CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background to the Study
Poor drainage systems form part of major threats to urban environments in
Nigeria. Most of streets within the urban and rural settlement are faced with the
challenges such as lack of drainages or properly designed drainages to evacuate
storm water from the surface-course of our roads. Cities the world over are the
dominating forces in the organization of human population. As the world most
crowded places, cities continue to show increase in urban population. This increase
leads to a growing urbanization trend. Duru and Nnaji (2008) defined urbanization
as the increase in the population of cities in proportion to the region‟s rural
population. Urbanization is the outcome of social, economic and political
developments that lead to concentration and growth of large cities, changes in land
use and transformation from rural to metropolitan pattern of organization and
governance. Rapid growth of towns and cities has been common feature of the
developing world (Aderamo, 2008). Although urbanization is the driving force for
modernization, economic growth and development, there is increasing concern
about the effects of expanding cities, principally on human health, livelihoods and
the environment.
Drainage systems are constructed to ensure that waste water and sewage is
transported neatly to disposal points, thereby keeping the environment well drained
and free of waste. Examples of components that make up a good drainagesystem
includes; closed ditches having pipe drains, drainage pipes, channels and conduits
(Folorunsho, & Awosika, 2001). Sustainable Drainage Systems are approaches put
in place to manage the water quantity (flooding), water quality (pollution) and
amenity issues in the environment. Sustainable drainage is a concept that includes
long term environmental and social factors in decisions about drainage. Sustainable

1
Drainage Systems are intended to regulate surface water runoff close to where it
falls and simulate natural drainage as closely as possible. They provide
opportunities to reduce the causes and impacts of flooding, remove pollutants from
urban runoff at source, and combine water management with recreation and
wildlife. They also help to enhance water quality while protecting natural flow
regimes in watercourses (Dipanjan & Mukherjee 2014).
In many parts of Nigeria today, there is a great need for properly managed
sustainable drainage systems in order to help manage surface water runoff.
Neighborhoods keep springing up without proper planning, which also involves
planning for drainage and sewage or waste disposal. Residents regularly dump
their waste in gutters, and this clogs the gutters and prevents the flow of water,
causing the gutters to overflow (Enger & Smith, 2006). It is common to see
flooded streets with litter floating everywhere after a short period of rainfall. Such
situations create very unsanitary conditions for residents of the neighborhoods and
contribute to the degradation of the environment.
The implications of rapid urbanization and demographic trends for
employment, food security, water supply, shelter and sanitation, especially the
disposal of wastes (solid and liquid) that the cities produce are staggering
(Oduwaiye, 2009). The process of urbanization is believed to be connected with
levels of development and some assert that, for a country to develop there is the
need for an increased level of industrialization as it is generally accepted that there
cannot be urbanization without rapid economic growth (Tettey, 2005). The pattern
of urbanization in developing countries, particularly Africa, however, is creating
some concern that it may be generating a lot of development problems in the
process of its growth. One of the daunting challenges facing African countries in
the wake of unprecedented urbanization during the last few decades is the planning

2
and management of physical infrastructure and the urban environment (Kwasi,
2011).
As urbanization gathered pace in most developing countries, the problem of
inadequacy of infrastructure services and deteriorating urban environment became
enormous (Sule, 2009). These problems range from poor housing conditions,
inadequate infrastructure, to squatter settlements (Arimah, 2002). Spurred by the
oil boom prosperity of the 1970s and the massive improvements in roads and the
availability of vehicles, Nigeria since independence has become an increasingly
urbanized and urban-oriented society.
Drainage quality is an important parameter which affects the highway
pavement performance. The excessive water content in the pavement base, sub-
base, and sub-grade soils can cause early distress and lead to a structural or
functional failure of pavement. Drainage is the most important aspect of road
design. Proper design of drainage is necessary for the satisfactory and prolonged
performance of the pavement. In designing drainage, the primary objective is to
properly accommodate water flow along and across the road and conveniently
transport and deposit the water o the downstream without any obstruction in the
flow (Rokade, Agarwal & Shrivastava, 2012). A typical road construction is
multi-layered in form, comprising of unbound materials. Essentially, the lower
indigenous subgrade layer is covered by a bound or unbound sub base, providing
drainage and frost protection for the subgrade, and the road base layer upon which
the asphalt layers are laid as a final surface coating. Poor drainage in pavement can
lead to early pavement distresses lead to driving problems and structural failures of
the road. The primary source of water in pavements is atmospheric precipitation.
This water can enter the pavement through several ways (e.g., cracks, infiltration,
through shoulders and ditches, high groundwater) and is moved by an energy

3
gradient, such as gravity, capillary forces, osmotic forces, and temperature or
pressure differences (Henderson, 2004).

Flooding in urban areas is not just related to heavy rainfall and extreme
climatic events; it is also related to changes in the built-up areas themselves. In the
case of Maiduguri, the problems of street flooding began when some socio
economic and anthropogenic activities gained momentum as a means of face lifting
the city as State Capital. The influx of people from both rural and adjoining states
led to increased demand for housing. Houses were hurriedly built to meet the
burgeoning demand for shelter as a result of insurgency. This alters the aesthetic
image of the city as buildings were erected anyhow and anywhere (Sule, 2004).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Worldwide, there has been a rapid growth in the number of people killed or
seriously impacted by storms and floods and also in the amount of economic
damage caused; a large and growing proportion of these impacts are in urban areas
in low- and middle-income nations.

Poor urban infrastructural development and planning is likely to have been

a factor in much of this, but even if it was not, it is proof of the vulnerability of
urban populations to floods and storms whose frequency and intensity is likely to
increase in most places. Maiduguri is one of the cities that are growing at a high
rate in terms of infrastructural development, which involves construction and
concretization of the city land surface. This, as a result of poor drainage systems,
leads to flooding and other environmental problems such as roadway pavement
failure (Giwa, 2007).

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

4
 The main aim of this study is to assess the effect of poor drainage network
on flash flooding in Jiddari Polo, gwange and fori Maiduguri. The specific
objectives of the study are to:
1. Examines the intensity and frequency of floods in Jiddari Polo, gwange and fori
Maiduguri;

2. Assess and evaluate the spatial distribution of drainage networks in those area;

3. Examine the effect of poor drainage system on the residents of the study area

4. Assess the attitudes of the residents towards drainage system and flooding in
the study area.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study will be of great benefit to various sectors both governmental and
Non-governmental organization. The study will be significant to National
Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) as it revealed the various areas of poor
sanitation in Maiduguri. It will be of benefit to environmentalist and town
planners as the study revealed the various areas of poor town planning which
resulted to lack of drainage because no good street for drainages to be
constructed. The study will also help the health sectors in identifying the various
diseases bedeviling the community of the study area due to excessive flooding
which breaded some bacterial and diseases. NGOs who are concern with WASH

5
activities will also find this study very useful as it revealed the sanitary conditions
of the environment. Finally, the study will be of great benefit to students and
researchers who may need information on the subject matter under study.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This study was restricted to selected area of Maiduguri Metropolis that is
prone to flood occurrence. It assessed the capability of drainage networks to
effectively handle run off volume in the area. The study was conducted in Jiddari
Polo, gwange and fori Maiduguri. Those location was selected because it has a
history of frequent floods especially during the rainy seasons. In addition, flood
prone areas are largely characterized by poor planning as compared to the control.

1.6 Definition of Terms

1. Drainage system: is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and

sub-surface water from an area with excess water.

2. Flooding: are the most frequent type of natural disaster and occur when an
overflow of water submerges land that is usually dry.

3. Effect: a change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause.

4. Poor: of a low or inferior standard or quality.

6
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Literature Review
2.1.1 Problems Associated with Drainage
A drainage system includes the pavement and the water handling system.
They must be properly designed, built, and maintained. The water handling system
includes: road surface, shoulders, drains and culverts; curb, gutter and storm sewer.
When a road fails, whether it’s concrete, asphalt or gravel, inadequate drainage
often is a major factor. Poor design can direct water back onto the road or keep it
from draining away. Too much water remaining on the surface combine with
traffic action to cause potholes, cracks and pavement failure. Many researches
clearly demonstrating that poor drainage can adversely affect pavement
performance.

7
 Rokade et al (2011) reported that inadequate drainage leads to major cause
of pavement distresses due to large amount of costly repairs before reaching their
design life. He found that pavement service life can be increased by 50% if water
can be drained without delay. Similarly, pavement systems incorporating good
drainage can be expected to have a design life of two to three times that of
undrained pavement sections. Afangideh & Offiong (2012) evaluated early field
tests that included both drained and undrained pavement sections. Based on these
field data, he estimated that a flooded undrained pavement experiences 10 to
70,000 times the damage from a load event compared to a drained pavement. As a
conservative single value, he suggested that an undrained pavement experiences 15
times the damage compared to a well-drained pavement. To achieve proper
drainage, drains (or ditches) a long side of road are essential to collect water from
road surface and surrounding areas and lead it to an exit point where it can be
safely discharged. Forsyth et al. (2003) presented a number of case studies related
to pavement drainage. They report that the use of edge drains usually improves the
durability of pavements. Forsyth et al. concluded that the percentage of cracked
slabs in the undrained sections exceeds that in the drained sections by a ratio of 2.4
to 1.
The use of edge drains was also examined by NCHRP (2005) for
conventional asphalt pavements with unbound dense-graded aggregate bases, the
addition of edge drains appeared to reduce fatigue cracking, but not rutting. The
use of asphalt-treated permeable base sections with edge drains produced
significantly less rutting than did unbound dense-graded aggregate base sections.
However, the fatigue cracking performance for both types of base sections with
edge drains was comparable. The Subsurface drainage is a key element in design
of pavement. The NCHRP [4] performed an extensive study of many subsurface
drainage systems, NCHRP Project 1- 34, Performance of Pavement Subsurface

8
Pavement Drainage, summarized findings on the effectiveness of subsurface
drainage on flexible pavements. They found that structural capacity and drain
ability were key factors in the performance of flexible pavements. If either factor
was poor, there was an increased incidence of rutting and fatigue cracking. It was
noted that these factors should be carefully considered during the design phase of
flexible pavements. NCHRP stated that another key factor in the performance of
subsurface drainage was whether edge drain outlet pipes were clogged. Clogged
outlet pipes were found to have a detrimental effect on the performance of flexible
pavements. Clogged outlets led to increase fatigue cracking and rutting and could
lead to stripping. In addition, permeable base sections were found to have better
fatigue performance than all other types of evaluated pavement sections. However,
there was not a significant difference in the rutting performance of permeable base
sections and other sections.
Markow (2006) developed a predictive model of pavement performance that
includes the effect of moisture on pavement materials properties and the quality of
the subsurface drainage. In this model, the duration of pavement wetness is first
estimated taking climatic conditions as well as drainage into account. Then,
assuming the pavement system has a 50% reduction in strength when wet.
Some of the factors contributing to poor drainage system include the
following:
2.1.2 Poor Design and Construction
In general, most of the side drains provided to roads are earth drains or
ditches. Some drains built from bricks, stones or concrete materials are open drains
without covers. Others built drains are covered with concrete slab or blocks.
Failures of built drains like collapse of bed, side walls and/or covers caused by
improper design and construction, settlement orheave may lead to the development
of cracks and subsequent failure. Most of the drains channelsin Khartoum state are

9
designed by the engineers of the ministry of infrastructure or by consultants who
have no experience of the drainage work. This leads to a situation where
preliminary studies that will help the design and construction decisions are not
done. This leads to poor understanding of the drainage which subsequently leads to
poor design and construction of drainage system. Markow (2006)
2.1.3 Poor Maintenance Culture
Even if the drains and their structures, culverts are well built they need
adequate maintenance for sustainability. One of the main problem of drainage
development is maintenance. The drains and culverts are rarely maintained and
whenever maintenance is attempted it is done haphazardly. The financing of the
maintenance, rehabilitation and conservation of the drainage network had always
been left to the government at the state and local levels who because of their lack
of maintenance culture do not release funds for drainage maintenance at the
appropriate time. The drainage network was therefore left to deteriorate. The
drainage worldwide was considered critical infrastructure in any nation’s life and
were paid premium attention. Johnson (2009)
2.1.4. Negative Attitude of Residents
The attitude of residents in communities under which these drainage
channels are constructed and located is so negative. From the investigation
conducted and seen in the photographs which taken from the drains sites during the
field survey clearly shows that residents have converted the drains and the culverts
into refuse dump places. This results in blockage of these drains and its subsequent
failures which in turn does negatively affect conditions of the road pavement.
There is very urgent need for government agencies and concerned bodies to
organize sensitization programs towards enlightening residents on the need to keep
drains located in their communities clean and not use them as refuse dump places.
In situations where these residents refuse to heed environmental sensitizations and

