CLASS ENVIRONMENT)

7 – GEOGRAPHY (OUR
NCERT • COMPREHENSIVE EXAM NOTES

All 10 Chapters | Key Terms | Q&A | Revision Points

C
Chapter Title Topic Area
h.

1 Environment Natural & Human Environment, Ecosystem

2 Inside Our Earth Layers, Rocks, Minerals, Rock Cycle

3 Our Changing Earth Plates, Earthquakes, Volcanoes, Landforms

4 Air Atmosphere, Weather, Climate, Winds, Rainfall

5 Water Water Cycle, Ocean Movements, Tides, Tsunami

6 Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Forests, Grasslands, Biomes

Human Environment – Settlement, Transport & Settlements, Roads, Railways, Airways

7
Communication

Human Environment Interactions – Tropical & Amazon Basin, Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin

8
Subtropical

9 Life in the Temperate Grasslands Prairies (N. America) & Velds (S. Africa)

1 Sahara (Hot) & Ladakh (Cold)

Life in the Deserts
0
 CHAPTE
R1 ENVIRONMENT

■ Chapter Overview
Environment is our basic life support system. It provides the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat
and the land where we live. This chapter introduces the concept of environment, its components, the ecosystem,
and the relationship between humans and their environment.

■ 1.1 What is Environment?

• The place, people, things and nature that surround any living organism is called environment.
• It is a combination of natural and human-made phenomena.
• Natural environment: refers to both biotic and abiotic conditions existing on the earth.
• Human environment: reveals the activities, creations and interactions among human beings.
• Word Origin: "Environment" comes from the French word Environer/Environner meaning "neighbourhood."

Biotic The world of LIVING organisms — e.g., plants and animals.

Abiotic The world of NON-LIVING elements — e.g., land, water, air.

■ 1.2 Components of Environment

◆ A. Natural Environment
Lithosphere Solid crust or hard top layer of the earth. Made of rocks and minerals, covered by thin soil.
Contains mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys. Provides forests, grasslands, land for
agriculture and mineral wealth. Continental crust = ~35 km thick; Oceanic crust = ~5 km thick.

Hydrosphere Domain of water — rivers, lakes, seas, oceans. Essential for all living organisms.

Atmosphere Thin layer of air surrounding earth, held by gravitational force. Protects from harmful UV rays
and scorching heat. Changes in atmosphere → changes in weather and climate.

Biosphere Narrow zone where land, water and air interact to support life. Plant and animal kingdom
together make the biosphere — the "living world."

◆ B. Human-Made Environment
• Examples: Parks, buildings, bridges, roads, industries, monuments.
• Humans modify environment according to needs: grow crops, domesticate animals, invent wheel, develop barter,
trade, industrial revolution, transport, communication.

◆ C. Human Environment (Social Component)

• Includes: Individual, family, community, religion, educational institutions, economic and political situations.

■ 1.3 Ecosystem
• Ecosystem: A system formed by the interaction of ALL living organisms with each other and with the physical and
chemical factors of the environment in which they live, all linked by transfer of energy and material.
• Types of ecosystems: large rain forest, grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean — even a small pond.
• All plants, animals and humans depend on immediate surroundings and are often interdependent on each other.
• Even a small park forms an ecosystem!

◆ Examples from the Book:

• Kerala: Heavy rainfall → lush green fields and coconut plantations.
 • Jaisalmer: Very little rain → only "kikar" trees and sand. Animals: camels, snakes, lizards, insects.
• Vegetation, animals and the way people live vary from place to place — all are related to each other through the
ecosystem.

■ 1.4 Human Environment — How It Has Changed

• Early humans: adapted to natural surroundings; simple life; fulfilled needs from nature.
• Over time: grew crops, domesticated animals, settled life.
• Key inventions/developments (in sequence):
■ Wheel invented → transport easier.
■ Surplus food produced → Barter system emerged.
■ Trade started → commerce developed.
■ Industrial Revolution → large-scale production.
■ Transportation became faster.
■ Information Revolution → communication easier and speedy worldwide.
• Barter System: Trade in which goods are exchanged WITHOUT the use of money.
• A perfect balance is necessary between natural and human environment. Humans must learn to live and use
environment harmoniously.

■ Important Extra Facts

✓ 5 June = World Environment Day (celebrated every year).

✓ The word "kikar" is the local name for Acacia tree — common in dry/arid regions of India.

✓ Early humans lived on trees and in caves before settlements developed.

✓ Civilizations first developed near river valleys because water was available and land was fertile.

✓ Human beings make cars, mills, factories, manufacture containers — this is how they MODIFY natural environment.

✓ Car fumes pollute air; water collected in pots; food served in vessels; land used to build factories — all are human
modifications.

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: What is an ecosystem?

A: An ecosystem is a system formed by the interaction of all living organisms with each other and with the physical
and chemical factors of the environment in which they live, all linked by transfer of energy and material. Examples:
forest, grassland, pond, desert, lake.

Q: What do you mean by natural environment?

A: Natural environment refers to both biotic (living — plants, animals) and abiotic (non-living — land, water, air)
conditions existing on the earth. It includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Q: Which are the major components of the environment?

A: Three major components: (1) Natural environment — lithosphere (land), hydrosphere (water), atmosphere (air),
biosphere (living world). (2) Human-made environment — buildings, roads, parks, bridges, industries. (3) Human
environment — individuals, families, communities, religions, educational and political institutions.

Q: Give four examples of human-made environment.

A: Parks, buildings, bridges, roads, industries, monuments. (Any four.)

Q: What is lithosphere?
 A: Lithosphere is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth. It is made up of rocks and minerals and covered by
a thin layer of soil. It has various landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains and valleys. It provides us forests,
grasslands, land for agriculture and human settlements, and is also a source of mineral wealth.

Q: Which are the two major components of biotic environment?

A: Plants and animals (the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom together form the biosphere — the biotic
environment).

Q: What is biosphere?

A: Biosphere is the narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each other to support life. Plant
and animal kingdom together make the biosphere or the "living world."

Q: Why is our environment changing?

A: Our environment is changing because of increasing human needs. To fulfil these needs, humans modify and at
times even destroy natural surroundings — by building cities on fields, cutting forests, building factories, polluting
rivers, etc.

Q: Man modifies his environment — give reasons.

A: Man modifies his environment because (1) his needs keep increasing and becoming more varied; (2) he invents
new ways to use resources; (3) he grows crops and builds settlements on natural land; (4) he uses technology for
production and transportation, all of which change the natural environment.

Q: Plants and animals depend on each other — give reasons.

A: (1) Green plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis — animals breathe it. (2) Animals release CO■ — plants
use it to make food. (3) Animals eat plants for food. (4) Plants depend on animals for pollination and seed dispersal.
(5) Both form ecosystems where energy and material are transferred — disrupting one affects the other.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Environment = place + people + things + nature surrounding a living organism.

➤ Biotic = living (plants/animals); Abiotic = non-living (land/water/air).

➤ Lithosphere = hard top crust; 35 km thick on continents, 5 km on ocean floors.

➤ Hydrosphere = all water bodies; Atmosphere = thin air layer held by gravity.

➤ Biosphere = narrow zone where land, water, air meet to support life.

➤ Ecosystem = interaction of ALL living + non-living components linked by energy and material transfer.

➤ Ecosystem types: forest, grassland, desert, mountain, lake, river, ocean, pond.

➤ Barter system = exchange of goods without money.

➤ Human environment = social component: individual, family, community, religion, education, economy, politics.

➤ Human-made environment: parks, buildings, bridges, roads, industries, monuments.

➤ 5 June = World Environment Day.

➤ Early humans: adapted to nature → crops → wheel → barter → trade → industrial revolution → information
revolution.
 CHAPTE
R2 INSIDE OUR EARTH

■ Chapter Overview
The earth is a dynamic planet constantly changing inside and outside. This chapter covers the interior structure of
the earth, types of rocks, minerals, and the rock cycle.

■ 2.1 Interior of the Earth

• The earth is made up of several concentric layers — like an onion with layers inside one another.

Layer Depth/Thickness Composition Key Facts

Crust 35 km (continents); 5 Continental = Silica + Alumina → Thinnest layer; forms only 1% of earth's volume.
(outermost) km (ocean floors) called SIAL; Oceanic = Silica +
Magnesium → called SIMA

Mantle Up to 2900 km below Denser than crust 84% of earth's volume. Molten magma moves in circular
crust manner here.

Core Radius ~3500 km Nickel + Iron → called NIFE 15% of earth's volume. Very high temperature and
(innermost) pressure. Has outer core (liquid) and inner core (solid).

■ Do You Know? — Earth Facts

✓ Deepest mine in the world: South Africa — about 4 km deep.

✓ Engineers have dug for oil to about 6 km deep.

✓ To reach the centre of earth you would need to dig 6,000 km on the ocean floor.

✓ Crust = 1% of earth's volume; Mantle = 84%; Core = 15%.

✓ Radius of the earth = 6,371 km.

✓ SIAL = Si (silica) + Al (alumina) = continental crust.

✓ SIMA = Si (silica) + Ma (magnesium) = oceanic crust.

✓ NIFE = Ni (nickel) + Fe (ferrous = iron) = core.

■ 2.2 Rocks and Minerals

• Rock: Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth's crust. Can be of different colour, size and
texture.
• Mineral: Naturally occurring substance with certain physical properties and definite chemical composition. Used
as fuels (coal, natural gas, petroleum); in industries (iron, aluminium, gold, uranium); in medicine; in fertilisers.
• Three major types of rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic.

◆ A. Igneous Rocks ("Primary Rocks")

• Word Origin: "Igneous" = Latin Ignis meaning fire.
• Formed when molten magma cools and solidifies.
• Two types:
■ Extrusive igneous rocks: Lava cools rapidly ON the earth's surface → very fine grained structure. Example:
Basalt (Deccan Plateau is made of basalt).
 ■ Intrusive igneous rocks: Magma cools slowly DEEP inside the crust → large grains. Example: Granite
(grinding stones for spices/grains are made of granite).

◆ B. Sedimentary Rocks
• Word Origin: "Sedimentary" = Latin sedimentum meaning settle down.
• Rocks break into small fragments called sediments. Transported and deposited by wind/water. Loose sediments
compressed and hardened → sedimentary rocks.
• Example: Sandstone (made from grains of sand).
• Key feature: May contain fossils of plants, animals and microorganisms.
• Fossils: Remains of dead plants and animals trapped in layers of rocks.

