USTHB, Faculty of Physics 2025/2026

L2-SM: Quantum Mechanics 1

Tutorial 2 - solution

Exercise 1
Consider the potential:


0, 𝑥 < 0,
𝑉 (𝑥) = with 𝑉0 > 0.
−𝑉0 , 𝑥 > 0,

1. Determine the energy ranges for which we can have:

a) bound states,
b) scattering states.
2. A beam of particles with energy 𝐸 > 0 is incident along the 𝑥-axis from the left.
2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚(𝐸 + 𝑉0 )
We define 𝑘 12 = 2 , 𝑘 22 = .
ℏ ℏ2
2.1. Write the wave function in each spatial region.
2.2. Write the continuity conditions for the wave function and its first derivative at 𝑥 = 0.
2.3. Calculate the transmission coefficient 𝑇 and the reflection coefficient 𝑅.
𝐸
2.4. Express 𝑇 (𝑦) in terms of 𝑦 = 𝑉0 . What are the limits of 𝑇 as 𝑦 → 0 and 𝑦 → ∞.
2.5. Numerical application: Given 𝑉0 = 15 eV, calculate 𝑇 for an electron with energy 𝐸 = 1 eV and for an electron with
𝐸 = 10 keV.
Solution
1. In this case, we have 𝑉 (−∞) = 0 and 𝑉 (+∞) = −𝑉0 . For a bound state to exist, the energy must satisfy 𝐸 < 𝑉 (−∞)
and 𝐸 < 𝑉 (+∞), i. e. 𝐸 < 0 and 𝐸 < −𝑉0 ⇒ 𝐸 < −𝑉0 . However, −𝑉0 is the global minimum of the potential, and the
energy must be greater than this minimum ⇒ Bound states are impossible. In this case, we only have scattering states.
2.1. Schrödinger equation :

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 𝜙 (𝑥) + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) ⇒
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 2 𝜙 (𝑥) 2𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥))
+ 𝜙 (𝑥) = 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
2𝑚𝐸
In region 1 (𝑥 < 0), 𝑉 (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 > 0 ⇒ we define 𝑘 12 = ℏ2
.
The characteristic equation is 𝑟 2 + 𝑘 12 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = ±𝑖𝑘 1 ⇒

𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 .

Since region 1 is the first region encountered by the particles, we identify 𝜙𝑖 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 as the incident, and 𝜙𝑟 (𝑥) =
𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 as the reflected wave.
2𝑚(𝐸+𝑉0 )
In region 2 (𝑥 > 0), 𝑉 (𝑥) = −𝑉0 ⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 + 𝑉0 > 0 ⇒ we define 𝑘 22 = ℏ2
⇒

𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘2 𝑥 .

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Region 2 is the last region, so we identify 𝜙𝑡 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘2 𝑥 as the transmitted wave and the term 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘2 𝑥 is unphysical,
so we set 𝐵2 = 0.
Thus, (
𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ 0
𝜙 (𝑥) =
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘2 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0.

2.2. 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙1 (0) = 𝜙2 (0) ⇒ 𝐴1 + 𝐵1 = 𝐴2 ...(1)

𝑉 (0− ) and 𝑉 (0+ ) are finite ⇒ 𝜙′ (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙1′ (0) = 𝜙2′ (0) ⇒ 𝑖𝑘 1 ( 𝐴1 − 𝐵1 ) = 𝑖𝑘 2 𝐴2 ...(2)
𝑗𝑡
2.3. 𝑇 = 𝑗𝑖 .
For a plane wave, the probability current 𝑗 is 𝑗 = |Amplitude| 2 ℏ𝑘
𝑚 ⇒
ℏ𝑘2
| 𝐴2 | 2 𝑚 𝐴2 2
𝑘2
𝑇= 2 ℏ𝑘1
= .
| 𝐴1 | 𝑚 𝐴1 𝑘1

To express 𝐴2 in terms of 𝐴1 we combine the continuity equations. Adding equation (1) and equation (2)/𝑖𝑘 1 gives
 
𝑘2
2𝐴1 = 1 + 𝐴2 ⇒
𝑘1
 
1 𝑘2
𝐴1 = 1+ 𝐴2
2 𝑘1
⇒
2
1 𝑘2
𝑇=  
1 𝑘2 𝑘1
2 1+ 𝑘1

4𝑘 2 𝑘 12 4𝑘 1 𝑘 2
= 2
= .
𝑘 1 (𝑘 1 + 𝑘 2 ) (𝑘 1 + 𝑘 2 ) 2
𝑗𝑟
The reflection coefficient can be calculated as 𝑅 = 𝑗𝑖 or