10
warnings, enactment of laws to punish offenders with very strong enforcement
machinery should be put in place. Mathew (2022)
2.1.5 Use of Low Quality Materials
Use of low quality construction materials such as bricks, concrete,
corrugated steel adversely affects the quality of the drains and culverts. This
sometimes occurs in the form of the improper concrete mixture for construction of
drain channels. The use of extreme cohesive and expansive soil as foundation soil
results in prolonged consolidation, heave or settlement of the bed of the drain and
culvert. The use of soil of low bearing capacity as foundation soil leads to the
failure of the drains and culverts. Abdul Rahman (2022)
2.1.6. Requirements of Highway Drainage System

Folorunsho & Awosika (2001)designed the guidelines for road drainage

which stressed that drainage is a basic consideration in the establishment of road
geometry and in general this means that the drainage should meet the following:
cross falls should be a minimum of 2.5% on carriageways, with increased cross
falls of up to 5.0% on hard shoulders draining to filter drains; longitudinal
gradients should not be less than 0.5% on kerbed roads; flat areas should be
avoided and consideration of surface water drainage is particularly important at
rollovers, roundabouts, and junctions; outfall levels must be achievable; the
spacing of road gullies should be sufficient to remove surface water whilst
achieving an acceptable width of channel flow. One gully for every 200sq. m of
paved surface is generally found to be satisfactory. Yohanna et-dta (2008)

According to Bath & North East Somerset Council (2016), Highway

drainage should fulfil the following objectives: prevent flooding, ponding and
seepage, and keep the carriageway, cycle way and footway as free of standing
water as possible; ensure surface water falling on the highway enters the drainage

11
system or natural watercourse as speedily as possible; keep the underlying road
structure as dry as possible; prevent injury or damage caused by hazardous surface
water; prevent highway surface water flooding adjacent properties and prevent
blockages in associated highway drainage systems with consequential flooding.
The council maintained that highway drainage requires routine maintenance to
ensure its continued efficiency. From time to time, additional maintenance is
essential to ensure the system continues to function properly. Gullies and their
immediate pipe connection are emptied and cleaned as part of an annual proactive
maintenance programme. Drainage is cleaned as followed: rural areas - once per
year, urban areas- once per year, and high-speed dual carriageways twice per year.
However, where persistent problems are identified with gully cleansing, for
example, being blocked by silt and detritus on a regular basis, the gullies are
specifically identified and programmed for a greater cleaning frequency.

According to NCHRP (1998), a drainable pavement contains the integral

components. The primary components include the asphalt or concrete surface
pavement, a permeable base, a separator/filter layer, the subgrade, and edge drains
Table 1 shows the optional elements that can be selected for the design of each
component. If any of these system components do not function properly, the
system will not perform (e.g., a drainable pavement that does not drain will be a
liability to the pavement system).

2.1.7 Types of drainage systems

There are two types of drainage system, the surface drainage system in
which water is collected and disposed of. The water is first gathered in the
longitudinal drains, generally, in the side drains and then disposed of at the nearest
stream, valley or water course. Cross drainage structures like culverts and small

12
bridges may be necessary for the disposal of the surface water from the road side
drains. The other type is the Sub-Surface Drainage system. This involves the
movement of water in the pores of the ground soil mass. Changes in the moisture
content of sub-grade are caused by fluctuation in the ground water table, seepage
flow, percolation of rain water, movement of capillary water and even water vapor.
In sub-surface drainage highways, it is attempted to keep the variation of moisture
in sub grade soil to a minimum level. However, only gravitational water is drained
by usual drainage system (Jimoh, 2008).
2.1.8 Design of Drainage system
For drainages to serve the main purpose of their constructions, there must
be a proper design that will take into account the necessities. The following are to
be considered while designing and constructing drainage as an open channel;
It shall be designed and built in a manner that can take care of storm during 2-year
and contain 10-year storm.
Design calculations shall consider a Manning’s factor “n” of 0.03, 0.05, and 0.045
for analysis of erosive velocity, vegetated channels, and for rip-rap lined channels
respectively
The minimum longitudinal slope for grass lining should not be less than 1.0%, and
less than that, the lining shall be of concrete.
When the concrete lining is used, the depth shall be at least 110% of the ten-year
storm depth (Hanover, 2011).
Two additional considerations for the design of drainages are the geometry
of gutter and the slope made by the street to the horizontal. Curbs are used in most
urban streets and gutter sections. The shape is chosen for functional, cost, or
aesthetic reasons and does not dramatically affect the hydraulic capacity. Swales
are used along with some semi-urban streets, and roadside ditches are common

13
along some rural streets. Cross-sectional geometry, longitudinal slopes and
swale/ditch roughness values are very much important in determining the hydraulic
capacity of the drainage (Mannual, 2006). Some communities suffer from drainage
problems not because they have no drains, but because the existing drainage
system has collapsed, become blocked, or are otherwise in need of repairs and
rehabilitation. Much more will find that the nearest convenient point of discharge
for a new drainage system is an existing primary drainage pipe or canal that needs
attention if it is to function properly. Collapse and blockage are the principal types
of drainage failure. Each of these can have several causes. Hanover, (2011)
2.1.9. Effects of Bad Drainage System

Bad drainage has damage and loss in serviceability of both rigid and
flexible types of pavements much greater when structural section contains free
water. The Quality of drainage is an important parameter which affects the
performance of the highway pavement. Poor drainage quality on roads leads to a
large amount of costly repairs or replacements long before reaching their design
life. The gradation and properties of layer materials seldom permit the layer to be
an effective drainage layer, leading to entrapment of water within the pavement
causing a "bathtub" condition, resulting in premature failures and chronic
pavement distresses. Many research works have been carried out on the effect of a
poor drainage system on roads as it will have reviewed below. Jitendra et al (2013)
carried out a framework for quantification of the effect of drainage quality on
structural and functional performance of pavement by identifying a simple
framework for quantification of the effect of drainage quality on structural as well
as functional performance of the pavement. They presented the structural and
functional performance of the pavement in predicted terms of deflection and
roughness respectively. Their study was useful to reduce the maintenance cost of

14
highway pavement system and to preserve huge highway network in India.
Etuonovbe (2011),based his research on the assessment of the effect of urban road
surface drainage: He assessed the pavement damage due to improper drainage,
identified areas most prone to flooding problems, assessed the existing condition of
road and surface drainage infrastructure, examine the impacts of road surface
drainage structures integration on road performance and related social as well as
environment issues and make recommendations on urban road and drainage
structures integration, their provision and management. He conducted a cross-
sectional study in Ginjo Guduru Kebele of Jimma town from January to August
[Link] data they collected was then analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively,
and the results from their study were presented in tables and in themes. From the
study made, generally, they observed that the road surface drainage found to be
inadequate due to insufficient road profile, insufficient drainage structures
provision, improper maintenance and lack of proper interconnections between the
road and drainage infrastructures thereby resulting to the damages to road surface
material and flooding in the area. Victor, (2010). Carried out an investigation into
the adequacy of the drainage system on Narok-Mai Mahiu road which was
determined to: examine the adequacy of the drainage system in Narok-Mai Mahiu
road, study the effects of inadequate drainage systems on roads and the
surrounding environment, and to investigate the reasons for inadequate drainage
systems in Narok-Maai Mahiu road and the challenges faced by the institutions
mandated with the responsibility of maintaining them. They employed a research
survey in order to obtain the information that would describe the state of drainage
infrastructure in Narok Maai Mahiu road and how poor drainage affected the
surrounding environment and the road users. Various data collection techniques
that were used include questionnaires, photographs, observation, and interviews.

15
 The results indicated that Narok Maai Mahiu road drainage system was not
adequate to satisfactorily drain the runoffs. As a result, the surrounding
environment was greatly affected as exemplified by runoffs washing away some
sections of the road and bridges, creating gullies on peoples’ land, blockage of the
road, loss of life and property and washing away of the fertility of the land. Poor
design, workmanship, maintenance were the main challenges. He then pushed that
drainage facilities should be improved through maintenance, gabions be built for
remedying of gullies and construction of water conservation structures e.g. water
pans to hold and reduce the speed of water. Furthermore, redesign of the whole
drainage system in Narok-Mai Mahiu road should be considered. Siddhartha et al
(2012) carried out a research on drainage and flexible pavement performance; in
the research, they pointed out that providing adequate drainage to a pavement
system has been considered as an important design consideration to prevent
premature failures due to water related problems such as pumping action, loss of
support, and rutting, among others. They continued that most water in pavements is
due to rainfall infiltration into unsaturated pavement layers, through joints, cracks,
shoulder edges, and various other defects, especially in older deteriorated
pavements. Water also seep upward from a high groundwater table due to capillary
suction or vapour movements, or it may flow laterally from the pavement edges
and side ditches. Providing adequate drainage to a pavement system has been
considered as an important design consideration to ensure satisfactory performance
of the pavement, particularly from the perspective of life cycle cost and
serviceability. To minimize premature pavement distresses and to enhance the
pavement performance, it is imperative to provide adequate drainage to allow
infiltrated water to drain out from the base and sub-base, thus avoiding saturation
of base and subgrade soils.

16
 Magdi, (2014) studied the impacts of poor drainage on road performance in
Khartoum, a city in Sudan with two case studies; attempts were made to find out
the reasons for road failure within the first five years as a result of poor drainage.
In this quest, it was discovered that four basic reasons lead to early deterioration of
road pavements in the study, these factors according to the research includes, Poor
drainage design and construction, poor maintenance structure, use of low-quality
materials and no local standard of practice. It was concluded that if these factors
are put into consideration in planning and execution and if improved on pavement
structures would serve within its expected design life. Patil and Jalinder (2011)
studied the effects of bad drainage on roads with precision on some roads in India.
It was found that increase in moisture content increases the chances of road failure
before the stipulated or expected design life. It was observed that on Service road
to Mumbai Pune Expressway the blockage of drainage channels lead to
accumulation of water on pavement thus, leading to the stripping of bitumen.

Getachew and Tamene (2015) made a study on Assessment of the Effect of

Urban Road Surface Drainage using Ginjo Guduru Kebele of Jimma Town in
Ethiopia as a case study. It was found that road surface drainage of the study area
was found to be inadequate due insufficient road profile, insufficient drainage
structures provision, improper maintenance and lack of proper interconnection
between the road and drainage infrastructures thereby resulting damages to road
surfacing material and flooding problems in the area.

Magdi, (2016) investigated surface drainage problem of roads in Khartoum

state, Sudan. A comprehensive study was done using appropriate land and traffic
survey equipment. Several roads were surveyed which lead to conclusions as; The
drainage problem is highly compounded in Khartoum state because of inadequate
drainage system thereby resulting in damages of pavements and leading to

17
unhealthy environment, poor drainage conditions especially during rainy seasons,
force the water to enter the pavement from the sides as well as from the top
surface. The most common causes of road drainage problem were found related to
improper road geometry, insufficient capacity of drainage structures, poor
construction, and lack of proper maintenance. It was recommended that Proper
road geometry needs to be maintained to provide required crown and longitudinal
slopes, Provision of proper connections or integrations between the road network
and drainage network systems is are required with regular maintenance,
deficiencies in road drainage should be identified and ranked in order of priority as
part of the normal maintenance program, Road authorities should consider
providing a specific budget on an annual basis for both drainage maintenance
works, drainage improvement works , A program for cleaning out the surface
drainage system is essential. Developing the skills of using software programs for
planning, analysis, and design, maintenance of road surface drainage system in
urban areas and monitoring the drainage infrastructures. Nwafor, (2006)

Nwafor, (2006) studied Sustainable Drainage System for Road Networking,

the research was aimed at suggesting an alternative and sustainable drainage
system which is a trenchless drain comprising absorption unit and grass cover. It
was found that the technology would provide a cheap, aesthetic and effective
method of disposing road surface runoff with minimal distress to users and
minimal damage to the environment. It was concluded that trenchless drains
dispose accumulated surface water easily and introduces aesthetics to the environs,
and an antidote to mosquito breeding which consequently reduces the incidence of
malaria.
2.1.10 Methods for Improving Drainage

18
 Designing and constructing drainage systems require expert advice from
engineers to make sure that water flows away quickly and smoothly and is
disposed of in a surface watercourse or soakaway. Drainage installed by one
community should not create problems for other communities downstream, nor
should it affect ecologically important sites. Environmental considerations should
be given adequate attention: long-term changes to the environment may lead to
greater health problems in the future (Odemerho, 2003).