◆ C. Metamorphic Rocks
• Word Origin: "Metamorphic" = Greek metamorphose meaning change of form.
• Igneous and sedimentary rocks change into metamorphic rocks under great heat and pressure.
• Examples: Clay → Slate; Limestone → Marble.
• Red Fort: made of red sandstone (sedimentary). Taj Mahal: made of white marble (metamorphic).

■ 2.3 The Rock Cycle

• One type of rock changes into another type in a cyclic manner under certain conditions.
• The process of transformation of rock from one type to another is called the Rock Cycle.
Sequence: Molten magma → cools → Igneous rock → broken into particles → transported/deposited →
Sedimentary rock → heat and pressure → Metamorphic rock → melts under extreme heat → Molten magma
again.
• Uses of rocks: making roads, houses, buildings; used in games (pitthoo, hopscotch, gitti).

■ Minerals Used in Common Objects

✓ Karhai (cooking wok) and Pan/Tava: Iron.

✓ Ornaments (jewellery): Gold, Silver.

✓ Bell: Bell metal (copper + tin with high tin content).

✓ Hammer: Steel (iron + carbon).

✓ Lamp: Brass (copper + zinc) or Bronze.

✓ Coal, natural gas, petroleum = fuels; Iron, aluminium, gold, uranium = industrial minerals.

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: What are the three layers of the earth?

A: The three layers are: (1) Crust — the outermost, thinnest layer (35 km on continents, 5 km on ocean floors); (2)
Mantle — the middle layer extending to 2900 km below the crust; (3) Core — the innermost layer with radius ~3500
km made of nickel and iron (NIFE).

Q: How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?

A: Extrusive igneous rocks: Lava comes on the earth's surface and cools rapidly → fine grained structure. Example:
Basalt. Intrusive igneous rocks: Magma cools slowly deep inside the earth's crust → large grains. Example: Granite.

Q: What do you mean by a rock cycle?

 A: Rock cycle is the process of transformation of one type of rock into another in a cyclic manner. Magma → igneous
rock → broken into sediments → sedimentary rock → heat and pressure → metamorphic rock → melts → magma
again. This cycle continues endlessly.

Q: Rocks which contain fossils are?

A: Sedimentary rocks — because fossils of plants and animals get trapped in the layers of sediments as they are
compressed and hardened.

Q: We cannot go to the centre of the earth — give reasons.

A: The temperature and pressure deep inside the earth are extremely high. The central core has very high
temperature and pressure making it impossible to travel there. Even the deepest mine reaches only about 4 km deep,
and drilling for oil goes only about 6 km — far short of the 6,000 km needed to reach the centre.

Q: Limestone is changed into marble — give reasons.

A: When limestone (a sedimentary rock) is subjected to very high heat and pressure deep inside the earth, it changes
its form and becomes marble (a metamorphic rock). This process is called metamorphism.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Earth layers: Crust → Mantle → Core (like onion layers).

➤ Crust = 1%; Mantle = 84%; Core = 15% of earth's volume.

➤ Continental crust: SIAL (Si+Al, 35 km); Oceanic crust: SIMA (Si+Mg, 5 km).

➤ Core: NIFE (Ni+Fe); radius ~3500 km; very high temp and pressure.

➤ 3 rock types: Igneous (fire), Sedimentary (settle down), Metamorphic (change of form).

➤ Extrusive igneous = fine grained (Basalt/Deccan Plateau); Intrusive = large grained (Granite).

➤ Sedimentary rocks may contain FOSSILS; example: Sandstone.

➤ Metamorphic: Clay→Slate; Limestone→Marble.

➤ Red Fort = red sandstone; Taj Mahal = white marble.

➤ Rock Cycle: Magma→Igneous→Sediments→Sedimentary→Metamorphic→Magma.

➤ Minerals: naturally occurring, definite chemical composition. Coal/petroleum/gas = fuel minerals.

➤ Earth radius = 6,371 km; deepest mine ~4 km; drilling ~6 km; centre = 6,000 km.
 CHAPTE
R3 OUR CHANGING EARTH

■ Chapter Overview
The earth is dynamic — constantly changing. Lithospheric plates move, causing earthquakes and volcanoes.
Exogenic forces like water, wind and ice shape the landscape through erosion and deposition creating various
landforms.

■ 3.1 Lithospheric Plates and Earth Movements

• Lithospheric plates: The earth's crust is broken into several large and some small rigid irregularly-shaped plates
(slabs) which carry continents and the ocean floor.
• These plates move very slowly — just a few millimetres each year.
• Reason for movement: The molten magma inside the earth moves in a circular manner (like convection
currents) causing the plates to shift.

Endogenic forces Forces that act in the INTERIOR of the earth. "Endo" = inside + "genic" = origin. Cause
earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building.

Exogenic forces Forces that work on the SURFACE of the earth. "Exo" = outside + "genic" = origin. Cause
erosion and deposition — rivers, winds, sea waves, glaciers.

Diastrophic forces Slow endogenic forces that build mountains over millions of years.

Sudden forces Fast endogenic forces — earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides.

■ 3.2 Earthquakes
• When lithospheric plates move, the surface of the earth vibrates. These vibrations are called earthquakes.
• Focus: The place in the crust where the movement starts. (Origin of seismic energy.)
• Epicentre: The place on the surface DIRECTLY ABOVE the focus. Greatest damage here.
• Vibrations travel outward from epicentre as seismic waves. Strength decreases away from centre.

◆ Types of Earthquake Waves:

• P waves (Primary/Longitudinal waves) — travel through solid, liquid and gas.
• S waves (Secondary/Transverse waves) — only through solid.
• L waves (Surface waves) — travel along the surface; cause most damage.

◆ Measurement:
• Instrument: Seismograph.
• Scale: Richter scale (measures magnitude).
• 2.0 or less = barely felt; over 5.0 = damage from falling things; 6.0+ = very strong; 7.0 = major earthquake.

■ Bhuj Earthquake Case Study — 26 January 2001

✓ Magnitude: 6.9 on the Richter scale.

✓ Location: Bhuj Town, Gujarat.

✓ Casualties: At least 971 students and 31 teachers feared dead after school buildings collapsed.

✓ Infrastructure damage: Phone lines, water pipelines and power transmission lines knocked out.

✓ Relief issues: 3 days after quake, food/blankets/medical supplies not reaching everyone.
 ✓ Financial help: Gujarat CM launched appeal to Central Government.

✓ Earthquake Preparedness: Safe spot = under kitchen counter, table or desk, inside wall corner.

✓ Stay away from: fireplaces, chimneys, windows, mirrors, picture frames.

◆ Volcano:
• Volcano: A vent (opening) in the earth's crust through which molten material erupts suddenly.
• Parts: Crater (top opening), Vent (channel), Lava tube, Magma Chamber.
• Lava: Fiery red molten magma coming out from the interior of the earth onto its surface.

■ 3.3 Major Landforms

• Weathering: Breaking up of rocks on the earth's surface (no movement of material).
• Erosion: Wearing away of the landscape by different agents (water, wind, ice) — material is removed.
• Eroded material transported and deposited → creates different landforms.

◆ A. Work of a River
Landform How Formed Type

Waterfall River tumbles at steep angle over very hard rocks or down steep Erosional
valley side

Meanders River twists and turns forming large bends on the plain Erosional + Depositional

Ox-bow lake Meander loop cuts off from the river — forms a crescent-shaped lake Both

Flood plain River overflows banks; deposits layers of fine soil (sediments) along Depositional
banks → flat fertile plain

Levees Raised banks formed by deposition along sides of river Depositional

Delta At the sea, river slows, breaks into distributaries, deposits sediments Depositional
→ fan-shaped land

• Distributaries: Smaller streams into which a river breaks up near its mouth.
• Highest waterfall: Angel Falls, Venezuela, South America. Others: Niagara Falls (Canada-USA border), Victoria
Falls (Zambia-Zimbabwe, Africa).

◆ B. Work of Sea Waves

Landform How Formed

Sea Cave Sea waves strike rocks repeatedly; cracks develop and widen → hollow caves form.

Sea Arch Caves grow bigger; only roof remains → arch shape.

Stack Further erosion breaks the roof; only walls (pillars) remain.

Sea Cliff Steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water.

Beach Sea waves deposit sediments along the shores.

◆ C. Work of Ice (Glaciers)

• Glaciers: "Rivers of ice" — erode landscape by bulldozing soil and stones to expose solid rock.
• Glaciers carve deep hollows → filled with water when ice melts → beautiful lakes in mountains.
• Glacial moraines: Deposits of rocks, sand and silt carried and deposited by glaciers.

◆ D. Work of Wind (in Deserts)

 • Mushroom rocks: In deserts, wind erodes lower section of rock MORE than upper part → narrow base, wider top
→ mushroom shape.
• Sand dunes: Wind lifts and transports sand; deposits in low hill-like structures.
• Loess: Very fine, light sand grains carried over long distances and deposited in large areas. Large deposits found
in China.

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: Why do the plates move?

A: The plates move because of the movement of molten magma inside the earth. The magma moves in a
circular/convection manner — hot magma rises, cool magma sinks — creating currents that drag the plates along.
The plates move just a few millimetres each year.

Q: What are exogenic and endogenic forces?

A: Endogenic forces: Forces acting in the interior of the earth (endo = inside). Produce sudden forces (earthquakes,
volcanoes) and slow forces (mountain building). Exogenic forces: Forces working on the surface of the earth (exo =
outside). Cause erosion and deposition through rivers, wind, sea waves and glaciers.

Q: What is erosion?

A: Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice. The eroded material is
carried away and eventually deposited to form different landforms.

Q: How are flood plains formed?

A: When a river overflows its banks during floods, it deposits layers of fine soil and other material called sediments
along its banks. This leads to the formation of a flat, fertile floodplain. The raised banks are called levees.

Q: What are sand dunes?

A: When wind blows in deserts, it lifts and transports sand from one place to another. When the wind stops blowing,
the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill-like structures called sand dunes.

Q: How are beaches formed?

A: Sea waves deposit sediments (sand and pebbles) along the shores. This depositional activity of sea waves forms
beaches.

Q: What are ox-bow lakes?

A: When a river forms large bends called meanders, continuous erosion and deposition along the sides of the
meander causes the ends to come closer. Eventually the meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a
crescent-shaped cut-off lake called an ox-bow lake.

Q: Some rocks have a shape of a mushroom — give reasons.

