Quantum Mechanics I

Problem Set #1
Due Date: March 25, 2026
1 A particle in some unknown potential [20 points]
A particle of mass m, lying in some unknown potential V (x), has the wave function
2
Ψ(x, t) = Ae−a[(mx /ℏ)+it]
, (1)

where A and a are positive real constants.

(a) Find A by normalizing the wave function.

[Solution]

Z ∞ Z ∞
r  1/4
2 −(2am/ℏ)x2 2 πℏ 2am
|Ψ(x, t)|dx = |A| e dx = |A| =1 ⇒ A≡ (2)
−∞ −∞ 2am πℏ

* Here we used the gaussian integral formula

Z ∞ r
−αx2 π
e dx = . (3)
−∞ α

(b) Find the potential energy function V (x) by using the Schrödinger equation.

[Solution] The potential energy V (x) can be found by substituting the wave function Ψ(x, t) into the Schrödinger
equation
ℏ2 ∂ 2
 
∂
iℏ Ψ(x, t) = − + V (x) Ψ(x, t). (4)
∂t 2m ∂x2
First, the time derivative part in the left hand side is easily calculated as
∂
iℏ Ψ(x, t) = ℏaΨ(x, t). (5)
∂t
Next, the kinetic energy operator part in the right hand side can be arranged as
" 2 #
ℏ2 ∂ 2 ℏ2 ∂ ℏ2
  
2am 2am 2am
− Ψ(x, t) = − − xΨ(x, t) = − − Ψ(x, t) + − x Ψ(x, t) (6)
2m ∂x2 2m ∂x ℏ 2m ℏ ℏ
= ℏa − 2ma2 x2 Ψ(x, t).


(7)

Combining all the above results, we obtain the potential as follows.

∂ ℏ2 ∂ 2
V (x)Ψ(x, t) = iℏ Ψ(x, t) + Ψ(x, t) = 2ma2 x2 Ψ(x, t) ⇒ V (x) = 2ma2 x2 (8)
∂t 2m ∂x2
Here we see the potential energy of harmonic oscillator.

(c) Calculate the expectation values, ⟨x⟩, ⟨x2 ⟩, ⟨p⟩, and ⟨p2 ⟩.

[Solution]

Z ∞
⟨x⟩ = Ψ∗ (x, t)xΨ(x, t)dx (9)
−∞
Z ∞
2
= |A|2 xe−(2am/ℏ)x dx = 0 (10)
−∞

Z ∞
2
⟨x ⟩ = Ψ∗ (x, t)x2 Ψ(x, t)dx (11)
−∞
Z ∞  1/2 √  −3/2
2 2am π 2am ℏ
= |A|2 x2 e−(2am/ℏ)x dx = = (12)
−∞ πℏ 2 ℏ 4am

1
where we used the formula
Z ∞
r √
2 −αx2 ∂ π π −3/2
x e dx = − = α . (13)
−∞ ∂α α 2

Z ∞  
∗ ℏ ∂
⟨p⟩ = Ψ (x, t) Ψ(x, t)dx (14)
−∞ i ∂x
Z ∞
2
= |A|2 (−i2am)xe−(2am/ℏ)x dx = (−i2am)⟨x⟩ = 0 (15)
−∞

Z ∞  2
2 ∗ ℏ ∂
⟨p ⟩ = Ψ (x, t) Ψ(x, t)dx (16)
−∞ i ∂x
Z ∞
2
|A|2 2m ℏa − 2ma2 x2 e−(2am/ℏ)x dx


= (17)
−∞

= 2mℏa − 4m2 a2 ⟨x2 ⟩ = mℏa (18)

p p
(d) Find the standard deviations, σx = ⟨x2 ⟩ − ⟨x⟩2 and σp = ⟨p2 ⟩ − ⟨p⟩2 . Is the product σx · σp consistent
with the uncertainty principle?

[Solution]

r
p ℏ
σx = ⟨x2 ⟩ − ⟨x⟩2 = (19)
4am
p √
σp = ⟨p2 ⟩ − ⟨p⟩2 = mℏa (20)

ℏ
⇒ σx · σp = (21)
2
In this problem, we learn two things: (i) the gaussian function satisfies the Schron̈dinger equation
of harmonic oscillator, and (ii) the gaussian function has the minimum uncertainty.