1. Storm Water Drains: The detailed design of storm water drains should be
carried out by engineers and take into account climatic and hydrological data.
These data may be scarce, or may not cover the community where work is to be
carried out. In such cases, the community can help by describing where major
flood problems occur in the village and providing information about previous
floods. Storm water drains should be designed to collect water from all parts of the
community and lead it to a main drain, which then discharges into a local river
(Ogba & Utang, 2008). The size of the drains should be calculated according to the
amount of water they would be expected to carry in a storm. More extreme floods
occur relatively infrequently; to provide a safety margin, the maximum flow of
water is usually calculated on the basis of floods expected to occur once every 10
or more years. If drains are designed to carry only the amount of water expected
from an annual flood, they will not be able to cope with the flow of water from
heavier floods, which may occur as often as every 2–3 years (Olufemi & Raheem,
2007).

This may make flooding problems worse and increase the health risks. Storm-
water drains are best constructed using a concrete lining. Earth drains are more
likely to become clogged and overgrown, and cause problems with storm-water
flow during minor floods. This can lead to the formation of stagnant pools and

19
result in breeding sites for disease vectors, such as mosquitoes, increasing the risk
of malaria, and snails, increasing the risk of schistosomiasis (Owuama & Kingsley,
2014). The drains must also be properly maintained and cleaned: it is common to
find that new drains become dumps for solid waste or even sewage because of
inadequate maintenance. The community should therefore establish how often
drains are to be cleaned and who will be responsible for the maintenance. Often,
the best solution is for community members themselves to take responsibility
(Rokade, et’ al, 2012).

2. Sullage Disposal Methods: Every household generates sullage. For instance, it

has been estimated that each person generates 15–20 litres per day when collecting
water from a standpipe. Sullage may be disposed of either at home, using on-site
methods, or through the drainage system. When sullage is disposed of at home a
soakaway pit can be constructed (Taiwo, 2008). Alternatively, sullage can be used
to irrigate small gardens, thus improving the crop yield and nutrition, and this
should be promoted if possible. However, sullage can be reused this way only if it
contains little or no detergent, which may damage crops (Tibaijuka, 2010). If a
soakaway is used, the pit should be located away from the house and away from
water sources. Ideally, there should be a minimum of 30 metres between the soak
away pit and the nearest water source, but this distance may need to be increased if
houses are uphill of water sources. It is not recommended that sullage be disposed
of in pit latrines, since this may interfere with the breakdown of excreta within the
pit, and may overload latrine soak away where pour–flush latrines are used. When
the household is connected to a form of sewerage, sullage can be disposed of in the
toilet or latrine. Indeed, for some sewerage systems (such as shallow sewerage or
conventional sewerage) disposal of sullage in this way ensures better functioning
of the system (Udofia, 2002).

20
3 Combined Drains: Combined drains are designed to carry both storm-water
and sullage. Unless a combined drain is well designed and maintained, however,
sullage will pool within the drain and form insect breeding sites. These problems
can be overcome by using a system with a small insert drain that carries the sullage
into a larger drain for carrying storm-water. As with all drainage systems, it is
essential that the drains are properly operated and maintained, and that refuse is
cleared from the drains (Victor & Rono. 2010).
4 Buried Drains and Combined Sewer: Drains may also be incorporated into
sewerage systems and be buried. This is more appropriate for urban areas, but can
be considered in rural areas if the village roads are paved and if flood flows are
significant. Buried drains have inlet chambers at regular intervals, usually along
roadsides, that allow the entry of storm water. The drains then lead directly either
to a watercourse or to a sewage-treatment works. When drains flow directly into
sewage treatment works, care must be taken not to overload the works. The storm
water should always flow either into a stabilization pond, or into a storage pool
constructed to take storm water flows above a certain volume (Zumrawi, 2013).

2.1.11 Causes of Flooding

Within the cities, human activities such as rapid industrialization and
urbanization, population growth, exploitation of natural resources and location of
infrastructures exacerbate occurrence of floods. Although flood is a natural
occurrence, it often leads to disasters as a result of human-created vulnerability,
which is a consequence of human-environment interactions. Flooding, is one of the
most frequent and widespread of all environmental hazards and of various types
and magnitudes, occur in most terrestrial portions of the globe, causing huge
annual losses in terms of damage and disruption to economic livelihoods,
businesses, infrastructure, services and public health (Offiong et’ al., 2008).

21
Olufemi (2008) in a research work titled “Road and urban storm water drainage
network integration in Addis Ababa” asserted that urbanization along with its
impermeable structures is the major cause of flooding in urban areas. Flood
disaster is defined in terms of risk to humans and human society, and is seen as a
product of the severity and probability of occurrence of flood hazard and the
vulnerability of the population system (Brooks, 2003). Dipanjan & Mukherjee
(2014) reports of unprecedented flooding that submerged houses, paralyzed
economic activities and rendered some residents of Mgbouba, Diobu and Mkpolu
areas of Port Harcourt internally displaced. The author attributed this to excessive
rainfall associated with climate change. It should be noted that rainfall at that
period could have been in excess of ground saturation and resulted in the saturation
excess overland flow. Ogba and Utang (2008) reviewed the problems of flood in
the Niger Delta, it was reported that increasing built-up areas without proper
recourse to urban planning rules, and additional concretion, could have accelerated
infiltration excess over-land flow. A combination of saturation and infiltration
excess overland flow could have been responsible, with the proximate
determinants being the rainfall and topography. Although rainfall may have been
higher than previous years, this could still have been lower than some other years
prior to the present urbanizing phase of development that is being experienced.
Poor drainage network remains a contributing factor to flood occurrence in
Nigeria. It is estimated that the required drainage channel is short by about
61.78%; and the existing ones are only about 30% maintained, (Amaize, 2011).
There is nowhere the estimated shortfall in the drainage channels is less than 50%
except at Abuja (27%) and Maiduguri (48%). It is as high as 78% and 76% at
Onitsha and Jalingo respectively (Aderogba, 2012). Flood disasters result from
human-created vulnerability which is an outcome of our interacting with the
environment by some human activities such as designing and locating our

22
infrastructure, exploiting natural resources, concentrating our population and so on
(Hualou, 2011). Urbanization and lack of good local governance have been
regarded as a major creator of urban flood risk (UN-habitat, 2009, Darteh, 2011).
Urbanization exacerbates the damages caused by flooding by restricting where
flood or storm waters can go. Large parts of the ground with roofs, roads and
pavements are covered, obstructing sections of natural channels and building
drains that ensure that water moves to rivers faster than it did under natural
conditions. In an urbanizing environment like Nigeria, the infiltration capacity is
reduced by the replacement of ground cover with impervious urban surfaces
(Odemerho, 1993). Adeleye and Rustum (2011) analyzed the causes of the
flooding problem encountered in Lagos to recommend sustainable management
solutions to them. Data on climate, drainage infrastructures and physical planning
regulations were collected and extensively analyzed. These were combined with
evidence from field inspection and discussion with stakeholders, including relevant
government departments, university researchers and selected resident. The
investigation revealed that, contrary to popular wisdom, climate change or
unusually high rainfall is not the primary cause of flooding problem in Lagos.
Rather, the increased urbanization, lax planning laws in relation to the city are to
blame. It is augured that a lasting solution to flooding problems will require the
incorporation of sustainable drainage system within the existing flood management
strategy for the city and planning for this must start now.
Nwafor (2006) identified 12 causes of urban flooding; these include
surcharges in water level due to natural or man – made construction on flood path,
sudden dam failure, inappropriate land use, mudflow, inadequate drainage capacity
to cope with urbanization, excess encroachment in flood ways, ice jam, rapid snow
fall, deforestation of catchment basins, reclamation, construction sites and solid
waste. Odemerho (1993) also identified three factors accentuating flood problems

23
in Benin City, Nigeria namely: land and physical development problems, gaps in
basic hydrological data, design and implementation problems and cultural factors.
In Nigeria, apart from the Ogunpa stream in Ibadan that killed several people and
completely grounded socio-economic activities in 1980, in August, 2008 the
residents of Makurdi were thrown out of their residences and their farmlands left
impoverished after two days of heavy down pour of rainfall. Taiwo (2008)
described it as very disastrous. He also reported in this day (August 18th) page 20
that “at least five hundred people were rendered homeless and properties worth
several millions of Naira were destroyed when a flood, occasioned by torrential
rainfall ravaged Babura, a town in Jigawa State in a period of two days”. Akanni
and Bilesanmi (2011) also reported how a Lagos flood forced Lagosians to relocate
as a result of heavy rain of 7th and 8th of July 2011 not knowing there was going
to be a more devastating torrential rain that will result in more disastrous floods in
Lagos Metropolis in the following week (Amaize, 2011; Mordi, 2011)
Ochere and Okeke (2012) assess the social impacts and people‟s perception
of flooding events in Makurdi town which has almost become a yearly occurrence.
The results of analyses show that floods in Makurdi occur mostly at the event of
rainfall intensity and amount and especially at the peak of rainy season
(August/September). The study further revealed that factors other than rainfall that
substantially influenced flooding in the study area are: Lack of and poor drainage
networks, dumping of wastes/refuse in drainage and water channels, topographic
characteristics, overflowing of river banks, low infiltration due to high water table
and degree of built up areas leading to increased runoffs, and climate change. In
similar study elsewhere, Oreola (2003) revealed that high intensity of rainfall,
unturned road, dumping of refuse on drainage channels, poor construction of
drainage channels and poor town planning practices are the main causes of urban
flood problems in the study area in Ado-Ekiti town. The problems of flood in

24
Nigerian urban centers have been attributed to anthropogenic and natural factors.
Olufemi (2008) observed that, it is evident from research, that residence
contributes greatly to flood problems of their area and their act jeopardizes the
environment which attracts many people for economic, social and recreational
facilities. Olagunorisa (2004) however, stated that flood is caused by rainfall,
snow, melting ice and hurricanes. The researcher further stated that the common
feature of flood is the destruction of lives and property. In several countries, a
distinction is made between direct and indirect damage. The direct losses include
those which result into loss of lives and properties. While indirect losses consist of
damage resulting from the limitation or breakdown of human activities during
flood. Oreola (2003) noted that various socio-cultural activities have promoted
flooding in many of the Nigerian urban environment. These activities are
characterized by stream or river channel encroachment and abuse, increased paved
surface and poor solid waste disposal techniques, ineffective town planning laws
and poor environmental management etc.
The problem of flood in Gombe according to Daniel, Juji, Nwosu and
Omilolo (2012) has spanned over a long period, and is associated with many
factors. Among these factors are the increase in population and rapid urbanization
aggravated by urban sprawl, unplanned development, overgrazing, excessive land
cultivation and inadequate urban infrastructure. The study concluded that
urbanization dynamics is the major factor responsible for flood in the city.
Similarly, Abaje and Giwa (2008) study of urban flood in Kafanchnan town of
Kaduna state revealed that flood waters often jump artificial drains which are
inadequate in some cases. It was also observed that the intensity of flood problems
in the city is related to the rapid rate of urban expansion; especially where the
simultaneous provision for adequate urban run-off is lacking, is often the case in
most Nigerian cities (Onokerhohaye, 1995). Ladan (2007) also reported the

25
incidence of floods due to rapid urbanization in Katsina metropolis. In his study, it
was observed that there were inadequate drainages to drain storm water. The result
is that the existing drainages become overloaded leading to flooding. In addition,
he identified other factors that are precursors to flood in the area to include; heavy
rainfall, improper waste disposal, unplanned nature of settlements, population
increase, and construction problems. Most importantly, demographic and socio-
economic trends are playing a role in increasing city‟s exposure to weather and
climate-related damage, through factors such as housing developments in areas
vulnerable to flooding and other risks (Jimoh 2008). This twofold expansion
increases the exposure and vulnerability of Maiduguristreets to flooding, and also,
as a consequence, the social and economic damage in case of a catastrophic flood
event (Offiong et al., 2008).
Jimoh (2008) assessed drainage problems in the tropical environment of
Ilorin. The results of the finding include: the dimensions of drainage channels are
adequate to permit free flow of water bodies given a good culture of drainage
system maintenance, various types of waste materials but in different proportions
have been found to be blocking the drainage channels, the problems of drainage
channels ranges from the occurrence of street flooding to environmental
deterioration and the splashing of water on other road users. And he concluded that
an obvious method for managing drainage channels is the adoption of
environmental education with emphasis on the technique for drainage channel
management. Flood problems within cities of the Niger Delta appear to be
increasing. This does not necessarily imply increasing rainfall but changing
landscapes are the underlying culprit. Built-up areas are spreading across the city
and increasing much faster than the provision of accompanying infrastructures.
Structures are erected anyhow and anywhere. In a study of drainage systems and
urban sustainability in Calabar, Eze (2008) concluded that flooding was observed