A: In deserts, wind erodes the lower section of rocks more than the upper part (because wind carries sand close to
the ground and the sand particles hit the lower part with more force). This causes the rock to have a narrower base
and wider top — giving it a mushroom shape.

Q: Flood plains are very fertile — give reasons.

A: When rivers overflow, they deposit fine soil and mineral-rich sediments along their banks. These sediments are
washed down from upstream areas, making the flood plain very fertile for agriculture.

Q: Sea caves are turned into stacks — give reasons.

 A: Sea waves continuously strike rocks, creating cracks that widen into sea caves. As caves grow bigger, only the
roof remains forming sea arches. Further erosion breaks the roof, leaving only the walls standing as isolated pillars
called stacks.

Q: Buildings collapse due to earthquakes — give reasons.

A: Earthquakes cause the earth to vibrate. These vibrations travel as seismic waves (L waves travel along the
surface causing most damage). The vibrations shake the foundations of buildings. If the vibrations are strong enough
(5.0+ on Richter scale), the structural integrity is compromised and buildings collapse.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Lithospheric plates move a few mm/year due to circular movement of molten magma.

➤ Endogenic = inside Earth (earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building).

➤ Exogenic = outside/surface (rivers, wind, sea waves, glaciers — erosion and deposition).

➤ Focus = where earthquake starts; Epicentre = surface point above focus.

➤ Seismograph measures earthquakes; Richter scale = magnitude. 7.0 = major earthquake.

➤ Bhuj earthquake: 26 Jan 2001; 6.9 on Richter; Gujarat.

➤ Volcano = vent/opening in crust through which molten material erupts.

➤ Weathering = breaking of rocks (no movement); Erosion = wearing away + removing material.

➤ River landforms: Waterfall → Meanders → Ox-bow lake → Flood plain → Levees → Delta.

➤ Sea wave erosion: Sea cave → Sea arch → Stack. Deposition: Beach.

➤ Glaciers: bulldoze landscape; form mountain lakes when ice melts; deposit glacial moraines.

➤ Wind: Mushroom rocks (erosion); Sand dunes (deposition); Loess (fine sand deposits — large in China).

➤ Highest waterfall = Angel Falls, Venezuela. Loess large deposits = China.

 CHAPTE
R4 AIR

■ Chapter Overview
Our earth is surrounded by a huge blanket of air called the atmosphere. This chapter covers the composition of
the atmosphere, its layers, weather vs. climate, temperature, air pressure, winds and rainfall.

■ 4.1 Composition of the Atmosphere

Gas % in Atmosphere Key Role

Nitrogen (N■) 78% Most plentiful; inhaled and exhaled; bacteria convert it for plants to use.

Oxygen (O■) 21% Essential for breathing; produced by plants during photosynthesis.

Carbon Dioxide 0.03% Used by plants for photosynthesis; greenhouse gas.

(CO■)

Argon 0.93% Inert gas; used in light bulbs.

Others (He, O■, H■) 0.04% Ozone protects from UV rays.

Water vapour + Dust variable Cause weather changes.

◆ Key Gas Facts:

• Nitrogen: Plants cannot take it directly from air. Bacteria in soil and roots of some plants (e.g., legumes) take
nitrogen from air and convert it into a form plants can use.
• Oxygen: If trees are cut, plants produce less oxygen → balance disturbed.
• Carbon dioxide: Human/animal activities release CO■; plants use it. Balance upset by burning fuels (coal, oil) →
billions of tons of CO■ added every year → affects weather and climate.

■ Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

✓ CO■ released in atmosphere creates a greenhouse effect by trapping heat radiated from earth — hence called
"greenhouse gas."

✓ Without CO■ the earth would be too cold to live in.

✓ When CO■ level increases (from factory smoke, car fumes) → heat retained increases → temperature of earth rises
= GLOBAL WARMING.

✓ Global warming → snow in coldest parts melts → sea level rises → floods in coastal areas.

✓ Long-term: drastic climate changes; extinction of some plants and animals.

✓ Earth receives only 1 in 2,000,000,000 parts of the sun's energy!

■ 4.2 Structure of the Atmosphere — Five Layers

Layer Height Key Features

Troposphere 0–13 km (avg) MOST IMPORTANT layer. Air we breathe is here. All weather phenomena (rainfall, fog,
hailstorm) occur here.

Stratosphere 13–50 km Almost free from clouds; ideal for flying aeroplanes. Contains the OZONE LAYER (protects from
UV rays).

Mesosphere 50–80 km Third layer. Meteorites burn up in this layer when entering from space.
Thermosphere 80–400 km Temperature rises rapidly with height. Contains IONOSPHERE (helps in radio transmission —
reflects radio waves back to earth).

Exosphere Above 400 km Uppermost layer. Very thin air. Light gases (helium, hydrogen) float into space from here.

■ Minor Important Details

✓ Ozone layer is in the STRATOSPHERE — not troposphere.

✓ Meteorites burn up in MESOSPHERE.

✓ Radio waves are reflected by IONOSPHERE (part of Thermosphere).

✓ Aeroplanes fly in STRATOSPHERE because it is cloud-free.

✓ EXOSPHERE: helium and hydrogen float into space from here.

■ 4.3 Weather and Climate

• Weather: Hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a given place. Changes dramatically from day
to day.
• Climate: Average weather condition of a place for a longer period of time (30 years is the standard period used
by meteorologists).
• That is why we have DAILY weather forecasts but SEASONAL climate descriptions.

◆ Temperature:
• Temperature: Degree of hotness and coldness of the air.
• Insolation: Incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth.
• Insolation DECREASES from equator towards poles → poles are covered in snow.
• Standard unit: Degree Celsius (°C) — invented by Anders Celsius. Water freezes at 0°C, boils at 100°C.
• Cities are hotter than villages: Concrete, metal in buildings and asphalt of roads get heated during day and
release heat at night. Crowded high-rise buildings trap warm air.

◆ Air Pressure:
• Air pressure: Pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth's surface.
• Highest at sea level; decreases with height.
• Low pressure: Hot areas → air heated → rises → creates low pressure → associated with cloudy skies and wet
weather.
• High pressure: Cold areas → air heavy → sinks → creates high pressure → associated with clear, sunny skies.
• Air ALWAYS moves from HIGH pressure to LOW pressure areas.
• No atmosphere on Moon → no air pressure → astronauts wear pressurised space suits. Without suits, counter
pressure from body would burst blood vessels.

◆ Wind:
• Wind: Movement of air from high pressure to low pressure areas.
• A wind is named after the direction FROM WHICH it blows. E.g., wind blowing from the west = Westerly.
■ Three types of winds:
1. Permanent Blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction. Examples: Trade winds,
winds Westerlies, Easterlies (Polar Easterlies).

2. Seasonal winds Change direction in different seasons. Example: Monsoons in India (blow from sea to land in
summer bringing rain; reverse in winter).
 3. Local winds Blow only during a particular period of day or year in a small area. Examples: Land and sea
breeze; LOO (hot, dry local wind of northern plains of India).

◆ Moisture and Rainfall:

• Humidity: Moisture in the air at any time. When air is full of water vapour = humid day. Warmer air can hold
MORE water vapour.
• On humid day: clothes take longer to dry; sweat does not evaporate → uncomfortable.
• Precipitation: When water droplets become too heavy to float in air, they fall down. In liquid form = rain. Other
forms: snow, sleet, hail.
• Jet plane white trail: Moisture from engines condenses in cold atmosphere → visible trail.
■ Three types of rainfall:
• Convectional rainfall: Land heats up → warm air rises rapidly → cools → condenses → heavy rainfall often with
thunder and lightning. Common in equatorial regions and interior of continents.
• Relief (Orographic) rainfall: Moist air forced to rise over a mountain → cools → condenses → rains on windward
side. Leeward side remains dry ("rain shadow").
• Cyclonic rainfall: When warm and cold air masses meet → warm air rises over cold → cools → rains.

■ Odisha Cyclone — Nature's Fury (October 1999)

✓ 17-18 October 1999: Cyclone hit five districts of Odisha.

✓ 29 October 1999: Supercyclone devastated large portions of state.

✓ Originated as "depression" in Gulf of Thailand (near Port Blair) on 25 October 1999.

✓ Hit area between Erasama and Balikuda, Odisha on 29 October at 10:30 AM.

✓ Wind speed: up to 260 km/hour for over 36 hours.

✓ Tidal wave: 7 to 10 metres high; swept 20 km inland.

✓ About 13 million people affected; large number of livestock killed.

✓ Mangrove forests between Paradeep and Konark vanished.

✓ Damage: Three factors — wind velocity, rain, tidal surge.

✓ Salinisation caused by tidal surge made large tracts of agricultural land infertile.

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: What is atmosphere?

A: Atmosphere is a huge blanket of air that surrounds the earth. The gravitational force of the earth holds it around
the planet. It provides air to breathe, protects us from the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun, and stabilises
temperature (prevents extreme cold at night and extreme heat during day). It consists of gases (nitrogen 78%,
oxygen 21%, CO■ 0.03%, others), dust and water vapour.

Q: Which two gases make the bulk of the atmosphere?

A: Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) — together they make up 99% of the atmosphere.

Q: Which gas creates the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere?

A: Carbon dioxide (CO■) creates the greenhouse effect by trapping the heat radiated from the earth. Without it the
earth would be too cold. But increasing CO■ from burning fuels causes global warming.

Q: What is weather?
 A: Weather is the hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a given place. It includes temperature,
humidity, rainfall, sunshine, wind speed etc. Weather changes dramatically from day to day, which is why we have
daily weather forecasts.

Q: Name three types of rainfall.

A: (1) Convectional rainfall — hot land heats air which rises, cools and rains. (2) Relief/Orographic rainfall — moist air
rises over mountains, cools and rains on windward side. (3) Cyclonic rainfall — warm and cold air masses meet;
warm air rises over cold air and rains.

Q: What is air pressure?

A: Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth's surface. It is highest at sea level and
decreases with altitude. Low temperature areas have high pressure (clear skies); high temperature areas have low
pressure (cloudy, wet weather). Air always moves from high pressure to low pressure — this movement is called
wind.

Q: Wet clothes take longer to dry on a humid day — why?

A: On a humid day, the air is already full of water vapour. Since the air cannot hold much more water vapour, the
water from wet clothes evaporates very slowly. That is why clothes take much longer to dry on a humid day.

Q: Amount of insolation decreases from equator towards poles — why?

