 LESSON 1.

INTRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP
TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIALS
 INTRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY AND
MATERIALS
 1 Workshop Technology
 Workshop technology is the study of shop floor techniques
mainly Materials and Manufacturing Techniques (or shaping the
material for useful purpose).
- The materials are shaped by the following methods:
 Shaping the material in the molten stage or state;
 Casting; covers all metals; where as foundry covers shaping of
Cast iron only.
 Shaping the material in plastic stage or plastic deformation –
Smithy (Metal Forming or Metal Working).
 Shaping the material by removing unwanted material in the
shape of chips – Machining in Machine Shop.
 Shaping the material by cutting and joining – Welding.
 Shaping thin sheets – Sheet Metal Working.
- Tools used in shop floor
 Hand tools: Hand tools are held and used by hands
for shaping and sizing a work. Muscular energy is
used.
 Machine tools: The term machine tool is applied to
various classes of power driven metal cutting
machines such as used in machine shop. Machine
tools enable a cutting tool to operate upon a piece of
material to produce the desired shape, size and
surface quality by cutting away of material in the
form of chips.
 They require specific tool for performing their operation. The
tool must be harder than the material to be operated. Machine
tools may be called as mother of other machines, and almost any
product can be produced with them.
 2. Materials
 The selection of most suitable material for a particular
component often becomes a tedious job for an engineer, partly
because of the large number of factors to be considered which
 have bearing on problem and partly because of the availability
of very large number of materials and alloys possessing most
diverse properties from which the material has to be chosen. A
good knowledge of materials and their properties is also very
important, which helps in selecting most suitable material for a
particular application.
 2.1 The basic four types of principal properties of materials
affect their selection:
 Physical;
 Chemical;
 Mechanical; and
 Manufacturing/fabrication.
 2.1.1 Physical properties: Melting point; Co-efficient of
thermal expansion; Thermal conductivity; Sp. heat; Sp. gravity;
Electrical conductivity; Magnetic properties; etc.
 2.1.2 Chemical properties: Resistance to environment hazards;
acids; oxidation; water; bases; etc.
 2.1.3 Mechanical properties:
 Elasticity- ability to regain original shape after deformation
when the external forces are removed.
 Plasticity- ability to retain permanently the deformation
produced under load.
 Ductility- ability to be drawn into thin wires in tension.
 Malleability- ability to be flattened into sheets without
cracking.
 Toughness- related to impact strength, ability to withstand
deformation, shock loading and vibration.
 Resilience- ability to absorb energy.
 Stiffness- ability to resist deformation under stress.
 Hardness- ability to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting,
indentation, or penetration.
 Brittleness- related to fracture of material with negligible
plastic deformation.
 2.1.4 Manufacturing/Fabrication Properties:
 Castability: Shaping the metal in molten state by pouring into a
cavity.
 Weldability: Joining two similar/dissimilar metal pieces.
 Formability: Shaping the metal by deformation in plastic stage.
 Machineability: Shaping the part by removing unwanted
material by the use of cutting tool, which is made of harder
material than the material to be cut.
 Surface Properties: Coefficient of friction.
 In addition to the above some other processes are performed that
improve the properties of the material or the components.
- To improve surface qualities against environment hazards
 Painting, metal coating, metal spray, cladding etc.
 Surface coating process → Nickel-plating or Chromium-plating.
- To improve surface qualities against abrasion
 Heat treatment process → Surface or case hardening etc.
- Advance/Special Techniques in Machining
 Electronic Fabrication → Printed circuit Board (It is an acid-
etching process).

 Stone Age > Copper-Bronze Age > Iron Age > Modern
Age (Metal Alloys; Plastics; Ceramics; & Composites;
etc.)

 2.2 Engineering Materials:

 Engineering materials cover a wide range of Metals (Ferrous &
Non-ferrous) and Non-metals
 Ferrous Metals: Contain iron as principal constituent ( e.g. cast
iron and steel).
 Ferrous Alloys (or Fe + C Alloy): Steels contain Carbon < 2%
(Practically up to 1.4%); and Cast Irons contain Carbon from 2
to 6.67% (Practically, 2 to 4.5%).
 Steels has properties such as Formability (Forgeability),
Weldability and Machineability.
 Types of Steels:
 2.2.1 Plain Carbon Steels
 Low Carbon Steel (C < 0.3%) à Structural Steel or Mild Steel.
 Medium Carbon Steel (0.3 < C< 0.6%) à Most Machine
Components.
 High Carbon Steel (0.6 < C < 1.4%) à Cutting Tools, Springs
and Bearings.
 2.2.2 Alloy Steels: Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the
maximum of the range given for the content of alloying
elements exceeds one or more of the following limits:
 Mn =1.65%, Si = 0.60%, Cu = 0.60%
 or
 in which a definite range or a definite maximum quantity of any
of the elements (such as Al, B, Cr Up to 3.99%, Co, Mo, Ni, Ti,
W, V or any alloying element added ) to obtain a desired
alloying effect.
 High Speed Steel (HSS), an alloy of Cr and Ni, is used as
cutting tools to be operated at high speeds.
 Stainless Steel has great strength and toughness and extremely
good resistance to corrosion and heat.
 Table-1.1: Alloying elements and property achieved by the
steel