4𝑘 1 𝑘 2
𝑅 = 1−𝑇 = 1− .
(𝑘 1 + 𝑘 2 ) 2

2.4.
√ √
2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚(𝐸+𝑉0 )
4𝑘 1 𝑘 2 4 ℏ ℏ
𝑇= =  √
(𝑘 1 + 𝑘 2 ) 2 √
2
2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚(𝐸+𝑉0 )
ℏ + ℏ
√ √
4 𝐸 𝐸 + 𝑉0
= √
√ 2
𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝑉0
√ √︁
4 𝑦 𝑦+1
=  2
√ √︁
𝑦+ 𝑦+1

lim 𝑇 (𝑦) = 0,
𝑦→0

when 𝑉0 ≫ 𝐸, all particles are reflected. This is a purely quantum phenomenon with no classical analogue.
4𝑦
lim 𝑇 (𝑦) = lim √ √
2 = 1,
𝑦→∞ 𝑦→∞
𝑦+ 𝑦

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when 𝑉0 ≪ 𝐸, all particles are transmitted, as if there were no discontinuity in the potential (i. e. 𝑉0 is negligible).
Exercise 2
Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 in the potential



 ∞, 𝑥 < 0,
𝑉 (𝑥) = −𝑉0 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, with 𝑉0 > 0.
0, 𝑥 > 𝑎,



We focus on the bound states, for which the energy satisfies −𝑉0 < 𝐸 < 0.
2𝑚(𝐸 + 𝑉0 ) 2 2𝑚𝐸
1. Write the expression of the wave function in each spatial region. We define 𝑘 2 = 2
,𝛾 = − 2 .
ℏ ℏ
2. By applying the continuity conditions, show that there exists a relation between 𝑘 and 𝛾.
3. We introduce the dimensionless variables 𝑋 = 𝑘𝑎 and 𝑌 = 𝛾𝑎.
3.1. Express the previous relation in the form 𝑌 = 𝑔(𝑋), where 𝑔(𝑋) is a function to be determined.
3.2. Show that 𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 is independent of the energy. We write 𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 = 𝑅 2 .
4. Propose a graphical method to determine the energies of the bound states.
Solution
1. Schrödinger equation:

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 𝜙 (𝑥) + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) ⇒
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 2 𝜙 (𝑥) 2𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥))
+ 𝜙 (𝑥) = 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
– Region 1 (𝑥 < 0): 𝑉 (𝑥) → ∞ ⇒ 𝜙1 (𝑥) = 0.
2𝑚(𝐸+𝑉0 )
–Region 2 (0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎): 𝑉 (𝑥) = −𝑉0 ⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 + 𝑉0 > 0 ⇒ we define 𝑘 2 = ℏ2
.
The characteristic equation is 𝑟 2 + 𝑘 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = ±𝑖𝑘 ⇒

𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 .
2𝑚𝐸
– Region 3 (𝑥 > 𝑎): 𝑉 (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 < 0 ⇒ we define −𝛾 2 = ℏ2
.
The characteristic equation is 𝑟 2 − 𝛾 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = ±𝛾 ⇒

𝜙3 (𝑥) = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝛾 𝑥 + 𝐵3 𝑒 −𝛾 𝑥 .

Since region 3 is unbounded for 𝑥 → ∞, we require that 𝜙3 (𝑥) does not diverge. As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝐴3 𝑒 𝛾 𝑥 → ∞, so we must
set 𝐴3 = 0.
Hence,
 𝜙 (𝑥) = 0, 𝑥 ≤ 0,
 1



𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 , 0≤𝑥≤𝑎,

 𝜙3 (𝑥) = 𝐵3 𝑒 −𝛾 𝑥 ,

𝑥 ≥ 𝑎.

2. 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙1 (0) = 𝜙2 (0) ⇒ 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 = 0 ⇒ 𝐵2 = −𝐴2 ⇒
 
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 = 2𝑖 𝐴2 sin (𝑘𝑥)
= 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥) ,

where we define 𝐴 = 2𝑖 𝐴2 .
𝑉 (0− ) → ∞ ⇒ 𝜙′ (𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0.
𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝜙2 (𝑎) = 𝜙3 (𝑎)⇒ 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑎) = 𝐵3 𝑒 −𝛾𝑎 ...(1)

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𝑉 (𝑎 − ) = −𝑉0 and 𝑉 (𝑎 + ) = 0 are both finite ⇒ 𝜙′ (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝜙2′ (𝑎) = 𝜙3′ (𝑎) ⇒ 𝐴𝑘 cos (𝑘𝑎) =
−𝛾𝐵3 𝑒 −𝛾𝑎 ...(2)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2) gives
tan (𝑘𝑎) 1
=− ,
𝑘 𝛾
which is a relation between 𝑘 and 𝛾.
3.1. The above equation implies

𝛾𝑎 = −𝑘𝑎 cot (𝑘𝑎) ⇒

𝑌 = −𝑋 cot 𝑋.

3.2.

𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 = 𝑘 2 𝑎2 + 𝛾2 𝑎2
2𝑚 (𝐸 + 𝑉0 ) 2 2𝑚𝐸 2
= 𝑎 − 2 𝑎
ℏ2 ℏ
2𝑚𝑉0 𝑎 2
= = 𝑅2 ,
ℏ2
where 𝑅 is independent of 𝐸.
4. We have two equations relating 𝑌 and 𝑋. A graphical solution consists of finding the intersections of the curve
𝑌 = −𝑋 cot 𝑋 with the circle of radius 𝑅, in the region 𝑋 > 0 and 𝑌 > 0.
Exercise 3
Consider a potential barrier of height 𝑉0 and width 𝑙, given by:

 0, 𝑥 < 0,



𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝑉0 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙,
0, 𝑥 > 𝑙.




In this case, classical physics does not allow the particle to cross the barrier.
1. Determine the energy ranges for which we can have:
a) bound states,
b) scattering states.
2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚(𝑉0 −𝐸 )
2. We focus on the case where the energy 𝐸 satisfies 0 < 𝐸 < 𝑉0 . We define 𝑘 2 = ℏ2
and 𝜌 2 = ℏ2
.
2.1. Solve the Schrödinger equation in each spatial region.
2.2. Write the continuity conditions at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑙.
2.3. Deduce the reflection and the transmission coefficients.
2.4. Numerical application:
a) An electron with energy 𝐸 = 1 eV, a barrier height 𝑉0 = 2 eV, and width 𝑙 = 1 Å.
b) A proton with energy 𝐸 = 1 eV, a barrier height 𝑉0 = 2 eV, and width 𝑙 = 1 Å.
Solution
1. For a bound state to exist, the energy must satisfy 𝐸 < 𝑉 (−∞) and 𝐸 < 𝑉 (+∞). In this case 𝑉 (−∞) = 𝑉 (+∞) = 0,
but 0 is the value of the global minimum of the potential. Therefore, 𝐸 must be greater that this minimum value, i. e.,
𝐸 > 0, so bound states are impossibles. We can only have scattering states.

4
2.1. Schrödinger equation :

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 𝜙 (𝑥) + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) ⇒
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 2 𝜙 (𝑥) 2𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥))
+ 𝜙 (𝑥) = 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
2𝑚𝐸
– Region 1 (𝑥 < 0) and region 3 (𝑥 > 𝑙): 𝑉 (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 > 0 ⇒ we define 𝑘 2 = ℏ2
.
The characteristic equation is 𝑟 2 + 𝑘 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = ±𝑖𝑘 ⇒

𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 ,
𝜙3 (𝑥) = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵3 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 .

Region 1 is the first region encountered by the particles, so we identify 𝜙𝑖 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 as the incident wave and 𝜙𝑟 (𝑥) =
𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 as the reflected wave.
Region 3 is the last region, so we identify 𝜙𝑡 (𝑥) = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 as the transmitted wave; the term 𝐵3 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 is unphysical and
we set 𝐵3 = 0.
2𝑚(𝐸 −𝑉0 )
– Region 2 (0 < 𝑥 < 𝑙): 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝑉0 ⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 − 𝑉0 < 0 ⇒ we define −𝜌 2 = ℏ2
.
The characteristic equation is 𝑟 2 − 𝜌 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = ±𝜌 ⇒

𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜌𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝜌𝑥 .

Thus
 𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ 0,
 1



𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜌𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝜌𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙,

 𝜙3 (𝑥) = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 ,

𝑥 ≥ 𝑙.

2.2. 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙1 (0) = 𝜙2 (0) ⇒

𝐴1 + 𝐵1 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ....(1).

𝑉 (0− ) = 0 and 𝑉 (0+ ) = 𝑉0 are both finite ⇒ 𝜙′ (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙1′ (0) = 𝜙2′ (0) ⇒

𝑖𝑘 ( 𝐴1 − 𝐵1 ) = 𝜌 ( 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 ) ....(2)

𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑙 ⇒ 𝜙2 (𝑙) = 𝜙3 (𝑙) ⇒

𝐴2 𝑒 𝜌𝑙 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝜌𝑙 = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑙 ....(3).

𝑉 (𝑙 − ) = 𝑉0 and 𝑉 (𝑙 + ) = 0 are both finite ⇒ 𝜙′ (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑙 ⇒ 𝜙2′ (𝑙) = 𝜙3′ (𝑙) ⇒
 
𝜌 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜌𝑙 − 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝜌𝑙 = 𝑖𝑘 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑙 ....(4).

2.3.
𝑗𝑡 | 𝐴3 | 2 ℏ𝑘
𝑚 𝐴3 2
𝑇= = = .
𝑗𝑖 | 𝐴1 | 2 ℏ𝑘
𝑚
𝐴1
To obtain 𝐴3 in terms of 𝐴1 , we combine the continuity equations.
Adding equation (1) and equation (2)/𝑖𝑘 gives
 𝜌  𝜌
2𝐴1 = 𝐴2 1 + + 𝐵2 1 − ⇒
𝑖𝑘 𝑖𝑘
1  𝜌 1  𝜌
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 1 + + 𝐵2 1 − ....(5)
2 𝑖𝑘 2 𝑖𝑘

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Adding equation (3) and equation (4)/𝜌 gives
 
𝜌𝑙 𝑖𝑘 𝑖𝑘𝑙
2𝐴2 𝑒 = 𝐴3 𝑒 1+ ⇒
𝜌
 
1 𝑖𝑘𝑙 −𝜌𝑙 𝑖𝑘
𝐴2 = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑒 1+ ....(6)
2 𝜌
Adding equation (3) and -(equation (4))/𝜌 gives
 
−𝜌𝑙 𝑖𝑘 𝑖𝑘𝑙
2𝐵2 𝑒 = 𝐴3 𝑒 1− ⇒
𝜌
 
1 𝑖𝑘𝑙 𝜌𝑙 𝑖𝑘
𝐵 2 = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑒 1 − ....(7).
2 𝜌
Substituting equations (6) and (7) into equation (5) yields
     
1 𝑖𝑘𝑙 −𝜌𝑙 𝑖𝑘  𝜌 𝜌𝑙 𝑖𝑘  𝜌
𝐴1 = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑒 1+ 1+ +𝑒 1− 1−
4 𝜌 𝑖𝑘 𝜌 𝑖𝑘
    
1 𝜌 𝑖𝑘 𝜌 𝑖𝑘
= 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑙 𝑒 −𝜌𝑙 2 + + + 𝑒 𝜌𝑙 2 − −
4 𝑖𝑘 𝜌 𝑖𝑘 𝜌
      
1 𝑖𝑘𝑙 −𝜌𝑙 𝜌 𝑘 𝜌𝑙 𝜌 𝑘
= 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑒 2−𝑖 − +𝑒 2+𝑖 −
4 𝑘 𝜌 𝑘 𝜌
    
1 𝑖𝑘𝑙 −𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
 𝜌 𝑘  𝜌𝑙 −𝜌𝑙
= 𝐴3 𝑒 2 𝑒 +𝑒 +𝑖 − 𝑒 −𝑒
4 𝑘 𝜌
   
1 𝑖𝑘𝑙 𝜌 𝑘
= 𝐴3 𝑒 4 cosh (𝜌𝑙) + 2𝑖 − sinh (𝜌𝑙)
4 𝑘 𝜌
   
𝑖𝑘𝑙 1 𝜌 𝑘
= 𝐴3 𝑒 cosh (𝜌𝑙) + 𝑖 − sinh (𝜌𝑙) ⇒
2 𝑘 𝜌

2
2
𝐴3 1
𝑇= = h   i
𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑙 cosh (𝜌𝑙) + 12 𝑖 𝜌
𝑘 − 𝑘
𝜌 sinh (𝜌𝑙)
1
=  2 .
2 1 𝜌 𝑘 2
cosh (𝜌𝑙) + 4 𝑘 − 𝜌 sinh (𝜌𝑙)

The relfection transmitted is

1
𝑅 = 1−𝑇 = 1−  2 .
2 1 𝜌 𝑘 2
cosh (𝜌𝑙) + 4 𝑘 − 𝜌 sinh (𝜌𝑙)
2.4. a) For electrons:
√︁ √︁
2𝑚 (𝑉0 − 𝐸) 2𝜋 2𝑚 𝑒 𝑐2 (𝑉0 − 𝐸)
𝜌= =
√ ℏ ℎ𝑐
3
2𝜋 2 × 511 × 10 eV × 1eV −1
= = 0.512Å .
3
12.4 × 10 eV · Å
With these, 𝑉0 − 𝐸 = 𝐸, so √
2𝑚𝐸
𝑘= = 𝜌⇒
ℏ
1 1
𝑇= 2
= 2
= 0.78 = 78%.
cosh (𝜌𝑙) cosh (0.512)

6
A majority of the electrons cross the barrier even though their energy is lower than the barrier height (𝐸 = 1eV and
𝑉0 = 2eV). This is a purely quantum phenomenon called the tunnel effect.
b) For protons:
√︁ √︁
2𝑚 (𝑉0 − 𝐸) 2𝜋 2𝑚 𝑝 𝑐2 (𝑉0 − 𝐸)
𝜌= =
√ ℏ ℎ𝑐
2𝜋 2 × 938 × 106 eV × 1eV −1
= = 21.95Å ⇒
12.4 × 103 eV · Å
1 1
𝑇= 2
= 2
= 3.4 × 10−19 ≃ 0,
cosh (𝜌𝑙) cosh (21.95)
in this case, almost no proton crosses the barrier.
Exercise 4
Consider the potential




 𝑉0 , 𝑥 < 0,
𝑉 (𝑥) = −𝑉0 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, with 𝑉0 > 0.