A: The earth is a sphere. At the equator, sunlight falls almost perpendicularly (directly) on a small area → high
concentration → high temperature. Near the poles, sunlight hits at an angle and spreads over a larger area → less
energy per unit area → lower temperature → poles are covered with snow.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Atmosphere: 78% N■, 21% O■, 0.03% CO■, 0.93% Argon, 0.04% others.

➤ CO■ = greenhouse gas. Global warming: CO■↑ → temperature↑ → ice melts → sea level rises.

➤ 5 layers (bottom to top): Troposphere → Stratosphere → Mesosphere → Thermosphere → Exosphere.

➤ Troposphere = weather layer (rainfall, fog, hailstorm). Stratosphere = ozone layer + aeroplane zone.

➤ Mesosphere = meteorites burn. Thermosphere = ionosphere (radio waves). Exosphere = thin air.

➤ Weather = day-to-day; Climate = average weather over long period (30 years).

➤ Insolation = incoming solar energy; decreases from equator to poles.

➤ Anders Celsius invented °C scale. Water: freezes 0°C, boils 100°C.

➤ High pressure = cold, heavy, sinking air = clear sunny skies.

➤ Low pressure = hot, light, rising air = cloudy wet weather.

➤ Wind blows from HIGH to LOW pressure; named after direction FROM which it blows.

➤ LOO = hot, dry local wind of northern plains of India.

➤ 3 rainfall types: Convectional, Orographic (Relief), Cyclonic.

➤ Odisha supercyclone: 29 Oct 1999; 260 km/hr winds; 7-10m tidal wave; 13 million affected.
 CHAPTE
R5 WATER

■ Chapter Overview
Three-fourths of the earth is covered by water, yet freshwater is scarce. This chapter covers the water cycle,
distribution of water, ocean movements (waves, tides, currents) including the deadly 2004 Tsunami.

■ 5.1 The Water Cycle

• Water cycle: The process by which water continually changes its form and circulates between oceans,
atmosphere and land.
• Driven by: Sun's heat (evaporation) and gravity (precipitation).
• Stages: Evaporation → condensation → precipitation → runoff → evaporation again.
• "Our earth is like a terrarium" — the same water that existed centuries ago still exists today.
• Terrarium: Artificial enclosure for keeping small house plants (self-contained water cycle).

• Fresh water sources: Rivers, ponds, springs and glaciers.

• Ocean water is saline because it contains large amounts of dissolved salts — mostly sodium chloride (NaCl) —
the common table salt.

■ 5.2 Distribution of Water

Water Source % of Total Type

Oceans 97.3% SALINE — not fit for consumption.

Ice-caps 2.0% Fresh water but locked in ice.

Ground water 0.68% Freshwater — accessible by wells.

Fresh water lakes 0.009% Freshwater.

Inland seas/salt lakes 0.009% Saline.

Atmosphere 0.0019% Water vapour.

Rivers 0.0001% Most accessible freshwater source.

• Key insight: Though ¾ of earth is water, only about 2.7% is freshwater. Most is locked in ice caps. Rivers = only
0.0001% — extremely precious!
• Salinity: Amount of salt in grams present in 1000 grams of water. Average salinity of oceans = 35 parts per
thousand.
• Dead Sea (Israel): Salinity of 340 grams per litre — so dense that swimmers float effortlessly.
• 22 March = World Water Day.

■ 5.3 Ocean Movements

◆ A. Waves
• Waves: When water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately.
• Caused by: Winds scraping across the ocean surface. Stronger wind → bigger wave.
• During storms: huge waves form. Earthquake/volcanic eruption/underwater landslide → shift large ocean water →
Tsunami.
• Tsunami: Huge tidal wave up to 15m high. Largest ever: 150m. Speed: more than 700 km/hour.
• Tsunami = Japanese word meaning "Harbour waves" (harbours get destroyed by tsunami).
 ■ 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami — The Earth's Pandemonium

✓ Date: 26 December 2004 — struck the Indian Ocean.

✓ Earthquake epicentre: close to western boundary of Sumatra; magnitude 9.0 on Richter scale.

✓ Cause: Indian plate went under Burma plate → sea floor displaced by 10-20m → massive water displacement.

✓ Tsunami speed: ~800 km/hour (comparable to commercial aircraft!).

✓ Indira Point (Andaman & Nicobar Islands) — southernmost point of India — got completely submerged.

✓ In India: worst affected = Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

✓ Killed more than 10,000 people; affected more than 1 lakh houses.

✓ Waves travelled up to 3 km inland from coast.

✓ WARNING FAILURE: People saw water withdraw from coast (first sign of tsunami) and gathered to watch — large
casualty of curious onlookers.

✓ Early warning systems existed in Pacific Ocean but NOT in Indian Ocean (seismic activity less in Indian Ocean).

✓ A 3-hour notice of tsunami is possible even if earthquake cannot be predicted.

◆ B. Tides
• Tides: Rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water TWICE in a day.
• High tide: Water rises to highest level covering much of the shore.
• Low tide: Water falls to lowest level and recedes from shore.
• Cause: Strong gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon on earth's surface.

Spring tides During FULL MOON and NEW MOON days: Sun, Moon and Earth in the SAME LINE →
combined gravitational pull → HIGHEST tides. Good for fishing and navigation.

Neap tides During FIRST and LAST QUARTER of moon: Moon is at right angles to sun → gravitational
pull from two directions → LOW tides.

◆ Uses of Tides:
• High tides raise water level near shores → ships arrive at harbour easily.
• More fish come closer to shore during high tide → fishermen get better catch.
• Rise and fall of water due to tides → used to generate electricity in some places.

◆ C. Ocean Currents
• Ocean currents: Streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in definite directions.
• Warm currents: Originate near equator; move towards poles. Bring warm temperature over land.
• Cold currents: Carry water from polar/higher latitudes to tropical/lower latitudes.
• Examples: Labrador current = cold current. Gulf Stream = warm current.
• Where warm and cold currents meet: best fishing grounds (e.g., seas around Japan, eastern coast of North
America). Also experience foggy weather → difficult for navigation.

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: What is precipitation?
 A: Precipitation is the process by which water falls from the atmosphere to the earth's surface. When water vapour in
clouds condenses into droplets that become too heavy to float in air, they fall as precipitation. In liquid form it is called
rain; other forms include snow, sleet and hail.

Q: What is water cycle?

A: The water cycle is the process by which water continually changes its form and circulates between oceans,
atmosphere and land. Steps: Sun heats water → evaporation into vapour → rises and cools → condenses → forms
clouds → precipitation (rain/snow) → flows into rivers/soaks into ground → reaches oceans → cycle repeats.

Q: What are the factors affecting the height of the waves?

A: The strength/speed of the wind determines wave height — stronger wind → bigger wave. Also: earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions or underwater landslides can suddenly shift large masses of water creating giant waves (tsunamis)
of up to 15 metres or more.

Q: Which factors affect the movement of ocean water?

A: Three factors: (1) Winds — cause surface waves. (2) Gravitational pull of sun and moon — cause tides. (3)
Temperature differences — cause ocean currents (warm water rises, cold water sinks, creating circulation).

Q: What are tides and how are they caused?

A: Tides are the rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day. They are caused by the strong gravitational pull
exerted by the sun and the moon on the earth's surface. Full moon/new moon = spring tides (highest); first/last
quarter = neap tides (lowest).

Q: What are ocean currents?

A: Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in definite directions. They can be
warm (from equator to poles — e.g., Gulf Stream) or cold (from poles to equator — e.g., Labrador Current). They
affect temperature conditions of coastal areas. Where warm and cold currents meet = best fishing grounds in the
world.

Q: Ocean water is salty — give reasons.

A: Ocean water contains large amounts of dissolved salts, mainly sodium chloride (NaCl — common table salt).
Rivers carry minerals (including salts) from the land into the oceans. Over millions of years, water evaporates
(leaving salts behind) while salts accumulate → ocean water becomes increasingly saline. Average salinity = 35 parts
per thousand.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Water cycle: Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Runoff → Evaporation.

➤ Oceans = 97.3% (saline); Ice caps = 2.0% (frozen fresh); Groundwater = 0.68%; Rivers = 0.0001%.

➤ Salinity = grams of salt per 1000g water; oceans average 35 parts per thousand.

➤ Dead Sea salinity = 340g/litre — swimmers float in it.

➤ 22 March = World Water Day.

➤ Waves: caused by wind. Tsunami: caused by earthquake/volcanic eruption underwater.

➤ Tsunami = Japanese for "harbour waves"; speed 700+ km/hr; largest = 150m.

➤ 2004 Tsunami: 26 Dec; epicentre Sumatra; 9.0 Richter; Indian plate under Burma plate.

➤ Tides = twice daily rise and fall; caused by gravitational pull of Sun + Moon.

➤ Spring tides (highest) = full moon/new moon. Neap tides (lowest) = first/last quarter.
➤ Gulf Stream = warm current; Labrador = cold current.

➤ Best fishing: where warm + cold currents meet (seas around Japan, eastern North America).

➤ Indira Point (A&N; Islands) = southernmost point of India — submerged in 2004 Tsunami.
 CHAPTE
R6 NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

■ Chapter Overview
Vegetation and wildlife depend on climate (temperature and moisture), soil and slope. This chapter covers the
world's major vegetation zones and their associated wildlife.

■ 6.1 Factors Affecting Natural Vegetation

• Two MAIN factors: temperature and moisture.
• Also depends on: slope and thickness of soil.
• Change in height → change in climate → change in natural vegetation.
• Three broad categories: (a) Forests — heavy rainfall; (b) Grasslands — moderate rain; (c) Shrubs — dry
regions.