2 Ehrenfest’s theorem [10 points]

Prove the Ehrenfest’s theorem
d⟨p⟩ ∂V
= −⟨ ⟩. (22)
dt ∂x
This theorem shows that the classical law holds at the level of expectation values in quantum mechanics.

[Solution]

The theorem is a consequence of the the Schrödinger equation:

 2 
∂ p
iℏ Ψ(x, t) = + V (x) Ψ(x, t), (23)
∂t 2m

where the momentum operator p is represented in the position basis by

ℏ ∂
p= . (24)
i ∂x

2
The expectation value of the momentum is
Z ∞
ℏ ∂
⟨p⟩ = dxΨ∗ (x, t) Ψ(x, t), (25)
−∞ i ∂x

and its time derivative can be calculated as follows.

Z  
d⟨p⟩ ∂ ℏ ∂
= dx Ψ∗ (x, t) Ψ(x, t) (26)
dt ∂t i ∂x
Z    
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= dx{ −iℏ Ψ∗ (x, t) Ψ(x, t) − Ψ∗ (x, t) iℏ Ψ(x, t) } (27)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t
| {z } | {z }
h 2 i h 2 i
p p
= 2m +V (x) Ψ∗ (x,t) = 2m +V (x) Ψ(x,t)
 2 ∗
ℏ2 ∂ 3 Ψ(x, t)
Z 
∂ Ψ (x, t) ∂Ψ(x, t) ∗
= − dx − Ψ (x, t) (28)
2m ∂x2 ∂x ∂x3
Z  
∂ ∂V (x) ∂
+ dxΨ∗ (x, t) V (x) − − V (x) Ψ(x, t) (29)
∂x ∂x ∂x
Z
∂V (x) ∂V
= − dxΨ∗ (x, t) Ψ(x, t) = −⟨ ⟩. (30)
∂x ∂x

Here we used the fact that the integral in Eq. (28) vanishes, which can be seen by the integration by parts:
 2 ∗   ∗ ∞ ∞
3
∂Ψ∗ ∂ 2 Ψ 2
∂Ψ∗ ∂ 2 Ψ
Z Z  Z
∂ Ψ ∂Ψ ∗∂ Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∗∂ Ψ
dx − Ψ = − dx − Ψ + dx = 0. (31)
∂x2 ∂x ∂x3 ∂x ∂x −∞ ∂x ∂ 2 x ∂x2 −∞ ∂x ∂x2
| {z } | {z }
=0 =0

2
Remember that Ψ, ∂Ψ ∂ Ψ
∂x and ∂x2 must vanish at x = ±∞ for the normalization (or probabilistic interpretation).
Hence, we proved the Ehrenfest’s theorem

d⟨p⟩ ∂V
= −⟨ ⟩. (32)
dt ∂x

Notice that the potential energy V (x) should be differentiable in order for the theorem to hold.

3 Minimum value for the energy [10 points]

Consider the time-independent Schrödinger equation in the following form.

d2 ψ 2m
= 2 [V (x) − E]ψ (33)
dx2 ℏ
Show that the energy E must exceed the minimum value of the potential energy V (x) for every normalizable
solution. Hint: If E < Vmin , then ψ and d2 ψ/dx2 always have the same sign.

[Solution]

Suppose that E < Vmin . Then, we immediately notice that the second derivative of the wave function is
proportional to the wave function with a positive prefactor, V (x) − E. This implies that the wave function
either monotonically increases or monotonically decreases like the exponential function ψ(x) ∼ e±λx , which is
not normalizable. Therefore, the condition of E ≥ Vmin is required for the normalizable wave function.

3
4 Infinite square well [30 points]
(a) Calculate the expectation values, ⟨x⟩, ⟨x2 ⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨p2 ⟩, for the nth stationary state of the infinite square well,
( q )
2
sin (kn x) (0 ≤ x ≤ a)
ψn (x) = a (34)
0 (otherwise)
ℏ2 kn
2
nπ
which has the energy eigenvalue En = 2m (kn = a ; n = 1, 2, · · · ).