26
to be the principal consequence of poor drainage systems. This is compounded by
the rapid growth and development of the city though not with commensurate
infrastructural development especially drainage networks. This is why this study
becomes imperative.
2.1.12. Effects of Flooding
According to Askew (1999), natural disasters, such as the occurrence of
floods, cause much misery, especially in developing countries where low-income
earners undergo great stress. Losses due to floods reduce the asset base of
households, communities and societies through the destruction of standing crops,
dwellings, infrastructure, machinery and buildings, in addition to tragic loss of life.
From Lagos, Ibadan, Abeokuta, Calabar, Port-Harcourt and Warri in the southern
region through Ilorin, Abuja, Lokoja and Minna in the Middle belt to Kano,
Kaduna Jalingo, Maiduguri and Gombe in the North, the rains came down an
Flooding, as one of the most frequent and widespread of all environmental
hazards and of various types and magnitudes, occur in most terrestrial portions of
the globe, causing huge annual losses in terms of damage and disruption to
economic livelihoods, businesses, infrastructure, services and public health. Long
term data on natural disasters suggest that floods and wind storms (which
frequently lead to flooding) have been by far the most common causes of natural
disaster worldwide over the past 100 years (Ahern, Few, Matthias and Kovats,
2004). Worldwide, there has been rapid growth in number of people killed or
seriously impacted by flood disasters (UN-Water, 2011). Indeed, the amount of
economic damages affects a large proportion of people in low-lying coastal zones
or other areas at risk of flooding and extreme weather condition. According to UN-
Water (2011)floods, including urban flood is seen to have caused about half of
disasters worldwide, and 84% disaster deaths in the world was attributed to

27
flooding. Askew (1999) reiterated that floods cause about one third of all deaths,
one third of all injuries and one third of all damage from natural disasters.
According to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies, in 10 years from 2003 to 2013 flood disasters affected more people
across the globe (140 million per year on average) than all the other natural or
technological disasters put together (IFRC, 2003);with an increasingly urbanizing
world, flood disasters are reportedly increasing in urban areas and particularly
negatively impacting on poor people and urban development in general (Alam,
Herson, and O‟Donnel, 2008). Hendersons (2004) study of vulnerability to the
impact of flood in developing countries revealed that the level of risk and
vulnerability in urban areas of developing countries is attributable to socio-
economic stress, aging and inadequate physical infrastructure. Indeed, according to
Satterthwaite et al (2007), hundreds of millions of urban dwellers have no all-
weather roads, no piped water supplies, no drains and no electricity supplies; they
live in poor-quality homes on illegally occupied or sub-divided land, which
inhibits any investment in more resilient buildings and often prevents infrastructure
and service provision. However, according to Mantua and Lebel (2005), climate
change compounds the existing challenges of managing floods review of climate
change impacts on urbanization by the international institute of environment and
development (Huq, Kovat, Reid and Satterthwaitte, 2007) found that the floods are
already having severe impacts on cities, smaller urban centers and rural areas in
many African Nations. Examples cited include floods in Mozambique in 2000,
which displaced around 4000 people in Maputo alone and crippled transport
networks, breaking market links (Christie and Hanlon, 2001); heavy rains in East
Africa in 2002 that brought floods and mudslides and forced tens of thousands to
leave their homes in Rwanda, Kenya, Burundi, Tanzania and Uganda (Huq et’ al.,
2007).

28
2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.3 Concept of Drainage

Drainage is the process in which water leaches downward from the upper
soil layers to lower layers, or how surface water is removed. Proper drainage is
important because not all plants prefer moist conditions. In nature certain
minerals such as sand provide rapid drainage, while heavy minerals like clay can
restrict drainage. For container or potted plants drainage is facilitated by holes in
the bottom of the pot. Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's
water and sub-surface water from an area. The internal drainage of most
agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe ((waterlogging (anaerobic
conditions that harm root growth), but many soils need artificial drainage to
improve production or to manage water supplies (Amit, 2016).New drainage
systems incorporate geotextile filters that retain and prevent fine grains of soil
from passing into and clogging the drain. Geotextiles are synthetic textile fabrics
specially manufactured for civil and environmental engineering applications.
Geotextiles are designed to retain fine soil particles while allowing water to pass
through. In a typical drainage system they would be laid along a trench which
would then be filled with coarse granular material: gravel, sea shells, stone or
((rock. The geotextile is then folded over the top of the stone and the trench is
then covered by soil. Groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flows
through the stone to an outfall. In high groundwater conditions a perforated
plastic (PVC or PE) pipe is laid along the base of the drain to increase the volume
of water transported in the drain (Dipanjan, 2014).

29
 Alternatively, a prefabricated plastic drainage system made of HDPE called
(Smart Ditch, often incorporating geotextile, coco fiber or rag filters can be
considered. The use of these materials has become increasingly more common
due to their ease of use which eliminates the need for transporting and laying
stone drainage aggregate which is invariably more expensive than a synthetic
drain and concrete liners. Over the past 30 years’ geotextile and PVC filters have
become the most commonly used soil filter media. They are cheap to produce
and easy to lay, with factory controlled properties that ensure long term filtration
performance even in fine silty soil conditions (Sule, 2010).

Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture. In the northern
United States and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes which
gradually filled with humus to make marshes. Some of these were drained using
open ditches and trenches to make ((muck lands, which are primarily used for
high value crops such as vegetables. The largest project of this type in the world
has been in process for centuries in the Netherlands. The area between
Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times swampland and small
lakes. Turf cutting (Peat mining), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually
caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem.
The invention of wind-powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted
drainage of some of the marginal land, but the final drainage of the lake had to
await the design of large, steam powered pumps and agreements between
regional authorities. The elimination of the lake occurred between 1849 and
1852, creating thousands of km² of new land (Udofia, 2002). Coastal plains and
river deltas may have seasonally or permanently high water tables and must have
drainage improvements if they are to be used for agriculture. An example is the

30
flatwoods citrus-growing region of Florida. After periods of high rainfall, drainage
pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet
soils. Rice production requires complete control of water, as fields need to be
flooded or drained at different stages of the crop cycle. The Netherlands has also
led the way in this type of drainage, not only to drain lowland along the shore, but
actually pushing back the sea until the original nation has been greatly enlarged
(UNCED, 1992).

In moist climates, soils may be adequate for cropping with the exception
that they become ((waterlogged for brief periods each year, from snow melt or
from heavy rains. Soils that are predominantly clay will pass water very slowly
downward, meanwhile plant roots suffocate because the excessive water around
the roots eliminates air movement through the soil. Other soils may have an
impervious layer of mineralized soil, called a hardpan or relatively impervious rock
layers may underlie shallow soils. Drainage is especially important in tree fruit
production. Soils that are otherwise excellent may be waterlogged for a week of
the year, which is sufficient to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of the land
until replacements can be established. In each of these cases appropriate
drainage carries off temporary flushes of water to prevent damage to annual or
perennial crops. Drier areas are often farmed by irrigation, and one would not
consider drainage necessary. However, irrigation water always contains minerals
and salts, which can be concentrated to toxic levels by evapotranspiration.
Irrigated land may need periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and
drainage to control soil salinity (Tettey, 2005).

31
 Poor drainage is easily spotted in areas where water tends to pool following
a rainstorm.

Drainage can be improved by adding compost or sand. Potting soil is

formulated for adequate seepage of water through the addition of perlite or
vermiculite. Some plants are said to prefer “wet feet,” which means that they are
able to survive extended periods of moist conditions. Rain gardens are an
example of gardens that can tolerate poor drainage. Succulents on the other
hand, thrive in more arid climates and soils, and therefore require a lighter, better
drained medium such as sand. Where proper drainage cannot be achieved
through natural means, corrugated piping called tiling may be installed below the
growing surface to move moisture away from the plant's roots (Hualou, 2011).

2.4 Concept of Flooding

Flood is a large amount of water covering an area that is usually dry. It is an

overflowing of a great body of water over land not usually submerged. Nwafor
(2006) defined flood as a natural hazard like drought and desertification which
occurs as an extreme hydrological event. On the other hand, Abam (2006),
defined flood as large volume of water which arrives at and occupy the stream
channel and its flood plain in a time too short to prevent damage to economic
activities including homes. Floods occur in Nigeria in three main forms: coastal
flooding, river flooding and urban flooding (Folorunsho and Awosika 2001). They
noted that coastal flooding occurs in the low-lying belt of mangrove and fresh
water swamps along the coast. River flooding occurs in the flood plains of the
larger rivers, while sudden, short-lived flash floods are associated with rivers in
the inland areas where sudden heavy rains can change them into destructive

32
torrents within a short period. Urban flooding on the other hand occurs in towns,
on flat or low-lying terrain especially where little or no provision has been made
for surface drainage, or where existing drainage has been blocked with municipal
waste, refuses and eroded soil sediments (Olagunorisa, 2004). Floods are the
most common and widespread of all the natural hazards. In many parts of the
world according to Ocheri and Okeke (2012) floods seem to be occurring more
often and they seem to be increasing in size. Floods are generally regarded as
extreme hydrological events, where there is excess of water which may have
devastating effects. According to Aderogba (2012), floods in tropics are partly or
wholly climatological in nature, that is, they result from torrential rainfall.
Floods by nature are complex events caused by a range of human
vulnerabilities, inappropriate development planning and climate variability.
Normal floods are expected and generally welcomed in many parts of the world
as they provide rich soil, water and a means of transport, but flooding at an
unexpected scale and with excessive frequency particularly flash floods causes
damage to life, livelihoods and the environment. Many factors have been linked
to the incidence of floods in many cities of Nigeria.

2.5 Concept of Sustainable City Development

Successful national economies depend on well-functioning and resilient

urban centers. Urgent action is needed now both to address urban centers
current vulnerabilities to extreme weather and to build into expanding urban
centers protection from likely future changes (Satterthwaite et al, 2007). The
quality of the urban space is vital to sustainable livelihood; it is important to
understand the relationship between sustainable development and flood

33
occurrence especially in an expanding city like Maiduguri The concept of
sustainable urban development was advanced to help cities cope with increasing
environmental challenges. The concept of sustainability was coined in 1972 at the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. It means
that sustainable development is a kind of development that considers supplying
todays need without decreasing posterity ability to supply their needs. In fact,
sustainable development and management is development that considers
creating, maintaining and increasing life quality of all human kinds in all periods of
time (Mannion, 2002). After the United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome
Document refers to the “interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars”
sustainable development is considered as economic development, social
development, and environmental protection (Zhangh, Zhangh, and Yongzhi 2011).
As the rapid growth of world population and its concentration in cities around the
globe takes place, sustainable urban development has constituted a crucial
element affecting the long-term outlook of humanity. In order to achieve
sustainable urbanization, cities need to develop social and economic structures
without damaging the environment, and achieve a balance between the human
inhabitants and the natural resources (Abu-Ghazalah, 2008). However, urban
areas are complex and are constantly changing. Many cities in the developing
countries have older forms of planning, and are surrounded by large informal
settlements or slums (UN- Habitat, 2009). This is the case in Maiduguriwhere
most of the traditional houses are without adequate drainages to contend with
the volume of storm waters.

A more disturbing issue is the lack of attention to the promotion of

sustainable environmental management especially in disaster prone areas

34
resulting in devastations which could have been averted. Sustainable urban
planning should avoid harm before the need for mitigation measures. The
provision of green infrastructure should be an integral part of the creation of
sustainable cities throughout Nigerian towns and cities. Surface water drainage
methods that take account of quantity, quality and amenity issues are collectively
referred to as Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (Jimoh, 2008). These systems
are more sustainable than conventional drainage methods because they: Manage
runoff flow rates, reducing the impact of urbanization on flooding protect or
enhance water quality. Sustainable urban drainage systems are now a
requirement in all but the very smallest of new developments and are a key
method of ensuring that existing flooding problems within the area are not made
worse. The planning system should take the possible impacts of climate change,
for example greater rainfall and increased risk of flooding, into account when
taking decisions on the locations of new development and other changes in land
use (Aderamo, 2008). The concept of sustainable urban development calls for
effective and efficient planning of urban space. Physical planning involves the
reconciliation of land uses, provision of the right site for the right use, control of
development, provision of facilities, services and public goods, preservation,
protection and conservation of resources, preservation of heritage among others
(Oduwaye, 2009). It ensures compatible land uses, guarantees orderly
development and provides functional and visually pleasing environment and
satisfactory services in a sustainable manner.