 𝑉0 , 𝑥 > 𝑎,

We define:
2𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉0 ) 2𝑚 (𝐸 + 𝑉0 )
𝑘 12 = , 𝑘 22 = .
ℏ2 ℏ2
1. Determine the energy ranges for which we can have:
a) bound states,
b) scattering states.
2. A beam of particles is incident from the left with energy 𝐸 > 𝑉0 .
2.1. Write the wave function in each spatial region.
2.2. Write the continuity conditions at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑎.
2.3. The transmission coefficient is given by

16
𝑇= 2
.
16 cos2 (𝑘 2 𝑎) + 4( 𝑘𝑘21 + 𝑘1 2
𝑘2 ) sin (𝑘 2 𝑎)

For which energy values does 𝑇 = 1? Comment.

Solution
See the solution to homework 2.

Exercise 5
Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 in the potential 𝑉 (𝑥) = −𝛼𝛿 (𝑥), where 𝛼 is a positive constant and 𝛿 (𝑥) is the Dirac delta
function.

7
1. Determine the energy ranges for which we can have:
a) bound states,
b) scattering states.
2. We focus on the bound states (𝐸 < 0).
2.1. What is the physical dimension of 𝛼 ?
2.2. Write the solutions of the Schrödinger equation in each spatial region.
2.3. Study the discontinuity of the first derivative of the wave function at 𝑥 = 0.
2.4. Show that there exists only one bound state. Calculate its energy and give its normalized wave function.
Solution
The Dirac delta function can be seen as the limit when 𝜖 goes to 0 of the following function



 0, 𝑥 < 𝑥0 − 𝜖,


𝛿 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) = lim 𝜖1 , 𝑥0 − 𝜖 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥0 + 𝜖,
𝜖 →0 
 0, 𝑥 > 𝑥0 + 𝜖 .


It has the properties
∫
𝑓 (𝑥) 𝛿 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥 0 ) ,
𝐼, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐼
∫
𝛿 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1.
𝐼, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐼

1. In this case, 𝑉 (−∞) = 0 and 𝑉 (+∞) = 0. The potential is not bounded from below, i. e., 𝑉min → −∞. Thus, we have
bound states if 𝐸 < 0, and scattering states if 𝐸 > 0.
2.1. We have 𝑉 (𝑥) = −𝛼𝛿 (𝑥) ⇒ [𝛼] = [𝑉 (𝑥) ]
[ 𝛿(𝑥) ] .
∫ 1 1
[𝑉 (𝑥)] = energy and from 𝐼, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 𝛿 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1, we deduce [𝛿 (𝑥)] = [𝑑 𝑥 ] = 𝐿 ⇒ [𝛼] = energy × length.
0
2.2. Schrödinger equation:

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 𝜙 (𝑥) + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) ⇒
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 2 𝜙 (𝑥) 2𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥))
+ 𝜙 (𝑥) = 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
2𝑚𝐸
Region 1 (𝑥 < 0) and region 2 (𝑥 > 0): 𝑉 (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 < 0 ⇒ we define −𝜌 2 = ℏ2
⇒ the characteristic
equation is 𝑟 2 − 𝜌 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = ±𝜌 ⇒

𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝜌𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝜌𝑥 ,
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜌𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝜌𝑥 .

8
Region 1 is unbounded when 𝑥 → −∞. The term 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝜌𝑥 diverges as 𝑥 → −∞ ⇒ we set 𝐵1 = 0.
Region 2 is unbounded when 𝑥 → +∞. The term 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜌𝑥 diverges as 𝑥 → ∞ ⇒ we set 𝐴2 = 0 .
Hence, (
𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝜌𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ 0,
𝜙 (𝑥) =
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝜌𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0.
𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙1 (0) = 𝜙2 (0) ⇒𝐴1 = 𝐵2 ≡ 𝐴 ⇒
(
𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝜌𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ 0,
𝜙 (𝑥) =
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜌𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0.

2.3. To study the discontuity of 𝜙′ (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 0, we integrate the Schrödinger equation in the neighbourhood of 𝑥 = 0:
∫ +𝜖  2 2  ∫ +𝜖 ∫ +𝜖
ℏ 𝑑
− 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
−𝜖 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 −𝜖 −𝜖

As 𝜖 → 0:
+𝜖
ℏ2 𝑑 2 ℏ2 ℏ2 ′ +

∫  
′ +𝜖
𝜙2 0 − 𝜙1′ (0− ) ,


− 2
𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − [𝜙 (𝑥)] −𝜖 = −
−𝜖 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2𝑚 2𝑚
∫ +𝜖 ∫ +𝜖
𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝛼 𝛿 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝛼 𝜙 (0) ,
−𝜖 −𝜖
∫ +𝜖
𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸 [Φ (𝑥)] −𝜖 𝜖 = 𝐸 Φ 0+ − Φ (0− ) = 0,



−𝜖
where Φ (𝑥)is a primitive function of 𝜙 (𝑥) . Since 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous, Φ (𝑥) is also continuous.
Therefore,
ℏ2 ′ +

𝜙2 0 − 𝜙1′ (0− ) − 𝛼 𝜙 (0) = 0.