[Solution]

Z
⟨x⟩ = x|ψn (x)|2 dx (35)
2 a 1 a
Z Z
= x sin2 (kn x)dx = x[1 − cos(2kn x)]dx (36)
a 0 a 0
Z 2nπ
a a
= − µ cos µ dµ (37)
2 (2nπ)2 0
 
 
 Z 2nπ 
a a  2nπ
 a
= − 2
[µ sin µ] 0 − sin µ dµ = (38)
2 (2nπ)  2
|0
 | {z } 
 =0 {z }

=0

Z
2
⟨x ⟩ = x2 |ψn (x)|2 dx (39)
2 a 2 2 1 a 2
Z Z
= x sin (kn x)dx = x [1 − cos(2kn x)]dx (40)
a 0 a 0
Z 2nπ
a2 a2
= − µ2 cos µ dµ (41)
3 (2nπ)3 0
 

 

 Z 2nπ 
2 2
   
a a 
2
2nπ  1 1
= − µ sin µ − 2µ sin µ dµ = − 2 2 a2 (42)
3 (2nπ)3  | {z 0 } 0 
 3 2n π

 =0
| {z } 

2nπ
 
=[2µ(− cos µ)]0 =−4nπ

Z
ℏ d
⟨p⟩ = ψn∗ (x) ψn (x)dx (43)
i dx
Z a
ℏ kn a
Z
ℏ2 d
= sin(kn x) sin(kn x) dx = sin(2kn x)dx (44)
ia 0 |dx {z } i a 0
=kn cos(kn x)
Z 2nπ
ℏ 1
= sin µ dµ = 0 (45)
i 2a 0

Z  2
ℏ d
⟨p2 ⟩ = ψn∗ (x) ψn (x)dx (46)
i dx
Z a
d2 (ℏkn )2 a 2
Z
22
= −ℏ sin(kn x) 2 sin(kn x) dx = 2 sin (kn x)dx (47)
a 0 |dx {z } a 0
2 sin(k x)
=−kn n
nπ nπ
ℏ2 k n ℏ2 kn
Z Z
= 2 sin2 µ dµ = [1 − cos(2µ)] dµ = ℏ2 kn2 (48)
a 0 a 0
| {z }
=nπ

4
 p p
(b) Calculate the standard deviations, σx = ⟨x2 ⟩ − ⟨x⟩2 , σp = ⟨p2 ⟩ − ⟨p⟩2 , for the nth stationary state of
the infinite square well. Check that the uncertainty principle is satisfied:
ℏ
σx σp ≥ . (49)
2
Which state comes closest to the uncertainty limit?

[Solution]

s  r
p 1 1  a 2 1 1
σx = ⟨x2 ⟩ − ⟨x⟩2 = − 2 2 a2 − = a − 2 2 (50)
3 2n π 2 12 2n π

p ℏ
σp = ⟨p2 ⟩ − ⟨p⟩2 = ℏkn = nπ (51)
a

ℏ
σx σp = fn , (52)
2
where
r r
1 1 n2 π 2 p
fn = 2nπ − = − 2 > 3n2 − 2. (53)
12 2n2 π 2 3

f1 = 1.1357 (54)
f2 = 3.3406 (55)
f3 = 5.2544 (56)
··· (57)

The ground state ψ1 is closest to the uncertainty limit; σx σp = ℏ2 f1 = ℏ

2 × 1.1357.

(c) Suppose that a particle in the infinite square well was in the initial state,

Ψ(x, 0) = A[ψ1 (x) + ψ2 (x)]. (58)

Normalize the wave function, and calculate the probability density |Ψ(x, t)|2 for arbitrary times. Also, compute
the expectation values, ⟨x⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨H⟩, as functions of time, and check that Ehrenfest’s theorem holds.