■ 6.2 Major Forest Types

Forest Type Location Climate Trees Animals

Tropical Evergreen Near equator (0-10° Hot, heavy Rosewood, Ebony, Toucans, humming birds, monkeys, sloth,
(Rainforest) N/S); Amazon, rainfall Mahogany ant-eating tapirs, crocodiles, Anaconda, boa
Congo, parts of SE throughout year; (hardwood); thick constrictor, Piranha fish
Asia NO dry season canopy — sunlight
can't penetrate

Tropical Deciduous India (large part), N. Seasonal; Sal, Teak, Neem, Tigers, lions, elephants, langoors, monkeys
(Monsoon Forest) Australia, Central distinct wet and Shisham (hardwood);
America dry seasons trees shed leaves in
dry season to
conserve water

Temperate Mid-latitudinal Moderate Oak, Pine, Eucalyptus Varied

Evergreen coastal; SE USA, S. temperature, (both hardwood and
China, SE Brazil rainfall softwood)
throughout year

Temperate NE USA, China, Moderate; four Oak, Ash, Beech Deer, foxes, wolves; Birds: pheasants,
Deciduous New Zealand, Chile, distinct seasons (shed leaves in dry monals
coastal W. Europe season)

Mediterranean Around Hot, dry Citrus fruits (oranges, Not much wildlife (land cleared for fruit
Mediterranean Sea; summers; mild, figs, olives, grapes) cultivation)
California (USA); SW rainy winters cultivated; trees have
Africa; SW South thick bark and
America; SW wax-coated leaves
Australia (reduce transpiration)

Coniferous (Taiga) 50°-70°N latitude; Cold; long Chir, Pine, Cedar (tall, Silver fox, mink, polar bear
also seen at higher winters; short softwood, evergreen);
altitudes (e.g., summers cone-shaped
Himalayas) canopies; thin pointed
leaves

• Taiga: Russian word meaning "pure or untouched." Coniferous forests also called Taiga.
• Coniferous wood used for: pulp (paper, newsprint), match boxes, packing boxes.
• Rhododendron: Bright flowering tree seen in Himalayan mountain slopes.
■ 6.3 Grasslands
Grassland Type Location (Name) Characteristics Animals

Tropical grasslands East Africa=Savanna; Moderate to low rainfall; Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards
Brazil=Campos; either side of equator;
Venezuela=Llanos grass up to 3-4 metres
tall

Temperate Argentina=Pampas; Mid-latitudinal; interior of Wild buffaloes, bisons, antelopes

grasslands [Link]=Prairie; continents; grass short
[Link]=Veld; and nutritious
[Link]=Steppe;
Australia=Down

Thorny shrubs Western margins of Scanty rain; scorching Camels, snakes, lizards, scorpions
(Desertic) continents (hot deserts) heat; scarce vegetation;
cactus, thorny bushes

■ 6.4 Tundra Vegetation

• Found in polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America.
• Extremely cold; very limited natural vegetation growth.
• Plants: Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs; grow only during very short summer.
• Animals: Thick fur and thick skin. Seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear, snow foxes.

■ Important "Do You Know" Facts

✓ Amazon rainforest in Brazil is SO enormous it is called "lungs of the earth" — produces enormous amounts of
oxygen for the world.

✓ Anaconda (tropical rainforest): can kill and eat a large animal such as a crocodile.

✓ Mediterranean regions = "Orchards of the world" — famous for fruit cultivation.

✓ Mediterranean trees adapt to dry summers with THICK BARKS and WAX-COATED LEAVES to reduce
transpiration.

✓ Bromeliads (Amazon rainforest): Special plants that store water in their leaves. Frogs use these pockets for laying
eggs.

✓ Piranha fish (Amazon): flesh-eating fish; dangerous predator.

✓ Taiga = "pure or untouched" in Russian language.

✓ Salima (from story) observed in Himalayas (foothills to higher altitudes): Sal/Teak (foothills) → Coniferous trees →
Rhododendrons → Short grass and snow (higher altitudes). The Himalayas contain ALL types of vegetation found from
equator to polar region!

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: Which are the two factors on which the growth of vegetation mostly depends?

A: Temperature and moisture (rainfall). Additionally: slope and thickness of soil. These factors together determine
which type of vegetation can grow in a place.

Q: Name the two hardwood trees commonly found in tropical evergreen forest.

A: Rosewood and Ebony (also: Mahogany).

Q: In which part of the world are tropical deciduous forests found?

 A: Large part of India, northern Australia and in Central America. These are monsoon forests found in regions with
distinct wet and dry seasons.

Q: In which climatic conditions are citrus fruits cultivated?

A: Mediterranean climate — hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Trees have thick bark and wax-coated leaves
to adapt to dry summers. Oranges, figs, olives and grapes are cultivated here.

Q: Mention the uses of coniferous forest.

A: Wood is used for making pulp (used for manufacturing paper and newsprint). Match boxes and packing boxes are
also made from coniferous softwood. Also used for furniture and construction.

Q: In which part of the world is seasonal grassland found?

A: Temperate grasslands are found in the mid-latitudinal zones in the interior of continents: Prairies (N. America),
Pampas (Argentina), Veld (S. Africa), Steppe (Central Asia), Down (Australia).

Q: The animals in polar region have thick fur and thick skin — give reasons.

A: Polar regions have extremely cold climates. Thick fur and thick skin act as insulation, trapping body heat and
preventing it from escaping to the cold surroundings. This helps the animals maintain their body temperature and
survive the extreme cold.

Q: Tropical deciduous trees shed their leaves in the dry season — give reasons.

A: In tropical deciduous (monsoon) forests, there is a distinct dry season when water is scarce. Trees shed their
leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration. By losing leaves, the trees conserve the limited water available in
the soil and survive the dry period.

Q: The type and thickness of vegetation changes from place to place — give reasons.

A: The main factors (temperature, moisture, soil, slope) vary from place to place. Hot and wet equatorial regions
support dense tropical rainforests; dry desert regions support only thorny shrubs; cold polar regions support only
mosses and lichens. As climate changes with latitude and altitude, so does the vegetation.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Two main factors for vegetation: Temperature + Moisture. Also: slope, soil.

➤ Three broad categories: Forests (heavy rain) → Grasslands (moderate rain) → Shrubs (dry).

➤ Tropical Evergreen (Rainforest): near equator; rosewood, ebony, mahogany; no dry season; Amazon = "lungs of
earth."

➤ Tropical Deciduous (Monsoon): India, N. Australia; sal, teak, neem; shed leaves in dry season.

➤ Mediterranean: hot dry summers, mild rainy winters; oranges, figs, olives, grapes; "Orchards of world."

➤ Coniferous (Taiga): 50°-70°N; chir, pine, cedar (softwood); used for paper/pulp.

➤ Taiga = Russian for "pure/untouched."

➤ Tropical grassland: Savanna (E. Africa), Campos (Brazil), Llanos (Venezuela); 3-4m tall grass.

➤ Temperate grassland: Prairie (N. America), Pampas (Argentina), Veld (S. Africa), Steppe (C. Asia), Down
(Australia).

➤ Tundra: polar areas; only mosses and lichens; seal, walrus, polar bear, musk-oxen, Arctic owl.

➤ Anaconda can eat a crocodile; Piranha is flesh-eating fish — both in Amazon.

➤ Rhododendron = bright flowers on Himalayan mountain slopes.

➤ Himalayas contain ALL types of vegetation (equatorial to polar) as altitude increases.
 CHAPTE
R7
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT: SETTLEMENT,
TRANSPORT & COMMUNICATION

■ Chapter Overview
Human beings have always adapted their environment and built settlements. This chapter covers types of
settlements, four modes of transport, and the evolution of communication systems.

■ 7.1 Settlements
• Settlement: A place where people build their homes.
• Early humans lived on trees and in caves. When they started growing crops → needed permanent homes.
• Settlements grew near river valleys — water available, land fertile.
• Trade, commerce and manufacturing → human settlements became larger.
• Civilizations developed near river valleys: Indus, Tigris, Nile, Hwang-He.
• Site: The place where a building or settlement develops.
• Natural conditions for ideal site: (1) Favourable climate; (2) Availability of water; (3) Suitable land; (4) Fertile
soil.

Temporary Occupied for a short time. People: deep forests, hot/cold deserts, mountains. Activities:
settlements hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation, transhumance.

Permanent More and more common today. People build homes to live in permanently.
settlements

Transhumance Seasonal movement of people who rear animals — move in search of new pastures
according to changes in seasons.

◆ Rural Settlements:
• Villages = rural settlements. Activities: agriculture, fishing, forestry, crafts, trading.
• Compact settlement: Closely built area of dwellings wherever flat land is available.
• Scattered settlement: Dwellings spaced over extensive area — found in hilly tracts, thick forests, regions of
extreme climate.
• Urban settlements: Towns (small) and cities (larger). People engaged in manufacturing, trading and services.

◆ Houses Adapted to Environment:

• Heavy rainfall areas: slanting roofs (to let rain slide off).
• Flood-prone areas: houses on stilts (raised platform — keeps house above floodwater).
• Hot climate: thick mud walls with thatched roofs.
• Local materials used: stones, mud, clay, straw.
• Ice dwellings (Igloo): Made by Inuit people in Arctic regions from blocks of ice.

■ 7.2 Transport
• Transport: The means by which people and goods move.
• Four major means: Roadways, Railways, Waterways, Airways.

◆ A. Roadways
• Most commonly used, especially for short distances.
• Types: Metalled (pucca) roads — surfaced with tar/concrete; Unmetalled (kutcha) — gravel/dirt roads.
• Manali-Leh Highway: One of the highest roadways in the world (Himalayan Mountains).
 • Subways/underpaths: Roads built underground.
• Flyovers: Built over raised structures to avoid traffic.
• Golden Quadrilateral: Express Way connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.

◆ B. Railways
• Carry heavy goods and people over long distances quickly and cheaply.
• Steam engine + Industrial Revolution → speedy development of rail transport.
• Diesel and electric engines have largely replaced steam.
• Super fast trains introduced in many places.
• Indian railway network: Largest in Asia.
• Trans-Siberian Railway: Longest railway system in the world — connecting St. Petersburg (western Russia) to
Vladivostok (Pacific coast).
• Xining to Lhasa train: Runs at altitude of 4,000m above sea level; highest point = 5,072m.

◆ C. Waterways
• Cheapest for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances.
• Inland waterways: Navigable rivers and lakes — Ganga-Brahmaputra river system, Great Lakes (N. America),
Nile (Africa).
• Sea routes: Used for international trade/merchandise; connected with ports.
• Important world ports: Singapore, Mumbai (Asia); New York, Los Angeles (N. America); Rio de Janerio (S.
America); Durban, Cape Town (Africa); Sydney (Australia); London, Rotterdam (Europe).

◆ D. Airways
• Fastest means of transport; developed in the early 20th century.
• Most expensive — high fuel costs.
• Adversely affected by bad weather (fog, storms).
• ONLY means to reach most remote areas where no roads/railways exist.
• Helicopters: Useful in inaccessible areas and during calamities — rescue, food, water, medicines.
• Important airports: Delhi, Mumbai, New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt, Cairo.