−
2𝑚
2.4. The above equation implies

ℏ2
− (−𝐴𝜌 − 𝐴𝜌) − 𝛼 𝐴 = 0 ⇒
2𝑚
𝛼𝑚
𝜌= 2 .
ℏ
On the other hand, 𝜌 2 = − 2𝑚𝐸
ℏ2
⇒

2𝑚𝐸 𝛼2 𝑚 2
− = ⇒
ℏ2 ℏ4
𝛼2 𝑚
𝐸 =− 2 .
2ℏ
We obtain a single energy value, thus there is a unique bound state, with wave function
(
𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝜌𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ 0,
𝜙 (𝑥) = −𝜌𝑥
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 , 𝑥 ≥ 0.

9
To normalize 𝜙 (𝑥), we set
∫ +∞
|𝜙 (𝑥)| 2 𝑑𝑥 =1
−∞
∫ 0 ∫ +∞ 
2 2𝜌𝑥 −2𝜌𝑥
| 𝐴| 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 =1
−∞ 0
 2𝜌𝑥  0  −2𝜌𝑥  +∞ !
2 𝑒 𝑒
| 𝐴| + =1
2𝜌 −∞ −2𝜌 0
 
2 1 1
| 𝐴| + = 1⇒
2𝜌 2𝜌
| 𝐴| 2 = 𝜌⇒
√
𝐴 = 𝜌,

where we choose 𝐴 ∈ R+ .
Therefore, the normalized wave function is
(√
𝜌 𝑒 𝜌𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ 0,
𝜙 (𝑥) = √
𝜌 𝑒 −𝜌𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0.

Exercise 6
We study the scattering states of a particle of mass 𝑚 in the potential

𝑉 (𝑥) = −𝛼𝛿(𝑥),

where 𝛼 is a positive constant and 𝛿(𝑥) is the Dirac delta function.

2𝑚𝐸
A beam of particles with energy 𝐸 > 0 is incident along the 𝑥-axis from the left. We define 𝑘 2 = .
ℏ2
1. Write the wave function in each spatial region.
2. Write the continuity condition at 𝑥 = 0.
3. Show that the first derivative of the wave function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 0, such that

ℏ2 𝑑𝜙 +
 
𝑑𝜙 −
− (0 ) − (0 ) − 𝛼𝜙(0) = 0.
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚𝛼
4. We define 𝛽 = − . Give the physical dimensions of 𝛼 and 𝛽.
𝑘ℏ2
5. Determine the expression of the transmission coefficient 𝑇 in terms of 𝛽.
6. Determine the limits of 𝑇 as 𝐸 → 0 and 𝐸 → ∞.
Solution
1. Schrödinger equation:

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 𝜙 (𝑥) + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) ⇒
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 2 𝜙 (𝑥) 2𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥))
+ 𝜙 (𝑥) = 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
2𝑚𝐸
– Region 1 (𝑥 < 0) and region 2 (𝑥 > 0): 𝑉 (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 > 0 ⇒we define 𝑘 2 = ℏ2
. The characteristic
equation is 𝑟 2 + 𝑘 2 = 0 ⇒𝑟 = ±𝑖𝑘 ⇒

𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 ,
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 .

10
Region 1 is the first region encountered by the particles, so we identify 𝜙𝑖 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 as the incident wave and 𝜙𝑟 (𝑥) =
𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 as the reflected wave.
Region 2 is the last region, so we identify 𝜙𝑡 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 as the transmitted wave. The term 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 is unphysical, we
thus set 𝐵2 = 0.
Therefore, (
𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ 0,
𝜙 (𝑥) =
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0.
2. 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒𝜙1 (0) = 𝜙2 (0) ⇒ 𝐴1 + 𝐵1 = 𝐴2 ...(1)
3. See question 2.3 of exercise 5. We thus have

ℏ2 𝑑𝜙 +
 
𝑑𝜙 −
− (0 ) − (0 ) − 𝛼𝜙(0) = 0⇒
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℏ2 ′ +

𝜙2 0 − 𝜙1′ (0− ) − 𝛼𝜙(0) = 0


−
2𝑚
ℏ2
− (𝑖𝑘 𝐴2 − 𝑖𝑘 ( 𝐴1 − 𝐵1 )) − 𝛼𝐴2 = 0⇒
2𝑚  
2𝑚
𝐴1 − 𝐵1 = 𝐴2 1 − 𝑖𝛼 2 ...(2)
𝑘ℏ

4. [𝛼] = energy × length = 𝑀 𝐿 3𝑇 −2 (see exercise 5).