[Solution]

(i) Normalization
Z ∞ Z ∞
2 2
|ψ1 (x)|2 + |ψ2 (x)|2 + ψ1∗ (x)ψ2 (x) + ψ2∗ (x)ψ1 (x) dx
 
|Ψ(x, 0)| dx = |A| (59)
−∞ −∞
= |A|2 (1 + 1 + 0 + 0) = 2|A|2 = 1 (60)
1
⇒ A≡ √ (61)
2

5
(ii) Probability density

1 
Ψ(x, t) = √ ψ1 (x)e−iωn t + ψ2 (x)e−iω2 t ,

(62)
2
where
En n2 π 2 ℏ
ωn ≡ = . (63)
ℏ 2ma2

1
|Ψ(x, t)|2 |ψ1 (x)|2 + |ψ2 (x)|2 + 2ψ1 (x)ψ2 (x) cos(ω2 − ω1 )t

= (64)
2
1 2
sin (k1 x) + sin2 (2k1 x) + 2 sin (k1 x) sin (2k1 x) cos (3ω1 t)

= (65)
a
(iii) Expectation values
Z
⟨x⟩ = x|Ψ(x, t)|2 dx (66)
Z Z Z a
1 1
= x|ψ1 (x)|2 dx + x|ψ2 (x)|2 dx + cos(3ω1 t) xψ1 (x)ψ2 (x)dx (67)
2 2 0
| {z } | {z }
=a/4 =a/4
Z a
a 1
= + cos(3ω1 t) x [cos(k1 x) − cos(3k1 x)] dx, (68)
2 a 0

where
Z a Z π Z 3π
1 a a 16a
x [cos(k1 x) − cos(3k1 x)] dx = 2 µ cos µ dµ − 2 µ cos µ dµ = − 2 . (69)
a 0 π 9π 9π
| 0R {z } |0 {z }
π R 3π
=− 0
sin µ dµ=−2 =− 0
sin µ dµ=−2

 
1 16
⟨x⟩ = a − cos(3ω1 t) (70)
2 9π 2

Z  
∗ ℏ ∂
⟨p⟩ = Ψ (x, t) Ψ(x, t)dx (71)
i ∂x
Z a  
1  ℏ ∂ 
iω1 t iω2 t
ψ1 (x)e−iω1 t + ψ2 (x)e−iω2 t dx
 
= ψ1 (x)e + ψ2 (x)e (72)
2 0 i ∂x
1 a 1 a
Z   Z  
ℏ ∂ ℏ ∂
= ψ1 (x) ψ1 (x)dx + ψ2 (x) ψ2 (x)dx (73)
2 i ∂x 2 i ∂x
| 0 {z } | 0 {z }
=0 =0
1 i(ω1 −ω2 )t a
Z   Z a  
ℏ ∂ 1 ℏ ∂
+ e ψ1 (x) ψ2 (x)dx + ei(ω2 −ω1 )t ψ2 (x) ψ1 (x)dx (74)
2 0 i ∂x 2 0 i ∂x
Z a
d
= sin[(ω2 − ω1 )t]ℏ ψ2 (x) ψ1 (x)dx (75)
0 dx
2 a
Z
d
= sin (3ω1 t) ℏ sin(2k1 x) sin(k1 x)dx (76)
a 0 dx
2 π
Z
d
= sin (3ω1 t) ℏ sin(2µ) sin µ dµ, (77)
a 0 dµ

where
Z π Z π Z 1  1
d 2 3 4
sin(2µ) sin µ dµ = 2 sin µ cos µ cos µ dµ = 2ξ 2 dξ = ξ = . (78)
0 dµ 0 −1 3 −1 3

6
 8ℏ
⟨p⟩ = sin(3ω1 t) (79)
3a

Z
⟨H⟩ = Ψ∗ (x, t)HΨ(x, t)dx (80)
Z
1 
ψ1 (x)eiω1 t + ψ2 (x)eiω2 t H ψ1 (x)e−iω1 t + ψ2 (x)e−iω2 t dx
  
= (81)
2
Z
1 
ψ1 (x)eiω1 t + ψ2 (x)eiω2 t E1 ψ1 (x)e−iω1 t + E2 ψ2 (x)e−iω2 t dx
 
= (82)
2
1 5
= (E1 + E2 ) = E1 (83)
2 2

(iv) Ehrenfest’s theorem

First, we calculate the time derivative of ⟨x⟩:

 
d d 1 16 16 8ℏ
m ⟨x⟩ = m a − 2 cos(3ω1 t) = maω1 sin(3ω1 t) = sin(3ω1 t) = ⟨p⟩, (84)
dt dt 2 9π 3π 2 3a

from which we verify the Ehrenfest’s theorem

d
m ⟨x⟩ = ⟨p⟩ . (85)
dt

In the next, we calculate the time derivative of ⟨p⟩:

9π 2 
 
d 8ℏ 8ℏ a
⟨p⟩ = 3ω1 cos(3ω1 t) = 3ω1 − ⟨x⟩ − , (86)
dt 3a 3a 16a 2

which can be expressed by

d  a
⟨p⟩ = −k ⟨x⟩ − (87)
dt 2

where
9π 4 ℏ2
k≡ . (88)
4ma4

Notice that the Ehrenfest theorem d⟨p⟩ ∂V

dt = −⟨ ∂x ⟩ does not hold in this case since the potential
is not differentiable. Nonetheless, Eq. (87) shows a reasonable result; the particle is oscillating
back and forth due to the potential wall.

5 Time evolution of wave function [30 points]

A particle in the infinite square well has the initial wave function
 
Ax (0 ≤ x ≤ a/2)
Ψ(x, 0) = . (89)
A(a − x) (a/2 ≤ x ≤ a)

(a) Sketch Ψ(x, 0), and determine the normalization constant A.

7
 Ψ(x,0)/Aa
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 x/a

Figure 1: Initial wave function in Problem 5.

[Solution]

"Z #
Z ∞ a/2 Z a
2 2 2
1= |Ψ(x, 0)|dx = |A| x dx + (a − x) dx (90)
−∞ 0 a/2
a/2
a3
Z
1  a 3
= 2|A|2 x2 dx = 2|A|2 = |A|2 (91)
0 3 2 12
r
12
⇒ A≡ (92)
a3

(b) Find Ψ(x, t).

[Solution]

To find the time evolution of the wave function, it needs to be expanded in the energy eigenstates (or stationary
states) of the infinite square well [Eq. (34)]:
∞
X
Ψ(x, 0) = cn ψn (x), (93)
n=1

where the coefficient cn can be obtained by

Z ∞
cn = ψn∗ (x)Ψ(x, 0)dx (94)
−∞
Z ar
2
= sin(kn x)Ψ(x, 0)dx. (95)
0 a
Note that Ψ(x, 0) is a even function. For odd number states (n = 1, 3, 5, · · · ), the coefficient cn is given by
Z a/2 r Z a r
2 2
cn = sin(kn x)Axdx + sin(kn x)A(a − x)dx (96)
0 a a/2 a
r Z a/2
2
= 2A x sin(kn x)dx (97)
a 0
r (   a/2 Z a/2 )
2 1 1
= 2A x − cos(kn x) + cos(kn x)dx (98)
a kn 0 kn 0
r  
2 a cos(kn a/2) sin(kn a/2)
= 2A − + (99)
a 2kn kn2
r 
a2 cos(nπ/2) a2 sin(nπ/2)

2
= 2A − + (100)
a 2nπ n2 π 2
r r
12 2 a2 (−1)(n−1)/2
= 2 (101)
a3 a n2 π 2
√ (−1)(n−1)/2
= 4 6 (n = 1, 3, 5, · · · ). (102)
n2 π 2

8
For even number states (n = 2, 4, 6, · · · ), the coefficient cn vanishes:

cn = 0 (n = 2, 4, 5, · · · ). (103)

Then, the wave function at arbitrary time is

√ (−1)(n−1)/2
r
X 2
Ψ(x, t) = 4 6 sin(kn x)e−iEn t/ℏ . (104)
n=1,3,5,···
n2 π 2 a

(c) What is the probability that a measurement of the energy would yield the value E1 ?

[Solution]
√ !2
2 4 6 96
|c1 | = 2
= 4 ≃ 0.986 (105)
π π

(d) Find the expectation value of the energy.

[Solution]

∞ 2
ℏ2 n 2 π 2 √ (−1)(n−1)/2
X X 
2
⟨H⟩ = En |cn | = 4 6 (106)
n=1 n=1,3,5,···
2ma2 n2 π 2

48ℏ2 X 1 6ℏ2
= = (107)
ma2 π 2 n=1,3,5,···
n2 ma2
| {z }
=π 2 /8