■ 7.3 Communication
• Communication: Process of conveying messages to others.
• Mass media: Newspapers, radio and television — communicate with large numbers of people simultaneously.
• Satellites: Have made communication even faster. Used for: oil exploration, survey of forests, underground
water, mineral wealth, weather forecast, disaster warning.
• Email: Electronic mail sent through internet.
• Internet: Provides worldwide information and interaction; ticket reservation; online shopping.
• Cellular phones: Wireless telephonic communication.
• All this inter-connectivity = we are now a large global society.

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: What are the four means of transport?

A: Roadways, Railways, Waterways and Airways.

Q: What do you understand by the term "settlement"?

 A: Settlement is a place where people build their homes. Settlements can be temporary (in forests, deserts,
mountains) or permanent (where people build homes to live long-term). Early humans settled near river valleys where
water was available and land was fertile.

Q: Which are the activities practised by rural people?

A: Agriculture (growing crops), fishing, forestry, crafts work and trading.

Q: Mention any two merits of railways.

A: (1) Can carry heavy goods and large numbers of people over long distances quickly and cheaply. (2) Railway
network is well developed over plains and has been extended to mountainous terrains too. (3) Indian railway network
is the largest in Asia.

Q: What do you understand by communication?

A: Communication is the process of conveying messages to others. With development of technology, humans have
devised new and fast modes — from drum beats and smoke signals in ancient times to telephone, internet, satellites,
email and cellular phones today.

Q: What is mass media?

A: Mass media refers to communication channels that reach large numbers of people simultaneously. Newspapers,
radio and television are mass media. They provide information, educate and entertain. The term "mass" emphasises
that millions of people receive the same message at the same time.

Q: Today's world is shrinking — give reasons.

A: Today's world is "shrinking" because modern transport and communication have drastically reduced time and
distance. Aeroplanes take only 6-8 hours from India to Europe (journey that once took months). Internet connects
people worldwide instantly. Satellites enable real-time communication across continents. This inter-connectivity
makes the world seem much smaller — we are a global society.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Settlement = place where people build homes. Near river valleys (water + fertile soil).

➤ Civilizations grew along: Indus, Tigris, Nile, Hwang-He rivers.

➤ Temporary settlements: hunting/gathering people, mountain dwellers. Transhumance = seasonal animal herders.

➤ Compact settlement = closely built (flat land); Scattered = spread out (hills/forests/extreme climate).

➤ Houses on stilts (flood areas); slanting roofs (heavy rain); thick mud walls (hot climate).

➤ Igloo = ice houses made by Inuit in Arctic.

➤ 4 transport types: Roadways (short), Railways (heavy goods, long), Waterways (cheapest, bulky), Airways (fastest,
most expensive).

➤ Metalled (pucca) = surfaced roads; Unmetalled (kutcha) = gravel/dirt.

➤ Manali-Leh highway = one of world's highest roadways.

➤ Golden Quadrilateral: Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata expressway.

➤ Indian railway = largest in Asia. Trans-Siberian = longest in world (St. Petersburg to Vladivostok).

➤ Xining-Lhasa train: 4,000m altitude; highest point 5,072m.

➤ Waterways = cheapest for heavy goods. Sea routes = international trade.

➤ Airways = fastest but costliest; helicopters for remote/disaster areas.

➤ Mass media = newspapers, radio, TV. Satellites, internet, cellular phones = modern communication.
 CHAPTE
R8
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS:
TROPICAL & SUBTROPICAL REGION

■ Chapter Overview
This chapter examines how people interact with two contrasting river basin environments: the Amazon Basin
(tropical equatorial) in South America, and the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin (subtropical monsoon) in India.

■ 8.1 Life in the Amazon Basin

◆ Location:
• Tropical/equatorial region: between 10°N and 10°S latitude.
• River Amazon flows from the Andes Mountains (west) to the Atlantic Ocean (east).
• Countries in the basin: Brazil (largest portion), Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, small part of Venezuela.
• The Amazon Basin is the LARGEST RIVER BASIN in the world.
• Tributary: Small river joining the main river. Main river + all tributaries = river basin/catchment area.
• Name origin: Spanish explorers attacked by local tribes in headgear and grass skirts — resembled "Amazons"
(fierce women warriors of ancient Roman Empire) → named "Amazon."

◆ Climate:
• Hot and wet throughout the year. Both day and night almost equally hot and humid.
• Skin feels sticky. It rains almost every day, without much warning.
• Day temperatures very high with very high humidity. Night: temperature goes down but humidity remains high.

◆ Rainforest:
• Extremely thick forests — dense "roof" of leaves and branches prevents sunlight reaching the ground → ground is
dark and damp.
• Only shade-tolerant vegetation grows underneath — orchids, bromeliads (plant parasites).
• Bromeliads: Special plants storing water in leaves. Frogs use them for laying eggs.
• Rich fauna: Toucans (oversized bills), humming birds, bird of paradise (brilliantly coloured); monkeys, sloth,
ant-eating tapirs; crocodiles, snakes, Anaconda, boa constrictor; Piranha (flesh-eating fish); thousands of insect
species.

◆ People of the Rainforests:

• Grow food in small areas after clearing trees. Men: hunt and fish. Women: grow crops and feed families (main
food providers).
• Staple food: Manioc (also called cassava) — grows underground like potato.
• Also eat: queen ants and egg sacs!
• Other crops: tapioca, pineapple, sweet potato. Cash crops: coffee, maize, cocoa.
• Slash and burn agriculture: Trees slashed/cut and burnt; crops grown in ash-enriched soil for a few years; land
abandoned when nutrients depleted; new plot cleared; old field regenerates. Soil fertility restored → can be used
again.
• Houses: Some thatched houses shaped like beehives. Large apartment-like houses called "Maloca" with steeply
slanting roofs.

◆ Changing Life in Amazon:

• Earlier: heart of forest reachable only by navigating the river.
• 1970: Trans Amazon highway made all parts of the rainforest accessible. Aircraft and helicopters also used.
 • Developmental activities → gradual destruction of biologically diverse rainforests. Large area disappearing
annually.
• Consequence: Topsoil washed away; lush forest turns into barren landscape.

■ 8.2 Life in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin

◆ Location:
• Lies in the sub-tropical region: between 10°N to 30°N latitude.
• Major tributaries of Ganga: Ghaghra, Son, Chambal, Gandak, Kosi.
• Main features: Plains, Himalayan mountains and foothills, Sundarbans delta, Ox-bow lakes in the plain.
• Climate: Monsoon dominates. Rains from mid-June to mid-September. Hot summers, cool winters.

◆ Agriculture:
• Main crop: Paddy (grown where rainfall is high; requires sufficient water).
• Other food crops: Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram, millets.
• Cash crops: Sugarcane, jute, banana.
• Tea: Grown in plantations in West Bengal and Assam.
• Silk: Produced through cultivation of silkworms in parts of Bihar and Assam.
• Mountain/hill areas: Crops grown on terraces (flat steps cut into slopes to prevent water runoff).

◆ Vegetation and Wildlife:

• Ganga-Brahmaputra plain: Tropical deciduous trees (teak, sal, peepal).
• Brahmaputra plain: Thick bamboo groves.
• Delta area: Mangrove forests.
• Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh: Coniferous trees (pine, deodar, fir).
• Wildlife: Elephants, tigers, deer, monkeys common. One-horned rhinoceros found in Brahmaputra plain.
• Delta area: Bengal tiger, crocodiles and alligators.
• Popular fish: Rohu, catla and hilsa. Fish and rice = staple diet of people in the area.
• Blind dolphin (Susu): Found in fresh waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra. Its presence = indicator of river health.
Untreated industrial/urban wastes with chemicals are killing this species.

◆ Cities and Transport:

• Major cities on Ganga (population >10 lakhs): Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna, Kolkata.
• Kolkata: Important port on River Hooghly.
• All four transport modes well developed. Roadways and railways for plains; waterways along rivers; many
airports.
• Tourism: Taj Mahal (Agra, Yamuna bank); Allahabad (confluence of Ganga and Yamuna); Buddhist stupas (UP
and Bihar); Lucknow (Imambara); Kaziranga and Manas wildlife sanctuaries (Assam); Arunachal Pradesh (tribal
culture).

■ Population Density Data (Glossary in Textbook)

✓ Population density = number of persons per sq. km.

✓ Uttarakhand: 189 persons per sq. km (hilly → less suitable for habitation).

✓ West Bengal: 1,029 persons per sq. km (fertile plains → very dense).

✓ Bihar: 1,102 persons per sq. km (densest in the basin).

✓ Mountain areas = inhospitable terrain → less population. Plains = fertile → very high density.
✓ Namami Ganga Programme: initiated to conserve River Ganga.

✓ Swachh Bharat Mission: launched by PM of India on 2 October 2014 for universal sanitation.

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: Name the continent in which the Amazon Basin is located.

A: South America.

Q: What are the crops grown by the people of the Amazon Basin?

A: Food crops: Manioc/cassava (staple), tapioca, pineapple, sweet potato. Cash crops: Coffee, maize, cocoa. They
also eat queen ants and egg sacs. Practice slash and burn agriculture.

Q: Name the birds found in the rainforests of the Amazon.

A: Toucans (brilliantly coloured, oversized bills), humming birds, bird of paradise.

Q: What are the major cities located on the River Ganga?

A: Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna and Kolkata — all with population of more than 10 lakhs.

Q: Where is the one-horned rhinoceros found?

A: In the Brahmaputra plain (Assam, India) — in Kaziranga National Park.

Q: The rainforests are depleting — give reasons.

A: (1) People clear forests for agriculture (slash and burn). (2) Trans Amazon highway (1970) opened the forest to
large-scale development. (3) Developmental activities (mining, logging, construction) destroy forests. (4) Indigenous
people pushed out → forest management lost. Result: large area disappearing annually; topsoil washes away; barren
landscape.

Q: Paddy is grown in the Ganga-Brahmaputra plains — give reasons.

A: Paddy (rice) requires plentiful water for cultivation. The Ganga-Brahmaputra plains receive heavy monsoon rainfall
(mid-June to mid-September). The soil in the plains is fertile and flat (suitable for standing water). The warm climate
with high humidity is also ideal for rice growth.

Q: What is Maloca?

A: Maloca is a large apartment-like house used by people of the Amazon rainforest. It has a steeply slanting roof (to
shed the heavy tropical rainfall). It houses many families together.

Q: What is slash and burn agriculture?