It is only when development controls are put in place that sustainable

urban development can be achieved. Olajuyigbe et al (2012) recognized this fact
when they stated that physical planning established the „ground rules‟ for

35
sustainable development as it ensures that developments are carried out without
harming the environment. Again, the process ensures that such developments are
socially just. According to Oyesiku (1997), effective urban land control and
management particularly in areas with rapid urban sprawl is crucial to tackling
growing land use problems such as slum formation, rising costs of land,
accessibility to urban land for housing, incompatible use, flooding, overcrowding
and congestion among others purpose of achieving sustainable city development
and ensure the safety and health of the people. The forms and patterns of
distribution of structures in general to promote the good health, accessibility,
convenience and harmonious land use in environment are a function, to a
considerable extent, of the rights and methods of dealing with land. Central to
this rights and method of dealing with land is sustainable urban development.
Recurring floods and other disasters are serious threat to sustainable
development. The impact can be very high in the urban areas, because the areas
affected are densely populated and contain vital infrastructure. A more disturbing
issue is the lack of attention to the promotion of sustainable environmental
management especially in disaster prone areas resulting in devastations averted.
In addition, it is the poor people that are more vulnerable to disasters.
Continuous and increasing occurrence of devastating disaster events such as
urban flooding often poses substantive danger to the achievement of both
sustainable development and poverty-reduction initiatives (UN habitat, 2009).
More so, the concept of sustainable urban development emphasized the need for
integrated approach in management plans. According to the World
Meteorological Organization (2008), integrated flood management (IFM) within

36
the overall integrated water resources management promotes an integrated and
holistic-rather than fragmented –approach to flood management.

The concept endorses the combination of policy, regulatory, financial and

physical measures. These are the pillars of Sustainable urban development. It also
requires adequate planning and control to ensure harmonious development and
functional land uses and settlements. To achieve this fundamental and acceptable
activity, layouts of various land uses such as residential, commercial. Industrial,
open spaces and recreation, circulation and institutional uses among others and
adequate drainages are undertaken to standardize and control physical
developments and ensure harmonious growth (Sule, 2009). To ensure adequate
provision of these use and meet the needs of users of urban facilities and services
land allocation and space standards should be specified in all master plans. In
addition, as the population of cities becomes more urbanized and cities grow,
urban planning becomes more critical (Sule, 2007).

37
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES

3.1 The Study Area

3.1.1 Location and Extent

Maiduguri Metropolis, a major city in the Northeastern corner of Nigerian,

is located between latitudes 11˚04'N and 11˚44'N; and between longitudes
13˚04'E and 13˚44'E. It covers a total land area of 543 km2, which makes it the
largest city in the Northeastern region of Nigeria (Daura, 2002). Maiduguri Urban
now extends to four Local Government Areas (LGAs): Maiduguri Metropolitan,
Jere, and Konduga and to a smaller extent part of Mafa LGAs. The city sits along

38
the seasonal Ngadda River which disappears into the Firki swamps in the areas
around Lake Chad. Maiduguri was founded in 1907 as a military outpost the
British and has since grown rapidly with a population exceeding 1 million by 2007.
The region was home to the Kanem-Bornu Empire for centuries, Maiduguri
actually consists of the two cities: Yerwa to the west and old Maiduguri to the
east. Old Maiduguri was selected by the Poritish as their military headquarters
while Yerwa was selected at approximately the same time by Shehu Abubakar
Gabai of Borno replace Kukawa as the new traditional capital of the Kanuri people
(Wikipedia, 2017).

3.2 Nature of Data Required

The data used in this study consist of information on: the intensity and frequency
of floods in Jiddari Polo, gwange and fori the spatial distribution and intensity of
drainage networks in those area, the effect of poor drainage system on the
residents of the study area, the drainage system in the area and the attitudes of
the residents towards poor drainage system and flooding.

3.2.1 Sources of Data

The study generated data through both primary and secondary sources.

3.2.2 Primary Source

The primary data were gathered through the use of interview schedules, in-
depth interview with residents in the study area and physical observation.

3.2.3 Secondary Data

39
 The secondary data was sourced from official publications of various
newspapers and reports carried out by government, NGOs; United Nations
Reports, scholarly articles, text books, unpublished research materials, Websites
and other related materials.

3.2.4 Method of Data Collection

The study is a survey research in that data was generated on the field through
physical observation, oral interview, structured interview schedules and
photographs.

3.2.5 Sampling Size and Sampling Techniques

The sample size for this study was 221 respondents which is 05% of the
population of the study area Jiddari Polo (4,420). The sampling technique was
simple random due to the population size of the study area

3.2.6 Methods of Data analysis

The primary data collected was subjected to descriptive statistical tools for
analysis such as frequency distribution table, percentages and charts.

40
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 Data Presentation
This chapter present and analyze the data collected from the field survey. A
total of 221 questionnaires were administered to the respondents out of which 200
were successfully retrieved while 21 questionnaires were not retrieved. This gives
a response rate of 91% which formed the basis for data analysis in this chapter.
Table 4.0 Socio Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
Sex Frequency Percentage
Male 140 70
Female 60 30
Total 200 100
18 years 50 25
18-27 years 70 35
28-37 years 60 30
38 years and above 20 10

41
Sex Frequency Percentage

Total 200 100

Single 110 55
Married 70 35
Widow - -
Widower - -
Separated 20 10
Total 200 100
Non-formal education 20 10
Primary 30 15
Secondary 70 35
Post-secondary 80 40
education
Total 200 100
Farmer 12 06
Civil servant 40 20
Business 68 34
Student 44 22
Unemployed 36 18
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018

Table 4.0 shows the socio demographic characteristics of the respondents.

As can be seen in the table, majority of the respondents (70%) were males while
30% were females. The age distribution of the respondents indicates that, 25%

42
were within 18 years, 35% were between 18-27 years, 30% of them were between
28-37 years while 10% of them were between 38 years and above. The marital
status shows that (55%) were single while 35% were married. However, 10% of
them were separated. Furthermore, the educational level of the respondents shows
that (10%) attended non-formal education, 15% of them attended primary school
as the highest level of their education, and 35% of them attended secondary while
40% of them attended post-secondary school. Notwithstanding, the occupational
distribution of the respondents indicates that (06%) were farmers, 34% of them
operate business, 20% of them were civil servants and 22% of them were students
while 18% were unemployed.
4.1 Frequency and Intensity of Flooding in Jiddari Polo, Maiduguri
4.1.1 The Frequency of Flooding in Jiddari Polo, Maiduguri
Table 4.2 presents the frequency of flood in the Jiddari Polo of Maiduguri.
From the table, about 112 (56%) of the respondents in the sampled area claimed
that they experience flood events every year. The table also revealed that over 34
percent of the sampled population in the study were of the view that flood do occur
in most parts of the year. On further probing it was discovered that the months that
usually record flood disasters over the last ten years are between March and
November. The table also indicates that 10% of those interviewed said flood occur
almost every month of the season while none of them said they have never
experience flood in their area.
Table 4.1 Frequency and Intensity of Flooding in Jiddari Polo, Maiduguri
Frequency of Flooding Frequency Percentage
Every year 112 56
Every month of the20 10
season 68 34

43
Frequency of Flooding Frequency Percentage
Most part of the year - -
Once in two years - -
None at all
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018
4.1.2 Flood Intensity in Jiddari Polo of Maiduguri
On flood intensity overwhelming majority of the respondents (50.%) said
flood occurrence in Jiddari Polo is often very high while 40% of the sampled
population agreed that flood use to be fairly high and 10% percent.
4.1.3 The Month that Flood Disaster often Occur in Maiduguri
The study sought to find out the month that the flood disaster often occurs in
the study area and the details of the information are presented in table 4.3.
Table 4.3:The Month that Flood Disaster often Occur in Maiduguri
Month of Flood Frequency Percentage
January to March - -
April to June 30 15
July to October 160 80
November to December 10 05
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018
Table 4.3 shows that overwhelming majority of the respondents (80%)
indicated that flood disaster often occurs between the months of July to October
and 15% thinks it is from April to June while 05% believes it is from November to
December
4.1.4The Volume of Flood in Jiddari Polo

44
 The residents of the study area confirmed that the flood after each rainfall is
devastated area because of thelay out and building plan of the area. Table 4.4
present the percentages of the responses.
Table 4.4:The Volume of Flood in Jiddari Polo
Flood Volume Frequency Percentage
Very high 52 24
Considerably high 48 26
Moderate 64 32
Low 20 10
Very low 16 08
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018
Table 4.5 shows that about one third of the respondents (32%) indicated that
the volume of the flood in Jiddari Polo is moderate compare to it occurrences in
other states like Lagos, Ibadan etc. About 26% of the respondents indicated that the
volume of the flood is considerably high while 24% of them confirmed that there is
high volume of flood in the area. However, 10% of them admitted that there is low
volume of flood in the area while 08% of them indicated that the volume of the
flood is very low.
4.2 The Spatial Distribution of Drainage Networks in someAreas
The study assesses the spatial distribution of drainage network in some
areas in Maiduguri in order to compare with that of Jiddari polo (the study area)
4.2.1 Drainage Width, Depth and Flood (Runoff) In Some Area in Maiduguri
The result in Table 4.5 presents the geometry of the drainage channels and
runoff estimation in the some areas in Maiduguri in relation to the study area
(Jiddari Polo) in comparative term. As observed and measured. The drains consist
majorly of channels with open trenches, which are rectangular in shape with

45
concrete lining and covering; however, most of the drainage channels in the
interior of the city are left open. It is important to note that drainage channels along
important routes like high court way, around the major road, and those around
Jiddari clinic were observed to be very poor or not well constructed. However, in
many part of the area, there are good town planning and Good Street but not
drainage network.
From the Table, it can be seen that the drainages are characterized by
different dimensions. For example, the width of available drainage channels ranges
from 35.3cm to 88.6cm and the total mean width of the drainage channels is
51.8cm. For the depth of the drainage channels, it ranged from 28cm to 59cm with
a total mean depth of the measured drainage channels being 42.2cm. Similarly, the
range of the runoff is 7m3/s to 39.8 with mean values of 25.03m3/s. However, the
width to depth ratio was 1.10. In all, 7 drainage channels were surveyed. The total
mean value of runoff measured during rainstorm in three months (March to May
2018) in Damboa road, was 38.12m3/s. In Old GRA, the mean value of the
drainage width is 84.8cm; depth was 63cm while the width to depth ratio is
calculated to be 1.34 with the total of 4 gutters measured and runoff 42.10m3/s. In
Ngomari custin, the average width of drainage was 75.3cm; depth of drainages in
the area had mean values of 45cm and total of 6 gutters were measured with runoff
of 36.0m3/s. Similarly, in London Chiki, mean values of the drainages width was
61.3cm, the depth was 38cm with a width to depth ratio of 1.6 and runoff of
38.01m3/s was recorded in the area during the specified period. The total numbers
of channels measured were [Link] 4.4 also revealed that Bulunkutu area have the
highest number of drainage channels as about 13 drainage channels were counted
and measured. The mean values of the width and depth of the drainages was
calculated to be 107.6cm and 69.0cm, while the width to depth ratio is given as
1.55 and runoff was about 49m3/s. The Table further indicates that the zone with

46
the least number of drainage channels is Jiddari Polo. The mean width and depth of
the drainage channels was 82cm and 56 cm respectively. The width to depth ratio
was 1.46 and a total of 3 channels were observed and measured and 32.2m3/s
volume of runoff was recorded. In the satellite town, the average value of the width
was 55.5 cm while the depth was 36 cm and the width to depth ratio is 1.54 and
runoff was 09m3/s.
Table 4.5 Drainage Width, Depth and Flood (Runoff) In Some Area in
Maiduguri
Sampled zones Mean Mean depthW/D ratio Number ofMean value of
Width ofof drainage drainage runoff (m3/s)
drainage (cm) channels
(cm) in the
clusters
Damboa road 64 58 1.10 7 38.12
Old GRA 84.8 63 1.34 8 32.10
Ngomari Custin 75.3 45 1.67 6 26.0
Lundon Chiki 41.3 38 1.61 8 38.01
Bulunkutu 107.6 69 1.55 13 49.8
Jiddari Polo 82 56 1.46 3 32.2
Total 455 329 9.09 45 216.23
Field Survey, 2018
On the relationship existing among the three variables drainage width, depth
and runoff volume, it is clear that drainages that are wide tend to contain larger
volume of runoff, but this was not consistent across the sampled drainages. Little
variations were recorded in some zones. In the case of Bulunkutu, the mean width
of the drainage is 107.6cm with 49.8 S/cm runoff volumes was recorded. It was

