare equation (1) and (2)

d 2 y W ( L−x )
=
dx 2 YI g

( )
d dy W ( L−x )
=
dx dx YI g

d ( )=
dy W
( Ldx−xdx )
dx YI g

Integrate both sides

dy W
=
dx YI g [
x2
Lx− +C 1−−−−(3 )
2 ]
where, C1 is the constant of integration.
dy
But, dx is the slope of the tangent drawn to the bent beam at a distance x from the fixed end.
If x=0 refers to the tangent drawn at M where it is horizontal.

( dy
Hence dx
)=0 atx=0 that is C =0, 1

Then equation (3) can be written as

dy W
=
dx YI g
Lx−
2[
x2
]
dy =
W
YI g [x2
Lx− dx
2 ]
Integrate the above both side

y= [
W Lx 2 x 3
YI g 2
− +C 2 −−−−−(4 )
6 ]where, C2 is the constant of integration.

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The y is the depression produced at a point P of known distance from the fixed end.

If we consider x=0 , there will not be any depression, that is y=0 andC 2=0
Then equation (4) can be written as

y=
YI g 2 [
W Lx 2 x 3
−
6 ]
At the loaded end
y= y 0 and x=L

Then
y 0=
W L3 L3
−
YI g 2 6 [ ]
Therefore depression at the loaded end is
WL 3
y 0= −−−−−(5 )
3YI g
The Young’s modulus of the cantilever is
WL 3
Y=
3 y 0 I g --------- (6)

bd 3
I g=
If beam is rectangular cross section with breadth b and thickness d then 12
bd 3
I g=
Substitute 12 value in equation (6)
WL 3 12
Y= ×
3 y 0 bd 3
4 WL 3
Y=
bd 3 y 0 -------- (7)

Types of beams and their engineering applications:

There are mainly four types of beans
1. Simple beam:
A simple beam is a bar resting upon supports at its ends and is used most commonly in
realistic life.
2. Continuous beam:
A continuous beam is a bar resting upon more than two supports.
3. Cantilever beam:

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A cantilever beam is a beam whose one end is fixed and the other end is free.
4. Fixed beam:
A beam fixed at its both ends is called a fixed beam.
Applications:
a. Used in the fabrication of trolley ways.
b. In the chassis/frame as truck beds.
c. In the elevators.
d. In the construction of platform and bridges.
e. As a supporting structure for small beams in buildings and bridges.

CANTILEVER: A cantilever is a rigid structural element that extends horizontally and is

supported at only one end. Typically it extends from a flat vertical surface such as a wall, to
which it must be firmly attached.

A good example of a cantilever beam is a balcony. A balcony is supported on one end only,
the rest of the beam extends over open space; there is nothing supporting it on the other side.
The cantilever beam is used in;
1. In Buildings.
2. Cantilever bridges.
3. Overhanging projections and elements.
4. Balconies such as in Frank Lloyd Wright’s Falling Water.
5. Machinery and plants such as cranes.
6. Overhanging roofs like shelters and stadium roofs.
7. Shelving and Furniture.

I -Section girder and their Engineering Applications

I section beam it is suitable for resisting flexural stresses. As more area is away from neutral

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axis compared to rectangular or circular section (flanges), its moment of inertia (MOI)
increases as we write MOI=Ar2
As moment of inertia increases, moment resisting capacity also
increases which makes I section better as compared to other
cross section.
This is better option for designer to save material. So to
sum up I section is better than other section as it has more
flexural strength for same area of other section and it is an
economical section also.

Applications:
 A plate girder is a steel beam that is widely used in bridge construction. Girder is required
to carry heavy loads on relatively long spans
 It is a built up I-beam section, used to carry heavy loads which cannot be carried
economically by rolled I-sections. It is made by welding the steel plates in I-beam shape.
 Primarily used in bridges, plate girder is used when we need deeper sections having higher
stiffness to carry heavy loads.
 I-section beams are especially important in civil constructions as they substitute for
numerous support structures which obviously help in saving both time and money.