( 𝑀 ) × ( 𝑀 𝐿 3 𝑇 −2 )
[𝛽] = [[𝑚] [ 𝛼]
= = 1 ⇒ 𝛽 is dimensionless.
𝑘 ] [ℏ ]
2
( 𝐿 −1 ) × ( 𝑀 𝐿 2 𝑇 −1 ) 2
5.
𝑗𝑡 | 𝐴2 | 2 ℏ𝑘
𝑚 𝐴2 2
𝑇= = = .
𝑗𝑖 | 𝐴1 | 2 ℏ𝑘
𝑚
𝐴1
To relate 𝐴2 and 𝐴1 we add equations (1) and (2) ⇒
 
2𝑚𝛼
2𝐴1 = 𝐴2 2 − 𝑖 2
𝑘ℏ
= 2𝐴2 (1 + 𝑖𝛽) .

⇒
2
𝐴2 1 1
𝑇= = 2
= .
𝐴1 |1 + 𝑖𝛽| 1 + 𝛽2
6.
 𝑚𝛼  2  𝑚𝛼ℏ  2 𝑚𝛼2
2
𝛽 = − 2 = √ = ⇒
𝑘ℏ 2𝑚𝐸ℏ2 2𝐸ℏ2
1
𝑇= ⇒
𝑚𝛼2
1 + 2𝐸ℏ2

lim 𝑇 = 0,
𝐸→0
lim 𝑇 = 1.
𝐸→∞

Exercise 7
In a one-dimensional model, we consider a repulsive interaction described by the potential

𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝛼𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝛼𝛿(𝑥),

where 𝛿 (𝑥) is the Dirac delta function, 𝛼 and 𝑏 are two positive constants.

11
A beam of particles of mass 𝑚 and energy 𝐸 > 0 is incident along the 𝑥-axis from the left. We focus on the energies for
2𝑚𝐸 𝑚𝛼
which the barrier is transparent, i.e., there is no reflected wave in the region 𝑥 < 0. We define 𝑘 2 = 2 , 𝛽 = 2 .
ℏ ℏ 𝑘
1. Write the solutions of the Schrödinger equation, 𝜙1 (𝑥), 𝜙2 (𝑥) and 𝜙3 (𝑥), in the three spatial regions.
2. Write the condition in the limit 𝑥 → +∞, and deduce the expression of 𝜙3 (𝑥).
3. Taking into account the transparency of the barrier, deduce the expression of 𝜙1 (𝑥).
4. Write the continuity condition for the wave function at 𝑥 = 0. Study the behavior of its first derivative at this point.
5. Write the continuity condition for the wave function at 𝑥 = 𝑏. Study the behavior of its first derivative at this point.
6. Show that the energies for which the barrier is transparent can be deduced from a relation between 𝑘, 𝑏 and 𝛽. Establish
this relation.
7. Give the physical dimensions of 𝛼 and 𝛽.
8. Propose a graphical method to solve the equation obtained in question 6.
Solution
1. Schrödinger equation:

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 𝜙 (𝑥) + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) ⇒
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 2 𝜙 (𝑥) 2𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥))
+ 𝜙 (𝑥) = 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
2𝑚𝐸
Region 1 (𝑥 < 0), region 2 (0 < 𝑥 < 𝑏) and region 3 (𝑥 > 𝑏): 𝑉 (𝑥) = 0⇒ 𝐸 − 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐸 > 0 ⇒ we define 𝑘 2 = ℏ2
.
The characteristic equation is 𝑟 2 + 𝑘 2 = 0 ⇒𝑟 = ±𝑖𝑘 ⇒

𝜙1 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 ,
𝜙2 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 ,
𝜙3 (𝑥) = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵3 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 .

2. Region 3 is the last region, so we identify 𝜙𝑡 (𝑥) = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 as the transmitted wave. The term 𝐵3 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 is unphysical, so
we set 𝐵3 = 0.
3. Region 1 is the first region encountered by the particles, so we identify 𝜙𝑖 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 as the incident wave. Since we
focus on the case with no reflection, we set 𝐵1 = 0.
Hence,
 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ 0,
 1



𝜙 (𝑥) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏,

 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 𝑏.


4. 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙1 (0) = 𝜙2 (0) ⇒ 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ....(1)
To study the discontinuity of 𝜙′ (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 0, we integrate the Schrödinger equation around of 𝑥 = 0:
∫ +𝜖  2 2  ∫ +𝜖 ∫ +𝜖
ℏ 𝑑
− 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
−𝜖 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 −𝜖 −𝜖

12
As 𝜖 → 0:
+𝜖
ℏ2 𝑑 2 ℏ2 ℏ2 ′ +

∫  
′ +𝜖 ′ −

− 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − [𝜙 (𝑥)] − 𝜖 = − 𝜙 2 0 − 𝜙 1 (0 ) ,
−𝜖 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑚 2𝑚
∫ +𝜖 ∫ +𝜖
𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝛼 𝛿 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝛼 𝜙 (0) ,
−𝜖 −𝜖
∫ +𝜖
𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸 [Φ (𝑥)] −𝜖 𝜖 = 𝐸 Φ 0+ − Φ (0− ) = 0,