47
also observed that the same situation was replicated in Old GRA where the mean
width of the drainage channel is 84.8cm with runoff volume of 42.10S/cm.
However, the different pattern was observed in the remaining drainages. In the
study sites, it was evidenced that the drainages were not wide and deep enough to
contend with the high volume of water that pass through them hence the regular
incidences of floods. This was particularly observed in areas like Bulunkutu where
even after days of heavy rainfall stagnant water can still be seen on the area
Similarly, in most of the areas where the drainages were constructed during
the long time ago, the drainages were also observed to be narrow and dilapidated
During rainstorm, the water passing through often overflows the drainage bounds
removing some concrete surfaces which have become weak due to aging and
constant erosion by water. It was also observed that most of these drainages are
blocked by waste products which also hamper the free flow of water in the area.
4.2.2 Environmental States of Drainage Systems in Maidugurip
[Link] Factors of Flood Occurrence
The incidence of floods in Maiduguri was attributed to diverse causes.
Maiduguri like other cities in Nigeria lack adequate storm water way. This is
evident in the recurrent waves of flood events in the study area. Table 4.6 revealed
that heavy rainfall was claimed to be the main factor of flood occurrence in
Maiduguri (38%). Statistical evidence from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency
(NIMET), Maiduguri shows that the mean annual rainfall for the city based on
1912-2011 rainfall data of the area is 125.78mm. These will mean volumes of
water running off roofs and paved surfaces from such storms are enormous. All too
often, drains and culverts cannot cope and localized flash flooding occurs. These
flash floods happen suddenly, with little lead time for warning; they are fast-
moving and generally violent, resulting in threat to life and severe damage to
property and infrastructure; and they are generally small in scale with regard to

48
area of impact. The table further indicates that 22% of the sampled population
attributed flood events in the city to inadequate drainage channels. In a similar
vein, poor physical planning was also identified as another factor of flood
occurrence with a response intensity of 16 percent. Despite the efforts of the Borno
State government to keep the city of Maiduguri clean, waste can still been seen
strewed in gutters and road junctions.
Table 4.6: Factors of Flood Occurrence
Factors of Flood Frequency Percentage
Building on water channels 8 8
Poor Physical Planning 22 22
Inadequate Drainage Channel 25 25
Heavy rainfall 15 15
Dumping of wastes on channels 30 30
All of the above
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018
On drainage dimension, the study, it was shown that the drainage
dimensions vary from one study zone to another. However, the general observation
is that the width and depth of the gutters in most of the sampled zones are narrow
as exemplified by frequency flood episodes. This study also revealed that factors of
flood occurrence in the sampled area is linked to building on water channels, poor
physical planning, inadequate drainage channels, heavy rainfall, nature of terrain,
dumping of refuse on drainage channels. However, different weighted responses
were given in the respective factors of flood occurrence. For instance, 38. % of the
respondents attributed the frequency of flood in the city to heavy rainfall. In the
same way, 22% of the sampled households traced the problems of flood to
inadequate drainages while 16% of the people interviewed said flood occurs

49
because of poor planning. Other factors like poor planning, inadequate drainage
channels, heavy rainfall, nature of terrain, dumping of refuse on drainage channels,
only aided the incidence of flooding in tropical urban areas of Nigeria.
4.2.3 Perceived Causes of Inadequate Drainage Networks in Maiduguri
The result in Table 4.7 presents the perceived causes of inadequate drainage
network in the city of Maiduguri. It can be observed that non-conformity to land
use planning was identified as a major factor responsible for inadequate storm
water channels in the study area. About 25% of those interviewed linked poor
drainages to non-conformity to land use zonation. Closely following this factor
was poor monitoring and evaluation of project as high as 22% of those sampled
accepted that poor monitoring and evaluation is a serious problem that affects the
standardization of drainages in the city. In addition, 17% of the sampled population
attributed inadequate funding as a factor that hampered the provision of adequate
drainages in the city. Also about 18% of the respondents claimed government
neglects this segment of urban infrastructure development while 19% of them said
all the above mentioned are attributed to the causes.
Table 4.7: Perceived Causes of Inadequate Drainage Networks in Maiduguri
Perceived Causes Frequency Percentage
Government negligence 36 18
Inadequate funding 34 17
Poor monitoring and evaluation of44 22
projects
Nonconformity to land use planning 50 25
All of the above 38 19
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018
4.2.4: Quality of Drainage Networks

50
 The result in Table 4.8 presents data on the quality of drainage networks in
the study area. From the table, it can be observed that there was an overwhelming
agreement across the sampled flood prone areas that the dimensions of the
drainages is well below the volume of storm water that is often experienced in the
area. The table revealed that more than one third (39%) of the sampled households
accepted that the drainage channels in their area were very narrow. The table
further revealed that some of the respondents (30%) are of the view that the
drainages were not well designed. These views were unevenly distributed in the
sampled area. For instance, 16% of the respondents said the drainages were not
plastered properly, while, 15% of the sampled population held almost similar
views that the drainages were highly fractured
Table 4.8: The Quality of Drainage Network within the Study Area
Month of Flood Frequency Percentage
Very Narrow 78 39
Not well designed 60 30
Not well plastered 32 16
Highly fractured 30 15
Others - -
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018
4.3 The Effect of Poor Drainage System on the Residents of the Study Area
The study identifies the effects of poor drainage system on the residents of
Jiddari Polo of Maiduguri Metropolitan Council as shown below
4.3.1 Effects of Poor Drainage Network on the Environment/Infrastructure of
the Study Area
The observation has been corroborated elsewhere in Nigeria. According to
Etuonovbe (2011), floods are the most devastating natural disasters, claiming more

51
lives and causing damage to properties than any other natural phenomena. In
Maiduguri, though not leading in terms of claiming lives, flood affects and
displaces more people than any other disaster after insurgency. It also causes more
damage to properties and at least 20% of the population of Nigeria is at risk of one
form of flooding or the other.
In figure 4.2, it can be observed that majority (30%) of the respondents have
their houses flooded which serve as a source of water pollution, 28% of the
respondents said they are prevented from moving out, while 20% of the sampled
population accepted that flooding distort and collapses their houses. More so, about
12% of them indicated that the flooding lead to landslide/erosion, 10% of the
respondents confirmed that the flooding distort the beauty of their street and
houses. Generally, beside the personal effects of flooding, all the respondents
noted that flooding has affected public infrastructures such as roads been
submerged, electric and telephones pulled down, markets, schools and churches
flooded and drainage channels blocked with wastes. It was also observed that
majority of the buildings do not obey established meters setback to the drainage
channels and from one building to another.
4.3.2: The Poor Drainage of the Area gives Room for excessive Flooding
The result in Table 4.9 presents perception of the respondents as whether the
poor drainage system in Jiddari Polo gives room for excessive flooding. The table
revealed that more than half (85%) of the respondents said yes while only 10% of
them that said No and smaller percentage of them05% were undecided.
Table 4.9: The Poor Drainage of the Area gives Room for excessive Flooding
Opinions Frequency Percentage
Yes 170 85
No 20 10

52
Opinions Frequency Percentage
Undecided 10 05
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018

4.3.3: The Poor Drainage of the Area Paves ways for Breads of Mosquitos and
other Bacterial
The result in Table 4.10 presents perception of the respondents as whether
the poor drainage system in Jiddari Polo paves ways for breads of mosquitos and
other bacterial. The table shows that overwhelming percentage of the respondents
(72%) indicated yes while only 11% of them that said No and 13% of them were
not sure.
Table 4.10: The Poor Drainage of the Area Paves ways for Breads of
Mosquitos and other Bacterial
Opinions Frequency Percentage
Yes 142 72
No 22 11
Not Sure 26 13
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018

4.3.4: Outbreaks of Cholera as a Result of Poor Drainage System in Jiddari

Polo

53
 The study sought to ascertain whether there is outbreak of cholera in Jiddari
Polo as result of Poor drainage system in the area and the details of this
information is presented in Table 4.11
Table 4.11: Outbreaks of Cholera as a Result of Poor Drainage System in
Jiddari Polo
Opinions Frequency Percentage
Yes 104 52
No 52 26
Not Sure 48 24
Total 200 100
Field Survey, 2018

The result in Table 4.11 on the opinions of the respondents as whether there
is outbreak of cholera in Jiddari Polo as result of Poor drainage system in the area.
As shown in the Table, more than half of the respondents (52%) said yes, 26% of
them said No while 24% were not sure

4.4 The Attitudes of the Residents towards Drainage System and Flooding in
the Area

The attitudes of the residents of the study area towards poor drainage system in
the area is presented below:

4.4.1 There is Poor Maintenance Culture of the Residents to Drainage

The study sought to ascertains whether there is poor maintenance culture in

the residents towards to drainage in the study area and the details is presented in
Figure 4.4

54
Figure 4.4: There is Poor Maintenance Culture of the Residents to Drainage

The result in Figure 4.4 on the perception of the respondents on whether

there is poor maintenance to drainage in the study area. As shown the Figure,
overwhelming majority of the respondents (61%) confirmed yes while 29% of
them said No and 10% of them were not sure.

4.4.2 Effect of the Poor Maintenance Culture

The construction of drainages will be a waste when not properly maintained.

The performance of a drain is attributed not only to how effective it is utilized, but
also to the conditions therein. These conditions include the presence of waste, the
presence of growing plants and leakages. These challenges do not only retard flow
in the drain, but they also increase overflow conditions. It was clear that the
drainage challenges within the area was as a result of poor maintenance of the
drains themselves. This has created habitats for growing weeds and stagnation of
water.

4.4.3 Lack of Community Participation

One of the main obstructions preventing the successful control of storm

runoff measures either by structural or non-structural measures is the absence of
community participation in providing solutions to urban drainage problems.
Community participation simply depends on the desire and ability to organize
themselves, strict compliance to societal goals and rules, and providing medium of
direct communication by the appropriate authority. This provides linkages in which
municipal authorities can pass useful information to residents, and vice versa. It
can also develop into participatory function where well-defined priorities that
pertain to urban drainage can be evaluated. As a result of compliance, the level of

55
technical information as well as environmental education increases. The absence of
community participation gives room for repetition of earlier errors in tackling
drainage problems and also low investments in urban facilities, identified the
biggest difficulty in community participation which is the wide difference in
socioeconomic levels amongst those living in the city. Poor people living in area
with run-down public services inherently pay little attention to public utilities. It is
no news anymore as people regard urban drainages as the place to dispose garbage.
The establishment of garbage collection system may not bring change if other
public services such as efficient and effective delivery of municipal waste to
disposal areas do not exist. However, environmental education programmes are
necessary but not adequate in eradicating urban drainage problems.

4.3 Discussion of the Finding

Based on the study conducted to assess the impacts of poor drainage on the
Jiddari and Maiduguri in general, the study comes up with the following findings.
The demographic characteristics of the respondents revealed that majority of the
respondents (70%) were males while 30% were females. The age distribution of
the respondents indicates that, 25% were within 18 years, 35% were between 18-
27 years, 30% of them were between 28-37 years while 10% of them were between
38 years and above. The marital status shows that (55%) were single while 35%
were married. However, 10% of them were separated. Furthermore, the
educational level of the respondents shows that (10%) attended non-formal
education, 15% of them attended primary school as the highest level of their
education, and 35% of them attended secondary while 40% of them attended post-
secondary school. Notwithstanding, the occupational distribution of the
respondents indicates that (06%) were farmers, 34% of them operate business, 20%

56
of them were civil servants and 22% of them were students while 18% were
unemployed.
The incidence of floods in Maiduguri was attributed to diverse causes.
Maiduguri like other cities in Nigeria lack adequate storm water way. This is
evident in the recurrent waves of flood events in the study area. The study revealed
that heavy rainfall was claimed to be the main factor of flood occurrence in
Maiduguri. Statistical evidence from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency
(NIMET), Maiduguri shows that the mean annual rainfall for the city based on
1912-2011 rainfall data of the area is 145.78mm. These will mean volumes of
water running.

On flood intensity, majority of the sampled population agreed that flood

events are often very high while other sampled households said level of flood
intensity in the city is always fairly high and only few of the respondents accepted
that flood intensity is often low in the city. It is imperative to note that the findings
of this are similar to previous studies on flood menace in Nigeria. For instance, in a
study by Daniel [Link], (2012) in Gombe state of Nigeria it was held that flood
incidences have become a perennial problem in Gombe metropolis as the city
experience flood during the wet seasons. Even though the average annual rainfall
figure (114.3cm) is low, yet every year there is a record of flood incidence. The
authors attributed the high frequency and intensity of flood to poor drainage
infrastructures. In a similar study by Abdulhamid and Ibrahim (2011) on episodic
disaster events occurrence in Zaria urban area of Nigeria, it was reported that
between 2007 and 2008, flood occurrence was the second highest disaster after fire
outbreaks. The authors noted that floods occurred 28 times within the said period
while 37 fire outbreak incidences were reported. The menace of flood respects no

57
state irrespective of climatic features as the studies of Daniel [Link] and Abdulhamid
and Ibrahim have shown.