Elastic Materials: Thus elasticity is defined as; it is that property of a body which it regains its
original shape and size when the deforming force is removed.
For example: nylon, latex, rubber, polyester. This behaviour is governed by Hooke's Law,
which understands the relationship between stress and strain under a Modulus of Elasticity.
Elastic materials can be natural, semi-synthetic or synthetic, depending on their degree of
elaboration through the hand of man.
There are no bodies in nature which are perfectly elastic. However, there is a material formed
by adding 0.5% of phosphor to bronze to increase its stiffness and wear resistance. This alloy is
called phosphor – bronze. It comes very close to the definition of a perfectly elastic body. Also,
it is possible to make filaments of quartz by exposing quartz in the form of rods to
oxyhydrogen flame. These quartz fibers can also be considered under a perfectly elastic body.
However in our common use, those which are well known as elastic materials are the
elastomers.

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Elastomers are the polymers with high elastic nature. Natural rubber, synthetic rubber, silicone
rubber etc are all elastomers. They can be extended many more times their original size. After
releasing from the stretching force, they manage to return to a size almost the same as the
original size (though, over number cycles, they gradually lose this ability). Yet against the
common sense, technically, Rubber is considered less elastic than steel. It is because, steel
returns very quickly to its original form whereas, rubber takes considerably longer time for
reinstatement. On this account, steel scores over rubber as more elastic.
Fundamentals of fracture Fracture:
Fatigue is the mechanical failure of the material due to the permanent cracks or breakage.
This may be due to the overstress applied to the body exceeding to its ultimate strength.
Ductile and brittle fracture:

1. Brittle fracture:

Brittle fracture is the sudden and rapid metal failure in which the material shows little or no
plastic strain. This is characterized by quick failure without any warning. The generated cracks
propagate rapidly and the material collapses all of a sudden. Brittle Fracture is a condition that
occurs when a material is subjected to temperatures that make it less elastic, and therefore more
brittle. The potential for material to become brittle depends on the type of material that is
subjected to these low temperatures. Some materials, such as carbon and low alloy steels will
become brittle at low temperatures and therefore susceptible to damage ranging from cracking
to shattering or disintegration of equipment. When a material becomes brittle, the consequences
can be very serious. If the brittle material is subjected to an impact or an equivalent shock (ex.
rapid pressurization) the combination could potentially lead to a disastrous failure under certain
conditions.
1. Ductile fracture:
Ductile fracture is the material failure that exhibits substantial plastic deformation prior to
fracture. The ductile fracture process is slow and gives enough warnings before final
separation. Normally, a large amount of the plastic flow is concentrated near the fracture
faces. Ductile fracture occurs over a period of time and normally occurs after yield stress,
where as brittle fracture is fast and can occur at lower stress levels than a ductile fracture.
That is why Ductile fracture is considered better than brittle fracture.

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Fatigue failure:

Fatigue failure is when the surface of a material begins to crack or fracture, causing the part
to weaken; it is due to cyclic load. Typically, the first stage of fatigue failure is crack
initiation. Crack initiation occurs once applied stress exceeds tensile strength. The next
stage that occurs is crack growth.
Factors affecting fatigue
 Effect of stress concentration.
Stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser) is a location in an object where
the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region. Stress concentrations occur
when there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a structural component that
cause an interruption to the flow of stress. This arises from such details as holes, grooves,
notches and fillets. Stress concentrations may also occur from accidental damage such as
nicks and scratches.
 The influence of size factor:
Due to the inhomogeneity of the material structure and the existence of internal defects, the
increase of the size will increase the failure probability of the material, thus reducing the
fatigue limit of the material.
 Influence of surface processing state: There are always uneven machining marks on the
machined surface, which are equivalent to tiny gaps, causing stress concentration on the
material surface, thus reducing the fatigue strength of the material.
 The impact of loading experience: The overload damage means that the fatigue limit of
the material will decrease after the material runs for a certain number of cycles under the
load higher than the fatigue limit.
 Influence of chemical composition: The internal factors include the composition,
microstructure, purity and residual stress of the material.
 Effect of heat treatment on Microstructure: Although the same static strength can be
obtained for materials of the same composition due to different heat treatments, the fatigue
strength can vary in a considerable range due to different microstructures.
 Influence of inclusions: The inclusion itself or the hole produced by it is equivalent to a
tiny notch, which will produce stress concentration and strain concentration under the action
of alternating load, and become the crack source of fatigue fracture, which has adverse
effect on the fatigue performance of materials. The influence of inclusions on fatigue
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strength depends not only on the type, nature, shape, size, quantity and distribution of
inclusions, but also on the strength level of materials and the level and state of applied
stress.

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