−𝜖
where Φ (𝑥)is a primitive function of 𝜙 (𝑥) . Since 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous, Φ (𝑥) is also continuous.
Therefore,

ℏ2 ′ +

𝜙 0 − 𝜙1′ (0− ) − 𝛼 𝜙 (0) = 0⇒


−
2𝑚 2
ℏ2
− 𝑖𝑘 ( 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 − 𝐴1 ) − 𝛼 𝐴1 = 0...(2)
2𝑚

5. 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝜙2 (𝑏) = 𝜙3 (𝑏) ⇒ 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑏 = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 ⇒ 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 ....(3)

To study the discontinuity of 𝜙′ (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑏, we integrate the Schrödinger equation in neighbourhood of 𝑥 = 𝑏:
∫ 𝑏+𝜖  2 2  ∫ 𝑏+𝜖 ∫ 𝑏+𝜖
ℏ 𝑑
− 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑏− 𝜖 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑏− 𝜖 𝑏− 𝜖

As 𝜖 → 0:
ℏ2 𝑑 2 ℏ2 ℏ2 ′ +

∫ 𝑏+𝜖  
′
𝜙3 𝑏 − 𝜙2′ (𝑏 − ) ,
𝑏+𝜖

− 2
𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − [𝜙 (𝑥)] 𝑏− 𝜖 = −
𝑏− 𝜖 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2𝑚 2𝑚
∫ 𝑏+𝜖 ∫ 𝑏+𝜖
𝑉 (𝑥) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝛼 𝛿 (𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝛼 𝜙 (𝑏) ,
𝑏− 𝜖 𝑏− 𝜖
∫ 𝑏+𝜖
+

− Φ (𝑏 − ) = 0,


𝐸 𝜙 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸 [Φ (𝑥)] 𝑏+𝜖
𝑏− 𝜖 = 𝐸 Φ 𝑏
𝑏− 𝜖
where Φ (𝑥)is a primitive function of 𝜙 (𝑥) . Since 𝜙 (𝑥) is continuous, Φ (𝑥) is also continuous.
Therefore,

ℏ2 ′ +

𝜙3 𝑏 − 𝜙2′ (𝑏 − ) − 𝛼 𝜙 (𝑏) = 0⇒


−
2𝑚
ℏ2  
− 𝑖𝑘 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 − 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑏 − 𝛼 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 = 0
2𝑚
ℏ2  
− 𝑖𝑘 𝐴3 − 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 − 𝛼 𝐴3 = 0...(4)
2𝑚

6. Substituting equation (1) into equation (2) we get

ℏ2
− 𝑖𝑘 ( 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 − 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 ) − 𝛼 ( 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ) = 0 ⇒
2𝑚  2 
𝑘ℏ
𝐵2 𝑖 − 𝛼 = 𝐴2 (𝛼) ...(5)
𝑚

Substituting equation (3) into equation (4) we get

ℏ2    
− 𝑖𝑘 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 − 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 − 𝛼 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 = 0 ⇒
2𝑚
−𝑖𝑘ℏ2 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏
 
−2𝑖𝑘𝑏
𝐵2 − 𝛼𝑒 = 𝐴2 (𝛼) ...(6)
𝑚

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Dividing equation (6) by equation (5) yields
−𝑖𝑘ℏ2 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏
𝑚 − 𝛼𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏
2
=1
𝑖 𝑘ℏ
𝑚 −𝛼
−𝑖𝑘ℏ2 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 𝑘ℏ2
− 𝛼𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 = 𝑖 −𝛼
𝑚 𝑚
𝑚 𝑚𝛼
−𝑖𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 + 2 𝛼𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 = 𝑖 − 2 ⇒
𝑘ℏ 𝑘ℏ
𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 + 𝑖𝛽𝑒 −2𝑖𝑘𝑏 = −1 − 𝑖𝛽⇒
𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑏 + 𝑖𝛽𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑏 = −𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 − 𝑖𝛽𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 ⇒
 
𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑏 = −𝑖𝛽 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑏 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑏
2 cos (𝑘 𝑏) = 2𝛽 sin (𝑘 𝑏) ⇒
1
tan (𝑘 𝑏) = .
𝛽

7. [𝛼] = energy × length and 𝛽 is dimensionless (see exercise 6).

8.
1 𝑘ℏ2
= = 𝑎𝑘,
𝛽 𝑚𝛼
ℏ2 𝑎
where 𝑎 = 𝑚𝛼 . Thus a graphical solution consists of finding the interections of the curves 𝑌 = tan (𝑋) and 𝑌 = 𝑏 𝑋, with
𝑋 = 𝑘 𝑏.

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