On perceived causes of inadequate drainages in Maiduguri, most of the

respondents of the respondents said nonconformity to land use planning is the
major cause in adequate drainage network in the city of Maiduguri. Others were of
the opinion that poor monitoring of drainage projects account for the prevalence of
inadequate drainage conditions in city. It was also observed that 18.2% of those
interviewed linked the problem of inadequate drainages to government negligence
while others said poor funding of such projects was responsible for the problem of
poor drainage networks in the city of Maiduguri. The study also revealed that the
effects of flood in Maiduguri include streets inundation by flood waters,
landslide/erosion, distortion of the beauty of the environment, silting of streams,
prevented from going out among others. The finding of this study is line with the
studies of Offiong [Link], (2008), Offiong and Imoke (2008), Eze (2008), Jimoh
(2008), Adedeji [Link], (2012), Aderogba (2012a, 2012b), These studies listed the
effects of flood in most southern and northern parts of Nigerian to include both not
limited to death of people especially children and the aged, damage to properties,
displaces people prevented from moving out, houses collapsed, pollution of
sources of water especially hand dug wells, flooding also affects public
infrastructures such as roads been submerged, electric and telephones pulled down,
markets, schools and churches flooded and drainage channels blocked with wastes.

This study also revealed that factors of flood occurrence in the sampled
areas is linked to building on water channels, poor physical planning, inadequate
drainage channels, heavy rainfall, nature of terrain, dumping of refuse on drainage
channels. However, different weighted responses were given in the respective
factors of flood occurrence. For instance, a significant number of the respondents

58
attributed the frequency of flood in the city to heavy rainfall. In the same way, the
sampled households traced the problems of flood to inadequate drainages while
others said flood occurs because of poor planning. Other factors like poor
planning, inadequate drainage channels, heavy rainfall, nature of terrain, dumping
of refuse on drainage channels, only aided the incidence of flooding in tropical
urban areas of Nigeria. This has been confirmed by several studies (Oreola 2003;
Olagunorisa 2004; Abam 2006; Etuonovbe, 2011; Aderogba 2012). It is therefore
important that in the construction of drainages the authority should take note of the
fact that Maiduguri is located within the tropics characterized by prolong and
intense rainfall to avert or reduce flood events that has become a recurrent decimal
in today. However, in a study by Ole (2013) in Bombay India, floods were
observed to be mainly caused by inadequate existing drainage paths and their
improper operation and maintenance.

The state of the drainage (with regard to the prevalence of flood incidence
cannot be over emphasis because of the poor observance (Plate 4.1-4.3) of frequent
flooding in the area. It was observed that most of the buildings especially the
illegal structures are built either the drainage channels path or too close to the
drainage. This is a common feature in almost all the sampled areas. More so, it was
observed that during rainfall streets in areas like Jiddari Polo, London Chiki Dala
and Sabon Gari are often strewed with all kinds of waste including human excreta.
The presence of human excreta on streets possess‟ serious health hazards to the
people around these areas. The respective views on the quality of the drainages
across the sampled areas clearly points to the fact that the drainages are in poor
state. Plate 4.3 is an evidence of what one can easily find in most of the streets in
the sampled area. As the plate indicates, the persistent rain couple with the poor
materials and engineering works has made these gutters to look like rabbit holes.

59
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary
This study sought to assess the Effect of Poor Drainage Network in Relation to
Flooding in Jiddari Polo and Maiduguri in General. The study formalized five
objectives which are; to examine the intensity and frequency of floods, to evaluate
the spatial distribution and intensity of drainage networks, examine the effect of
poor drainage system on the residents of the study area, assess the drainage system
and determines the attitudes of the residents towards poor drainage system. The
frequency of floods episode in the city of Maiduguri is not unconnected to the
problem of inadequate drainage networks as the study has revealed. The study
indicates that a significant number of the respondent said flood occurs every year
in the city of Maiduguri while others were of the view that they do experience

60
flood most parts of the year. However, only few of the sampled residents claimed
they have never experience flood. This response is likely to have come from those
who live Satellite Town which is highbrow residential area with relatively
adequate drainages. On the frequency of flood, majority of the sampled population
supported the view that flood events are often very high while others said flood
episode is fairly high and only few claimed flood intensity is low in the city. The
also observed that drainage dimension in the study areasvary but generally the
depth and width of the drainages are not adequate for the runoff volume flowing
through them hence the incessant overflowing of the banks. A total of 4 channels
were studied. This area has little or no flood as rainstorm water flow freely without
any impediments. The study also indicates that heavy rainfall was the main factor
responsible for flood occurrence in Maiduguri. It is imperative to note that
different views were expressed as the perceived cause of inadequate drainage in
Maiduguri. On the bases of this, many of the sampled population blamed it on non-
conformity to land use zoning, poor monitoring and government negligence.

5.2 Conclusion
Flood remains a very serious environmental problem in Maiduguri.
Recurrent flood events in the city of Maiduguri have been traced to in inadequate
drainage channels. Many properties have been destroyed, lives lost and this has
subjected the people to unquantifiable trauma. More so, the menaces of flood have
been on the increase as a result of incipient and prolong weather conditions. The
findings of this study was to assess drainage network and floods occurrence in
Maiduguri Metropolis. The data collected from the field and extant literatures were
used to achieve the outlined objectives. The result revealed that flood occurs every
year and most parts of the season while the flood intensity ranges from very high
and fairly high. On the dimension of the drainages across the sampled areas, only

61
two areas hard consistent patterns of drainage width and runoff. That is, high
drainage width correlated positively with runoff volume in Bulunkutu and new
GRA. However, other areas showed irregular patterns in drainage width and runoff
volume. The presence of waste and other household items like furniture in the
gutters might have been responsible for the storm water over flowing it bounds.
Many factors were identified as being responsible for flood occurrence. Some of
them include building on storm water drainages, poor physical planning,
inadequate drainage channels, heavy rainfall, dumping of waste on drainage
networks and nature of the terrain. This flood causing factors have created series of
environmental and socioeconomic problems in Maiduguri. Some of which include
flooding of streets, lost of life, pollution of domestic water sources, distortion of
the beauty of the environment, prevented from going out among others.
In view of these, the study put forward some recommendations which when
implemented will help in mitigating flood incidence in Maiduguri. Some of the
recommendations are; the government should award contract to a competent
company for the construction of underground drainages covering the entire city of
Maiduguri, as surface drainages have created many problems to the resident
including the loss of lives, the present drainage systems should be cleared with
shove is on regular basis to allow for the free flow of storm water and the
government and NGOs should carry out massive awareness campaigns on the need
for the people to stop dumping waste in the drainage channels. In addition,
government should put in place flood early warning signal system with the
capability to deliver reliable timely and effective flood information at an
appropriate response time. This will help to reduce the loss of lives and properties
in the city.
5.3 Recommendations

62
 In view of these, the study put forward some recommendations which when
implemented will help in mitigating flood incidence in Maiduguri.
The government of Borno state should take proactive measure to mitigating the
storm waters by clearing the drainage channel on regular basis.

The government contract should be awarded to a competent company for the

construction of under drainages covering the entire city of Maiduguri, as surface
drainages have created many problems to the resident including the loss of lives.

The government and NGOs should carry out massive awareness campaigns on the
need for the people to stop dumping waste in the drainage channels.

The Borno State government should re-enact the monthly sanitation exercise which
will help in the total removal or reduction of waste in the drainage channels.
Government should put in place flood early warning signal system with the
capability to deliver reliable timely and effective flood information at an
appropriate response time.

63
REFERENCES
Abaje, I.B and Giwa, P.N (2008). Urban Flooding in Environmental Safety:
Urbanization, Resources Exploitation and Environmental Stability,
Association of Nigerian Geographer book of proceedings of the 4th annual
conference held in the department of Geography, University of Abuja, 15th-
19th October, 2007. Kaduna, Joyce publishers.
Abam, T.S. K. (2006). Development Policy Framework for Erosion and Flood
Control in Nigeria. EARTHWATCH - Magazine for Environment and
Development Experts in Nigeria, 5(1), 25-32.
Abdulhamid, A. I. and Ibrahim, J. M. (2012). A Study of Common Episodic
Disaster Events in Zaria Urban Area, Nigeria. Research Journal of
Environmental and Earth Sciences 3(2) 90-94.
Abu-Ghazalah, S. (2008). The Sustainable City Development Plan for Aqaba,
Jordan. Journal of Developing Societies, 24, 381-398.
Action Aid (2006).Climate Change, Urban Flooding and the Rights of the Urban
Poor in Africa. Report by Action Aid International Urbanization 19, 17- 37.
Adedeji, B. H., Bashir, O., Bongwa, A., and Olusegun, H. A. (2012). Building
Capabilities for Flood Disaster and Hazard Preparedness and Risk Reduction
in Nigeria: Need for Spatial Planning and Land Management. Journal of
Sustainable Development in Africa 14(1), 45-58.
Adedeji, O. H., Bashir, O., Oladesu, O., and Bongwa, A. (2012) Floods of Fury in
Nigerian Cities. Journal of Sustainable Development 5(7) 69-79

64
Adedeji, S., Adeola B., Adeyemi C., and Kuyoro, P. (2011). Panorama: The Day
the Heaven Opened up in Lagos The Tell: Nigerian Independent Weekly.
Lagos: Tell Communications Limited. 30, 11-13.
Adedeji. B, H. Bashir, O., Bongwa A. and Oladesu, O. (2012). Floods of Fury in
Nigerian Cities. Journal of Sustainable Development. 5(7) 69-79. L
Adeleye, A. and Rustum, R. (2011). Flooding and Influence of Urban Planning.
Journal Urban Design and Planning (ICE). 164(3) 175-187.
Aderamo, A. J. (2008). Urbanization and Transportation in Nigeria: Urbanization,
Resources Exploitation and Environmental Stability, Association of
Nigerian Geographer book of proceedings of the 4th annual conference held
in the department of Geography, University of Abuja, 15th-19th October,
2007. Kaduna, Joyce publishers.
Aderogba, K. A. (2012). Qualitative Studies of Recent Floods and Sustainable
Growth and Development of Cities and Towns in Nigeria. International
Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences 1(3)
90-97.
Afangideh, A. J., Ekpe, I. A. and Offiong, R. A. (2012). Implications of Changing
Rainfall Pattern on Building Loss in Calabar; www. [Link] . retrieved
3:12 pm 9/11/2013.
Agboola, T. (2002).Urban Violence, Urban Insecurity and Challenges of Good
Governance: The Evolving Disturbing Scenario from Abuja, Nigeria.
Proceedings of the 33rd Annual conference of the NITP, held at Ilorin,
October30th-1st November.
Ahern, M., Few, R., Matthies, F and Kovats, S. (2004). Floods, Health and Climate
Change: A Strategic Review”. Working Paper No. 63. Tyndall Centre for
Climate Change Research.

65
Akanni, O. and Bilesanmi, L. (2011). Flood: Lagos Residents Forced to Relocate,
Drowning Teenager Rescued in Vanguard: Towards a Better Life for the
People. Lagos: Vanguard Media Limited. Friday, July10 p. 20.
Alam, K., Herson, M. and O‟Donnel, I. (2008) Flood Disasters: Learning from
Previous Relief and Recovery Operations. Provention Consortium and
ALNAP. Amaize, E. (2011). “Flood Displaces 50 Villagers in Delta State”,
in Vanguard: Towards a Better Life for the People. Lagos: Vanguard Media
Limited. Monday, July, 4.p. 9.
Amit, K. D. (2016). Drainage system in highways. Term paper in transportation
engineering. Lovely professional Univerity. Puniab-India.
[Link]

Animashaun, I. A (2009). Topography and Urban Form. The Cage of Calabar,

Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Social and Development Issue 6(1) 114-127.
Arimah, B. C. (2002) The Face of Urban Poverty. Explaining the Prevalence of
Slums in Developing Countries, UNU-WIDER Working Paper No. 2010/30.
Askew, A. J. (1999). Water in the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction. Destructive Water: Water-caused Natural Disaster, their
Abatement and Control. IAHS Publication No. 239.
Bariweni, P. A. Abowei, J. F. and Tawari C. C. (2012). Some Environmental
Effects of Flooding in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria International
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 1: 35-46.
Brooks, N. O., (2003) “Vulnerability, Risk and Adaptation: A Conceptual
Framework” Tyndal Center for Climate Change Research Working Paper
38. pp20. Bath & North East Somerset Council (2016). Highways drainage.
Cedergreen, H.R., Arman, J.A., and O’Brien, K.H. (1973):“Development of
Guidelines for the Design of Subsurface drainage Systems for Highway

66
 Pavement Structural Sections,” FHWA-RD-73-14, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC.
Christie, F. M. and Hanlon, J. (2001).Mozambique and the GreatFflood of 2000.
International African Institute, Oxford.
Daniel, D.I., Juji, G. R., Nwosu, A. E and Omilolo, O. F. (2012). Analysis of the
Relationships of Urbanization Dynamics and the Incidence of Urban Flood
Disasters in Gombe Metropolis, Nigeria. Journal for Sustainable
Development in Nigeria. 14(2)1-14.
Darteh, B. (2011). Flooding in the City: The Blame Game. Accra Learning
Alliance Blog. Accessed from [Link] on 2010/08/
Dipanjan Mukherjee. (2014). Highway Surface Drainage System & Problems of
Water Logging In Road Section. The International Journal Of Engineering
And Science (IJES), 3(11), 44-51.