A: Slash and burn is a cultivation method where farmers cut (slash) and burn trees/bushes; crops are grown in the
ash-enriched cleared field for a few years. When soil loses fertility, the land is abandoned and a new plot is cleared.
The old field regenerates with young trees. People return to it when fertility is restored.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Amazon Basin: 10°N-10°S; largest river basin in world; Amazon flows Andes → Atlantic.

➤ Amazon Basin countries: Brazil (largest), Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela.

➤ Amazon climate: hot and wet ALL year; rains almost daily.

➤ Staple food: Manioc/cassava (grows underground like potato).

➤ Maloca = large apartment-like house with steep slanting roof.

➤ Slash and burn agriculture = clear trees, burn, grow crops, abandon, regenerate, return.

➤ Trans Amazon highway (1970) opened rainforest to development → deforestation accelerated.

➤ Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin: 10°N-30°N (sub-tropical); monsoon climate.

➤ Main crop = Paddy; Tea = West Bengal + Assam; Silk = Bihar + Assam; Jute = cash crop.

➤ One-horned rhino = Brahmaputra plain. Bengal tiger + crocodiles + alligators = delta.

➤ Blind dolphin (Susu) = health indicator of Ganga/Brahmaputra; endangered by pollution.

➤ Kolkata = port on River Hooghly. Cities on Ganga: Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna, Kolkata.

➤ Terraces = flat steps cut into slopes for farming in mountain areas.

➤ Namami Ganga Programme = conserve River Ganga. Swachh Bharat Mission = 2 Oct 2014.
 CHAPTE
R9 LIFE IN THE TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS

■ Chapter Overview
Grasslands make up almost a quarter of the total land surface. This chapter compares two temperate grasslands:
The Prairies (North America) and the Velds (South Africa).

■ 9.1 The Prairies — North America

◆ Location:
• Prairies: Temperate grasslands of North America. "Prairie" = Latin priata meaning meadow.
• Covers parts of USA and parts of Canada.
• Bound by: Rocky Mountains in the west; Great Lakes in the east.
• Drained by: Tributaries of Mississippi (USA) and Saskatchewan (Canada) rivers.
• Landscape: Flat, gently sloping or hilly land. For the most part treeless ("sea of grass"). Tall grass up to 2 metres
high dominates.

◆ Climate:
• Continental type — located in the heart of a continent → extreme temperatures.
• Summers: warm, ~20°C. Winters: -20°C recorded in Winnipeg, Canada.
• Winters: thick blanket of snow covers the region.
• Annual rainfall: moderate — ideal for grass growth.
• Chinook: A local wind. Hot wind blowing in winter → raises temperature within a short time → melts snow →
pasture land available for grazing. (No north-south barrier → Chinook can blow freely.)

◆ Flora and Fauna:

• Prairies practically treeless. Where water available: willows, alders and poplars.
• Major crop (rainfall >50 cm): Maize. Others: potatoes, soybean, cotton, alfa-alfa.
• Low/unreliable rainfall areas: short, sparse grass → suitable for cattle rearing.
• Ranches: Large cattle farms.
• Cowboys: Sturdy men who look after ranches.
• Bison (American buffalo): Most important animal. Nearly extinct from indiscriminate hunting → now a protected
species.
• Other animals: rabbits, coyotes, gophers, Prairie dog.

◆ People and Economy:

• Prairies = "Granaries of the World": Huge surplus wheat production.
• Scientific farming: Tractors, harvesters and combines → North America = surplus food producer.
• Combine: Single machine combining sowing, ploughing and threshing (3-in-1).
• Dairy belt: Extends from Great Lakes to Atlantic Coast in the east.
• Large mineral deposits (coal and iron) + good road/railway/canal network → most industrialised region in the
world.

US Prairie cities Chicago, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Kansas, Denver.

Canadian Prairie Edmonton, Saskatoon, Calgary, Winnipeg.

cities
 Original Native Americans ("Red Indians"). Also: Apache, Crow, Cree and Pawnee tribes.
inhabitants

■ 9.2 The Velds — South Africa

◆ Location:
• Velds: Temperate grasslands of South Africa. Named by Dutch settlers (before British colonisation).
• Rolling plateaus with heights ranging from 600m to 1100m. High velds: more than 1600m.
• Bound by: Drakensberg Mountains on the east; Kalahari Desert on the west.
• Drained by: Tributaries of Orange and Limpopo rivers.
• Located in Southern Hemisphere → when it is SUMMER in velds, it is WINTER in prairies.

◆ Climate:
• Mild climate due to influence of Indian Ocean.
• Winters: cold and dry; temperatures 5°C–10°C; July is the coldest month.
• Summers: short and warm; Johannesburg records ~20°C.
• Rainy season: mainly summer months (November to February) — due to warm ocean currents washing
shores.
• Drought may occur if rainfall is scanty in winter (June–August).

◆ Flora and Fauna:

• Sparse vegetation. Grasses dominate. Red grass grows in bush velds.
• High velds: Acacia and Maroola.
• Animals: Lions, leopards, cheetah, kudu.

◆ People and Economy:

• Most important occupation: Sheep rearing (for wool → wool industry).
• Merino sheep: Popular species with very warm wool.
• Dairy farming: Cattle in warmer/wetter regions → butter, cheese (domestic + export).
• Main food crops: Maize, wheat, barley, oats, potato.
• Cash crops: Tobacco, sugarcane, cotton.
• Mining: Iron and steel where coal and iron present. Gold and diamond mining major occupations.
• Johannesburg: Gold capital of the world.
• Kimberley: Famous for diamond mines.
• Mining of diamond and gold led to British colonial establishment → South Africa became a British Colony.

Feature Prairies (N. America) Velds (S. Africa)

Location N. America (USA + Canada) South Africa

Hemisphere Northern Southern

Bounds Rocky Mtns (W); Great Lakes (E) Drakensberg (E); Kalahari (W)

Rivers Mississippi (USA); Saskatchewan (Canada) Orange + Limpopo

Height Flat/gently sloping 600m-1100m (rolling plateaus)

Climate Continental; extreme temp (-20°C to 20°C); moderate Mild (Indian Ocean); cold dry winters; warm rainy
rain summers

Local wind Chinook (hot winter wind) —

Main crop Maize + Wheat (Granaries of world) Maize, wheat, barley, oats
Main livestock Bison (protected), cattle (ranches) Merino sheep (wool)

Industry Most industrialised (coal + iron) Mining (gold, diamond)

Famous for Granaries of world; Dairy belt; Cowboys Johannesburg (gold); Kimberley (diamonds)

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: What are the Temperate Grasslands of North America called?

A: Prairies. "Prairie" comes from the Latin word "priata" meaning meadow.

Q: What are the cattle farms in the North American grasslands known as?

A: Ranches. They are looked after by sturdy men called Cowboys.

Q: Name the rivers that drain the Velds.

A: Tributaries of rivers Orange and Limpopo drain the Velds.

Q: When is the rainy season in the Velds?

A: The rainy season in the Velds is mainly in the summer months — November to February. This is due to warm
ocean currents from the Indian Ocean washing the shores of the Velds.

Q: What is the major occupation of the people of the South African grasslands (Velds)?

A: Sheep rearing (for wool) is the most important occupation. Merino sheep are a popular species. This has given
rise to the wool industry. Gold and diamond mining are also major occupations. Johannesburg is the gold capital of
the world; Kimberley is famous for diamond mines.

Q: The Prairies are known as "Granaries of the World" — give reasons.

A: The Prairies produce a huge surplus of wheat due to: (1) fertile soils; (2) moderate and reliable rainfall (over 50
cm); (3) flat land suitable for large-scale mechanised farming with tractors, harvesters and combines. They also
produce maize, potatoes and other crops — making North America a surplus food producer.

Q: Rise of wool industry in the Velds — give reasons.

A: Merino sheep is bred mainly in the Velds because (1) the grasslands provide natural grazing; (2) Merino sheep
produce very warm, high-quality wool; (3) the mild climate with some rainfall suits sheep rearing. The wool industry
arose from the surplus wool produced by these sheep and has become a major part of the economy.

Q: What is a Chinook?

A: Chinook is a hot wind that blows in winter in the Prairies. It raises the temperature within a short time, which results
in melting of snow and makes pasture land available for grazing of animals. The absence of a north-south barrier
allows it to blow freely across the plains.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Grasslands = ~1/4 of total land surface.

➤ Prairies: North America (USA + Canada); Rocky Mtns (W) to Great Lakes (E); Mississippi/Saskatchewan rivers.

➤ Prairie = Latin "priata" = meadow. Tall grass up to 2 metres; "sea of grass."

➤ Continental climate: summer ~20°C; winter -20°C (Winnipeg). Chinook = hot winter wind.

➤ Bison = most important Prairie animal; nearly extinct from hunting → now protected.

➤ Combine = single machine for sowing + ploughing + threshing (3-in-1).

➤ Prairies = "Granaries of the World" for surplus wheat. Dairy belt: Great Lakes to Atlantic Coast.
➤ Prairie cities: Chicago, Minneapolis (US); Edmonton, Calgary, Winnipeg (Canada).

➤ Native Americans ("Red Indians") = original Prairies inhabitants. Also: Apache, Crow, Cree, Pawnee.

➤ Velds: South Africa; 600m-1100m; Drakensberg (E); Kalahari (W); Orange + Limpopo rivers.

➤ Veld name given by Dutch settlers. Mild climate (Indian Ocean). July = coldest month.

➤ Veld rainy season: November-February (summer, southern hemisphere).

➤ Merino sheep (wool) = most important occupation of Velds.

➤ Johannesburg = gold capital. Kimberley = diamond mines.

➤ Southern hemisphere: Velds summers = Prairies winters.

 CHAPTE
R 10 LIFE IN THE DESERTS

■ Chapter Overview
Deserts are characterised by low rainfall, scanty vegetation and extreme temperatures. This chapter examines
two contrasting deserts: The Sahara (hot desert, Africa) and Ladakh (cold desert, India).

■ 10.1 What is a Desert?

• Desert: An arid region characterised by extremely high or low temperatures and has scarce vegetation.
• Two types: Hot deserts (e.g., Sahara) and Cold deserts (e.g., Ladakh).
• People inhabit deserts wherever little water is available to practise agriculture.

