ELECTRIC MACHINERY:

TRANSFORMERS

OVERVIEW

A transformer is a stationary electrical device that converts AC electric power at one

voltage and frequency level to AC electric power at the same frequency but a different
voltage level [cite: 30]. The invention of the transformer in the late 19th century
overcame the severe limitations of early DC power grids by enabling high-voltage, low-
loss transmission over long distances, making modern power distribution possible
[cite: 31, 33].

1. Core Concepts and Construction

The principal purpose of a power transformer is to step up or step down voltage levels [cite:
34]. It operates via a magnetic field linking two or more coils of wire wrapped around a
common ferromagnetic core [cite: 30]. The winding connected to the power source is the
primary winding, while the winding connected to the load is the secondary winding [cite:
31].

Power transformers are generally built using one of two core configurations [cite: 35]:

• Core Form: A simple rectangular laminated steel piece with windings wrapped around
two opposite sides [cite: 35].
• Shell Form: A three-legged laminated core with all windings wrapped around the
center leg [cite: 35].

To minimize leakage flux and simplify insulation, the low-voltage windings are typically
placed physically innermost, directly against the core, with the high-voltage windings
wrapped on top [cite: 36].

1/5
 Core Form Shell Form

Figure 1: Core Form vs. Shell Form Transformer Construction.

2. The Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is a theoretical, lossless device that perfectly links its primary and
secondary windings [cite: 41]. The fundamental relationships governing an ideal
transformer are determined by its turns ratio, a, where a = Np / Ns [cite: 42].

Vp(t) / Vs(t) = a and Ip(t) / Is(t) = 1 / a

The ideal transformer perfectly conserves power; the input power equals the output power
(Pin = Pout and Qin = Qout) [cite: 46, 47]. Additionally, it acts as an impedance transformation

device. An impedance ZL on the secondary side appears as an apparent impedance Z'L = a2

ZL when viewed from the primary side [cite: 49]. This property is crucial for matching load
impedances to source impedances.

3. Operation of Real Transformers

Real transformers approximate ideal ones but deviate due to the physical realities of
magnetic cores and copper wires. The voltage induced in a real transformer is governed by
Faraday's law, which states that a time-changing flux induces a voltage proportional to the
rate of change of the flux linkage [cite: 17, 60].

In a real transformer, not all flux remains confined to the core. The flux is split into two
components [cite: 62]:

• Mutual flux (φM): The flux that remains in the core and links both the primary and
secondary windings [cite: 62].
• Leakage flux (φLP, φLS): The flux that escapes the core and passes through only one of
the windings [cite: 62].

2/5
The Excitation Current

Even with an open-circuited secondary, a real transformer draws a small current from the
primary source, known as the excitation current [cite: 70]. This current has two components
[cite: 66]:

1. Magnetization current (iM): The current required to establish the magnetic flux in the
core [cite: 66]. Due to magnetic saturation, this current is highly non-sinusoidal and lags
the applied voltage by 90° [cite: 68, 69].
2. Core-loss current (ih+e): The active current required to overcome hysteresis and eddy
current losses in the ferromagnetic core, which is in phase with the applied voltage
[cite: 66, 70].

4. The Transformer Equivalent Circuit

To accurately analyze real power systems, all major physical imperfections of a transformer
must be modeled electrically [cite: 77]:

• Copper (I2R) losses: Resistive heating in the windings, modeled by series resistors R
p
and Rs [cite: 77, 79].

• Leakage flux: Modeled as series leakage inductances (reactances) Xp and Xs [cite: 78,
81].
• Core excitation effects: The core loss is modeled by a parallel resistor RC, and the
magnetization current is modeled by a parallel reactance XM [cite: 80].

Rp Rs
Xp Xs

Rc
Vp Xm Vs

Figure 2: The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer.

3/5
To simplify circuit analysis, this exact model is generally referred entirely to either the
primary or secondary voltage level using the square of the turns ratio (a2) [cite: 82]. For
practical engineering applications, an approximate equivalent circuit is often used, where
the excitation branch is shifted to the front of the transformer, simplifying the nodal
analysis without introducing significant error [cite: 83].

5. Transformer Testing & Parameter Determination

The values of the equivalent circuit can be determined experimentally via two primary
tests [cite: 85]:

• The Open-Circuit Test: One winding is open-circuited, and full rated voltage is applied
to the other (usually the low-voltage side for safety and meter range constraints) [cite:
86, 90]. Since no load current flows, the input power measures the core excitation
behavior, yielding RC and XM [cite: 86, 87].

• The Short-Circuit Test: The low-voltage terminals are short-circuited, and a reduced,
variable voltage is applied to the high-voltage side until rated current flows [cite: 88, 89].
Because the applied voltage is low, core excitation is negligible, allowing for the
determination of the series elements Req and Xeq [cite: 89].

6. Voltage Regulation and Efficiency

Because of the series impedances within a transformer, the output voltage varies with the
load even if the input voltage is constant [cite: 104]. This characteristic is quantified by the
Voltage Regulation (VR) [cite: 105]:

VR = (Vs,nl - Vs,fl) / Vs,fl × 100%

Ideally, VR should be as close to zero as possible. The actual VR depends heavily on the
power factor of the load; leading power factors can actually cause negative voltage
regulation [cite: 106, 116].

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power [cite:
110]:

η = Pout / (Pout + Pcu + Pcore) × 100%

4/5
7. Autotransformers and Three-Phase Systems

Autotransformers

When voltage transformation requires only a small step up or down, an autotransformer

provides a highly economical alternative. Instead of two completely isolated windings, an
autotransformer uses a single tapped winding, creating a physical connection between the
primary and secondary circuits [cite: 126, 142]. This design yields a significant apparent
power rating advantage over conventional transformers of the same physical size because a
portion of the power flows directly from input to output without being magnetically
coupled [cite: 132, 133].

Three-Phase Transformers

Three-phase power systems can employ either a bank of three separate single-phase
transformers or a single three-phase transformer wound on a common core [cite: 147].
Common connection topologies include [cite: 148, 149]:

• Y-Y (Wye-Wye): Can suffer from severe voltage unbalances and severe third-harmonic
voltages unless neutrals are solidly grounded or a tertiary delta winding is used [cite:
151, 153].
• Y-Δ (Wye-Delta) & Δ-Y (Delta-Wye): Highly stable and mitigates third-harmonic issues
by circulating them in the delta loop. These configurations naturally introduce a 30°
phase shift between the primary and secondary voltages [cite: 155, 156, 159].
• Δ-Δ (Delta-Delta): No phase shift and no third-harmonic problems [cite: 162].
• Open-Delta (V-V): Utilizes only two transformers to supply three-phase power. While
economical for isolated loads, or useful as an emergency backup when one phase of a Δ-
Δ bank fails, an open-delta bank can only supply 57.7% of the original bank's apparent
power rating [cite: 171, 172, 177].

5/5