Douglas, I., Alam, K., Maghenda, M., Mcdonnell, Y., McLean, L., and Campbell,
J. (2008). Unjust waters: Climate Change, Flooding and the Urban Poor in
Africa. Environment and Urbanization, 20(1).
Duru, P. N and Nnaji, J.O. (2008). An Insight into the Role of Urbanizations in the
Pollution of Nworie River in Owerri-Imo State Nigeria.
Edet, A. E. (2004).Quality Assessment in Parts of Eastern Nigeria Delta. Nigerian
Environmental Geology. 22 (1) 41-46.
Enger, E. D. and Smith, B. F (2006). Environmental Science: A Study of
Interrelationships. New York. McGraw Hill Higher Education.

Etuonovbe, A. (2011). The Devastating Effect of Flooding in Nigeria. Paper

presented at the FIG Working Week. Marrakech, Morocco, 18th-22nd May.

67
Eze, B. E. (2008). Topography and Urban Expansion as Twin Factors of Street
Flooding in MaiduguriMunicipality, Cross River State. In ANG 50th annual
conference book of proceeding held on the 28th august, 2008 in university of
Maiduguri
Folorunsho, R. and Awosika, L. (2001). Flood Mitigation in Lagos, Nigeria
Through Wise Management of Solid Waste: A case of Ikoyi and Victoria
Islands; Nigerian, Paper Presented at the UNESCO-CSI Workshop, Maputo
19-23 November 2001).
Giwa, P.N (2007). Urban Flooding and Environmental Safety: A Case Study of
Maiduguri city in Borno State. In Urbanization, Resource Exploitation and
Environmental Stability in Nigeria. Joyce publishers, Kaduna.
Henderson, L. J. (2004). Emergency and Disaster: Pervasive Risk and Public
Bureaucracy in Developing Nations”. Public Organization Review: A
Global Journal 4: [Link]://[Link]/services/streets-and-
highway-maintenance/drains.
Hualou, L. (2011). Disaster Prevention and Management: A Geographical
Perspective. Disaster Advances 4(1)
Huq, S., Kovats, S., Reid, H. and Satterthwaitte, D. (2007). Editorial: “Reducing
Risks to Cities from Disasters and Climate Change”, Environment and
Urbanization, 19 (1) 3-15

Inyang, P. E. B. (1980). Pollution: A Factor in the Climate of Maiduguriand

Environs: Geographic Studies Department of Geography, University of
Maiduguri
IPCC, (2007), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Summary for
Policymakers, WHO, UNEP, accessible at
[Link]/news/press_room/

68
Iquot, A. (1982). Environmental Pollution: The High Faces of Canaan City
Nigerian Chronicle. Oct. 26 p5.
Jimoh, H. I. (2008). Drainage Problems in a Tropical Environment: Perspectives
on Urban Quality Management. Journal of Human Ecology. 23(4) 325-329.
Kwasi, G. (2011). Urbanization Processes – Environmental and Health effects in
Africa Panel Contribution to the PERN Cyber Seminar on Urban Spatial
Expansion.
Ladan, S. I. (2007). An Analysis of Urban flood in Katsina Metropolis, Katsina
State. In Urbanization, Resource Exploitation and Environmental Stability
in Nigeria AGN Joyce publishers, Kaduna.
Land Use Act, (1978). Population Growth and Paradigms Shift in Nigeria. Journal
for Tropical Development 3 (2) 198-202.
Magdi, M. E. Z. (2014). The Impacts of Poor Drainage on Road Performance in
Khartoum. International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Scientific
Emerging Research, 3(1). Retrieved from

Mannion, L. (2002). Population and Land Use Change in Nigeria Revised Edition.
2nd Edition 32 – 34
Manuta, J. and Lebel, L. (2005). “Climate Change and the Risks of Flood
Disasters in Asia: Crafting Adaptive and Just Institutions” Human Security
and Climate Change. An International Workshop Organised by Global
Environment and Security Project (GECHS), near Oslo, 21–23 June 2005
Markow, M.J. (1982): “Simulating pavement performance under various moisture
conditions,” In Transportation Research Record 849, TRB, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 24-29.
McGranahan, G. Balk, D., and Anderson, B. (2007). “The Rising Tide: Assessing
the Risks of Climate Change and Human Settlements in Low Elevation

69
 Coastal Zones”. Environment and UNESCO-IHE (Institute for Water
Education).
Mordi, R. (2011). “The Tsunami in the making”. The Tell: Nigerian Independent
Weekly. Lagos: Tell Communications Limited. No. 29 (July 25), pp. 54 -63.
NAAR, (1995). Nigerian Airport Authority Report. Abuja, FGN Printer. NPC,
(2009). Nigerian Journal for Environmental Development.
NCHRP (2002): “Development of the 2002 Guide for the Design of New and
Rehabilitated Pavement Structures,”the National Cooperative Research
Program(NCHRP), Project 1-37A,Transportation Research Board,
Washington D C.
Ndiyo, A. (2005). Fundamental of Research in Behavioral Sciences and
Humanities. Wusen Publications Maiduguri
Ntikiden E. E., Ekwerre, S. J. and Ukpong, E. E. (1993). Heavy Metal in Sediment
from Maiduguri Rivers Southeastern Nigeria. African Journal of
Environmental Studies. 2 (2) 228-231

Nwafor, J. C. (2006). Environmental Impact Assessment for Sustainable

Development: The Nigerian Perspective. Enugu: EL „DEMAK pubs, 359-394.
Ocheri. M. and Okeke, E. (2012). Social Impact and People‟s Perception of
Flooding in Makurdi Town Benue state Nigeria. Perspectives from West
Africa: published by Sunny Publications 30-42
Odemerho, F.O. (2003). Flood Control Failures in a Third World City: Benin City
Nigeria, some Environmental Factors and Policy Issues. Geo Journal 29(4)
371-376.
Oduwaiye, L. (2009). Challenges of Sustainable Physical Planning and
Development in Metropolitan Lagos, Sustainable Development, 2(1) 159-
171.

70
Oduwaye, L. (2009). Problems and Prospects of Primary Mortgage Institutions
(PMIs) in Nigeria: Case of selected PMIs in Lagos. Housing Today, 1 (8)
14-18.
Oelofse, C. (2002) “Dimensions of Urban Environmental risk” In: Nomdo, C. and
Coatzee (Eds): Urban Vulnerability: Perspectives from Southern Africa.
Published by PeriPeri Publications. 28-53.
Offiong, O. E., Atu, J. E., Njar, G. N. and Amuyou, U.A. (2008). Problems and
Prospects of Poor Drainage Systems and Urban Sustainability in Calabar,
Nigeria. Global Journal of Social Sciences 7(2) 121-127
Offiong, R. A and Imoke, E. O. (2008). Urban Floods: Appraisal of the Effects of
Flooding on Urban Infrastructure in MaiduguriMetropolis, Cross River State
Nigeria
Offiong, R. A. and Eni, D. I. (2007). Urban Floods: An Appraisal of the Effect of
Flooding on Urban Infrastructures in MaiduguriMetropolis, Cross River
State-Nigeria.

Ogba, C. and Utang, P (2008). Integrated Approach to Urban Flood Adaptation in

the Niger Delta Coast of Nigeria. Integrating Generations FIG working
week 2008. Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June, 2008.
Okupe, L. (2002). Private Sector Initiative in Housing Development in Nigeria –
How feasible? Housing Today, 1 (6), 21 – 26.
Olagunorisa, E. T. (2004). An assessment of flood vulnerability zones in the Niger
Delta, Nigeria, International Journal of Environmental Studies, 61,31-38.
Olajuyigbe, A. E. Rotowa, O.O. and Durojaye, E. F. (2012). An Assessment of
Flood Hazards in Nigeria: The case of Mile 12 Lagos. Mediterranean J. of
Social Sciences 3 (2) 367-375.

71
Olayiwola, L. M. (2006). Town Planning Instruments as a Strategy for Disaster
Risks Reduction in Nigeria, 5th Regional Conference, Accra, Ghana March
8-11.
Olufemi, F.B and Raheem U.A (2007). “Urban Development and Environmental
Implications: The Challenge of Urban Sustainability in Nigeria”. Ibadan
Journal of the Social Sciences. 6(1) 69-78.
Onokerhoraye, G. A (1995). Urbanization and Environment in Nigeria:
Implications for Sustainable Development. Benin city. The Benin Social
Sciences Series for Africa. 4 1-4
Onyeagacha, A.C (1980) Petrography and Depositional Environment of Benin
Formation Nigeria Journal of Mineral Geology. 147-151.
Oreola, E. O. (2003) „Anthropogenetic Activities and Flood Inducement in Urban
Environment: The Case study of Ado-Ekiti State, Nigeria‟ Proceeding of
Sustain Africa. Nigerian Meteorological Society. 5: 1 – 4. 0
Owuama C. O, Uja E, & Kingsley C. O. (2014). Sustainable Drainage System for
Road Networking. International Journal of Innovation, Management and
Technology, 5(2), 83-86. PatilAbhijit, &PatilJalindar. (2011). Effects of Bad
Drainage on Roads. Civil and Environmental

Oyesiku, O. O. (1997), The New Cities as a Physical Planning Strategy, The

Conceptual Understanding of Nigeria. Journal of Social Management
Science, 1:76 – 101.
Pelling, M. (2008) “The Vulnerability of Cities to Disaster and Climate Change: A
Conceptual Introduction”, in H.G Brauch (ed) Coping with Global
Environmental Change, Disasters and Social Security, Springer-Verlag,
London. Research, 1(1), 1-7.

72
Rokade, S., Agarwal, P.K. and Shrivastava, R. (2012):“Study on drainage related
performance of flexible highway pavements,” International Journal of
Advanced Engineering Technology (IJAET),Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp 334-337.
Satterthwaite, D., Saleemul, H., Mark, P., Reid, H. and Romero, P. (2007).
“Adapting to Climate Change in Urban Areas: The Possibilities and
Constraints in Low- and Middle-income nations” Human Settlements
Discussion Paper Series.
Sule, R.O. (2004). Environmental Consequences of Rapid Urbanization in
Countries of the Developing World. Thumbprint International Company,
Maiduguri
Sule, R.O. (2007). Urban Development Planning Framework: Nigerian
Experiment. Thumbprint International Company, Maiduguri
Sule, R.O. (2009). Environmental Pollution Criticality: A Synopsis. BAAJ
International Company, Maiduguri
Sule, R.O. (2010). Paradigm of Urbanization and Urban Planning in Africa.
Thumbprint International Company, Maiduguri
Taiwo, O. (2008). „Flood Sacks 500 in Babura‟ in This Day 13 No. 4867 p. 18
Tettey, C. (2005) Urbanization in Africa in Relation to Socio-economic
Development: Multifaceted Quantitative Analysis. A Dissertation Presented
to The Graduate School Faculty of The University of Akron, South Africa.
Tibaijuka, A. (2010). The Challenge of Urbanization and the Role of UN-Habitat.
A Lecture Delivered at Warsaw School of Economics, April 18th, 2008.
Udofia, E. (2002) Fundamental of Social Sciences Statistics. Gamma Rays
Publication, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State.
Victor K. Rono. (2010). An Investigation into The Adequacy Of The Drainage
System On Narok Mai Mahiu Road (Bachlor's thesis, University Of Nairobi,
Kenya). Retrieved From

73
 [Link]
Final%[Link]

Zumrawi, M.(2013),“Pavement design for roads on expansive clay

subgrades,”University of Khartoum Engineering Journal (UOFKEJ), Vol.3
Issue 1, pp.52-58.

74