■ 10.2 The Hot Desert — Sahara

◆ Location and Basic Facts:
• Located in North Africa.
• World's LARGEST desert. Area: approximately 8.54 million sq. km.
• (Compare: India's area = 3.2 million sq. km → Sahara is about 2.6 times the size of India!)
• Touches 11 countries: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and
Western Sahara.
• Landscape: not just sand! Also has gravel plains and elevated plateaus with bare rocky surface (may be more
than 2500m high at some places).

◆ Climate:
• Scorching hot and parched dry. Short rainy season. Sky is cloudless and clear.
• Moisture evaporates faster than it accumulates.
• Day temperature: May soar as high as 50°C.
• Night temperature: May be freezing cold — nearing zero degrees.
• Record: Al Azizia, south of Tripoli, Libya recorded the highest temperature of 57.7°C in 1922.

◆ Flora and Fauna:

• Vegetation: Cactus, date palms and acacia. In some places: Oasis — green islands with date palms.
• Oasis: Formed when wind blows away sand creating depressions. Where underground water reaches surface →
oasis forms. Fertile areas. People may settle and grow date palms and other crops.
• Tafilalet Oasis (Morocco): Largest oasis with area of about 13,000 sq. km.
• Animals: Camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, many varieties of snakes and lizards.

◆ People:
• Inhabited by: Bedouins and Tuaregs — nomadic tribes rearing livestock (goats, sheep, camels, horses).
• Animals provide: milk; leather from hides (belts, slippers, water bottles); hair for mats, carpets, clothes, blankets.
• Wear heavy robes as protection against dust storms and hot winds.
• Oasis and Nile Valley (Egypt): Settled population. Grow date palms, rice, wheat, barley, beans.
• Egyptian cotton: Famous worldwide; grown in Egypt.

◆ Changing Sahara:
• Discovery of oil in Algeria, Libya, Egypt → constantly transforming the Sahara.
• Other minerals: iron, phosphorus, manganese, uranium.
 • Gleaming office buildings tower over mosques. Superhighways crisscross ancient camel paths.
• Trucks replacing camels in salt trade. Tuaregs acting as tourist guides.
• More nomadic herdsmen taking up city life and jobs in oil and gas.

■ Surprising Sahara Facts

✓ Present-day Sahara once used to be a lush green plain!

✓ Cave paintings in Sahara show there used to be RIVERS WITH CROCODILES.

✓ Animals that once lived there: elephants, lions, giraffes, ostriches, sheep, cattle and goats.

✓ Scientists have actually found skeletons of FISH in the desert — evidence of ancient water bodies!

✓ Climate change transformed this once-green region into a very hot and dry desert.

■ 10.3 The Cold Desert — Ladakh

◆ Location:
• Ladakh: A cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Word origin: "La" = mountain pass + "Dak" = country → Ladakh = "country of mountain passes."
• Also known as Khapa-chan meaning "snow land."
• Enclosed by: Karakoram Range (north) and Zanskar Mountains (south).
• Rivers: Several flow through. Most important: Indus River. Rivers form deep valleys and gorges.
• Glaciers: Several found. Example: Gangri Glacier.
• Altitude: Varies from about 3000m in Kargil to more than 8,000m in Karakoram.

◆ Climate:
• High altitude → extremely cold and dry. Thin air → sun's heat felt very intensely.
• Summer day temperature: Just above 0°C.
• Summer night temperature: Well below -30°C.
• Winter temperature: Below -40°C for most of the time.
• Annual rainfall: As low as 10 cm per year (in rain shadow of Himalayas).
• Unique phenomenon: Sitting in the sun with feet in shade → may suffer from both sunstroke AND frostbite
simultaneously.
• Drass: One of the coldest inhabited places on earth; located in Ladakh.

◆ Flora and Fauna:

• High aridity → sparse vegetation. Scanty patches of grasses and shrubs. Groves of willows and poplars in
valleys.
• Summer: Fruit trees bloom — apples, apricots, walnuts.
• Birds: Robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven, hoopoe (some migratory).
• Animals: Wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs.
• Yak's milk: Used to make cheese and butter.
• Sheep and goat hair used to make woollens.
• Chiru (Tibetan antelope): Endangered species; hunted for its wool called shahtoosh (extremely light and
warm).

◆ People:
• People are either Muslims or Buddhists.
• Several Buddhist monasteries (gompas) dot the landscape.
 • Famous monasteries: Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and Lamayuru.
• Summer activities: Cultivating barley, potatoes, peas, beans and turnip.
• Winter: Harsh climate → people engaged in festivities and ceremonies.
• Women: Very hardworking — work in house, fields AND manage small businesses and shops.
• Leh: Capital of Ladakh. Well connected by road and air.
• National Highway 1A: Connects Leh to Kashmir Valley through Zoji La Pass.
• Tourism: Major activity. Gompa visits, treks to meadows/glaciers, ceremonies/festivals.
• Manali-Leh Highway: Crosses four passes — Rohtang La, Baralacha La, Lungalacha La, Tanglang La. Opens
only between July and September (when snow is cleared).
• Life philosophy: Due to scarcity of water and fuel, people use resources with reverence and care — nothing is
discarded or wasted.
• Cricket bat wood: The finest cricket bats are made from wood of the willow tree — found in Ladakh!

Feature Sahara (Hot Desert) Ladakh (Cold Desert)

Location North Africa Eastern Jammu and Kashmir, India

Type Hot desert Cold desert

Area/Size 8.54 million [Link] (world's largest) Varies from 3000m to 8000m altitude

Climate Day up to 50°C; Night near 0°C; very dry Summer day just above 0°C; winter below -40°C; 10
cm rain/year

Record Al Azizia, Libya: 57.7°C (1922) Drass = one of coldest inhabited places on earth

Vegetation Cactus, date palms, acacia Willows, poplars; summer fruits (apples, apricots)

Animals Camel, hyena, jackal, fox, scorpion, snakes, lizards Yak, wild goat, wild sheep, special dogs; robins,
Tibetan snowcock

People Bedouins, Tuaregs (nomads); Nile Valley (settlers) Muslims and Buddhists; monasteries (gompas)

Famous items Egyptian cotton; oil (Algeria, Libya, Egypt) Shahtoosh wool; monasteries; tourism

Transport Trucks replacing camels in salt trade; superhighways NH 1A (Leh-Kashmir via Zoji La); Manali-Leh highway;
air

■ EXAM-IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q: What are the two types of deserts found in the world?

A: Hot deserts (e.g., Sahara) and Cold deserts (e.g., Ladakh). Hot deserts have very high daytime temperatures (up
to 50°C) and very low annual rainfall. Cold deserts have extremely low temperatures (well below -40°C in winter) and
are found at high altitudes.

Q: In which continent is the Sahara desert located?

A: Africa (specifically in North Africa). It touches eleven countries: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania,
Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara.

Q: What are the climatic conditions of the Ladakh desert?

A: High altitude (3000m-8000m) → extremely cold and dry. Summer day temperatures just above 0°C; summer
nights well below -30°C. Winter temperatures below -40°C. Annual rainfall as low as 10 cm. Thin air → sun's heat felt
intensely. Unique: can get sunstroke and frostbite simultaneously.

Q: What mainly attracts tourists to Ladakh?

 A: Visits to gompas (Buddhist monasteries — Hemis, Thiksey, Shey, Lamayuru), treks to see meadows and glaciers,
witnessing ceremonies and festivities. The unique landscape, cold desert environment and rich cultural heritage (both
Muslim and Buddhist) attract tourists from India and abroad.

Q: What type of clothes do people of the Sahara desert wear?

A: They wear heavy robes as protection against dust storms and hot winds. The heavy robes also protect against the
extreme heat of the day. The nomadic Bedouins and Tuaregs wear these traditional robes.

Q: Name the trees that grow in Ladakh.

A: Groves of willows and poplars (in valleys). Summer fruit trees: apples, apricots and walnuts. Scanty patches of
grasses and shrubs. (Note: finest cricket bats made from willow wood!)

Q: There is scanty vegetation in the deserts — give reasons.

A: Deserts receive very low rainfall — Sahara has a short rainy season; Ladakh gets only 10 cm per year. Without
adequate water, most plants cannot survive. The extreme temperatures (very hot in Sahara; very cold in Ladakh)
further limit plant growth. Only specially adapted plants (cactus, date palms, acacia in Sahara; willow, poplar in
Ladakh) can survive these harsh conditions.

Q: People of the Sahara desert wear heavy robes — give reasons.

A: Heavy robes provide protection from: (1) Scorching daytime heat (up to 50°C) — they reflect sun's rays and
insulate the body. (2) Dust storms and hot winds that frequently sweep the desert. (3) Surprisingly cold nights (near
0°C) — the same robes that protect against heat also provide warmth at night.

■ QUICK REVISION POINTS

➤ Desert = arid region with extreme temperatures (high or low) and scarce vegetation.

➤ Two types: Hot deserts (Sahara) and Cold deserts (Ladakh).

➤ Sahara: North Africa; world's LARGEST desert; 8.54 million sq. km; 11 countries.

➤ Sahara climate: Day up to 50°C; night near 0°C; short rainy season; cloudless sky.

➤ Record: Al Azizia, Libya = 57.7°C in 1922 (highest ever recorded temperature).

➤ Sahara plants: cactus, date palms, acacia. Oasis = where underground water reaches surface.

➤ Tafilalet Oasis (Morocco) = largest oasis; area ~13,000 sq. km.

➤ Sahara people: Bedouins and Tuaregs (nomads); heavy robes for protection.

➤ Egypt: Egyptian cotton famous worldwide. Oil found in Algeria, Libya, Egypt.

➤ Sahara was once a green plain! — fish skeletons found; cave paintings show elephants, giraffes.

➤ Ladakh: Cold desert; eastern J&K; Karakoram (N) + Zanskar (S) mountains.

➤ Ladakh = "La" (mountain pass) + "Dak" (country). Khapa-chan = snow land.

➤ Ladakh climate: Winter below -40°C; rainfall only 10 cm/year; sunstroke + frostbite together!

➤ Drass (Ladakh) = one of coldest inhabited places on earth.

➤ Ladakh animals: Yak, wild goat, wild sheep; Chiru = Tibetan antelope, shahtoosh wool.

➤ Buddhist monasteries (gompas): Hemis, Thiksey, Shey, Lamayuru.

➤ NH 1A: Leh to Kashmir via Zoji La Pass. Manali-Leh highway: opens July-September only.

➤ Finest cricket bats = made from WILLOW wood (found in Ladakh valleys).
➤ Ladakh life philosophy: Scarce resources used with reverence — nothing wasted.