 Table-1.2: Property of steel required and alloying elements


 In general; W, Mo, V & Cr achieve above properties by forming
carbides that are insoluble in ferrite; Si, Mn, Ni, Co & Cr by
going into solution in the ferrite; and Si, Al, Ti, Mn, S, P, Pb
help in achieving these properties by forming inclusions which
are insoluble in ferrite.
 2.2.3 Cast Irons (2.0–4.5% C+Mn): Easy to Cast and easy to
machine
 Types of Cast Irons: Controlled cooling during solidification
produces the type of Cast Iron.
 Common or Gray CI (Mostly used): Produced in Cupola
(similar to blast furnace) in the presence of cook, when fractured
gives gray appearance (therefore name given), Contains 0.8% C
in the form of Fe3 C, and 2 to 4% as graphite. Easily
machineable, has high damping capacity and high compressive
strength. But tensile strength, ductility and impact strength are
much lower then steel.
 White CI: Carbon in combined form, no graphite, white in
colour. Produced by fast cooling during solidification. Melted in
Air furnace or Cupola. High Hardness (unmachineable) used
making parts requiring high abrasion resistance.
 Malleable CI: Produced by annealing, consist entirely of
graphite and ferrite, tougher than gray cast iron, more resistant
to bending and twisting, used for various automobile, tractor and
plough parts, gear, housings etc.
 Nodular CI or ductile iron: Produced by adding magnesium or
cerium to molten gray iron. In addition to high tensile strength,
it has fluidity, low melting point, and good machineability.
 Alloyed CI: Alloying CI are produced either in cupola by
melting together the alloying compounds or by adding the
alloying metal to the pouring ladle after drawing the molten iron
from the furnace. Alloying elements improve strength and
corrosion resistance. Alloying elements used are Ni, Cr, M, and
V.
 2.2.4 Non-Ferrous metal alloys:
 Al-Alloys: Lightweight, good machineability, high strength,
increased hardness.
 Duralumin (Cu, Mn, Mg)→ Air-planes and other machines
where lightness is the main criterion (Engines of two wheelers,
piston of I.C. engines etc.)
 Cu-Alloys: Resistant to corrosion and antifriction (low
coefficient of friction) properties
 Brasses (Cu-Zn): Easily machineable, highly ductile & good
bearing material.
 Bronzes (Cu-Sn-Al-Pb): Antifriction à used to make
components operating in rubbing pairs e.g. bearings, nuts,
contact bearings, rim for worm wheels.
 Gunmetal (Cu-Pb-Sn): Bearings, steam pipe fittings, marine
castings, hydraulic valves and gears. Bearing Bronzes
 Babbits (Sn 83%, Antimony - Cu): Sliding bearings
 Mg-Alloys
 Dow metal (90% Mg, 10% Al) →Extremely light weight used
in auto and aircraft industries.
 Ni-Alloys:
 Invar (50% Ni, 50% Fe) → Precision instruments
 Monel metal (67% Ni, 33% Cu) → Wheatstone Bridge
 Nickel silver (Ni-Cu-Zn) → Musical and scientific instruments
 Nichrome (60% Ni, 15% Cr, 20% Fe) → Non-corrosive, used
as heater wire.
 Nickel-Molybdenum alloys → Very resistant to corrosion
 Super alloys → Turbine application, nuclear reactors and
petrochemical equipment.
 Zinc Alloys → Automobile hardware, e.g. Carburettor Body,
radiator grill, doors, handles etc.
 Non-Metallic Materials:
 Organic: Plastics, Rubber, Leather, Wood, Paper etc.
 Inorganic: Ceramics
(minerals/oxides/nitrides/carbides/silicates/borides of metals);
Sand, Glass, Brick, Cement, Concrete, Insulators, Silicon
carbide, Tungsten carbide, Boron nitride, Refractory, Abrasives,
Plaster.
 Composites: Consist of more than one material type; Fibre-
glass (glass + polymer)
 Semi conductors: Have properties between the electrical
conductors and insulators, used in electronics and computer
industries.

 LESSON-2 STEPS OF SAND CASTING, PATTERN

TYPES AND ALLOWANCES
 2.1 Defination
 A casting is defined as a metal object achieved by solidifying
molten metal in a mould, whose shape is decided by the shape
of the mould cavity. Or Casting is the process in which molten
metallic materials are solidified in predetermined shapes by
pouring them into the mould.
 The causes for the success of the casting process are:
 The most complex shapes (both external and internal) may be
cast.
 Operations (i.e. machining, forging and welding) may be
minimized or eliminated.
 Construction may be simplified. Objects may be cast in one
piece that would otherwise require construction in several pieces
and subsequent assembly if made by other methods.
 Casting is a process extremely fulfils the requirements of mass
production. Large numbers of a component may be produced
very quickly.
 Extremely large, heavy metal objects may be cast when they
would be not easy or economically impossible to produce
otherwise.
 Iron is mostly used in casting, owing to its fluidity in molten
state, small shrinkage during solidification and due to the
fact that its properties can be easily controlled.
 2.2 Sand Casting Process
 Sand casting is an ancient and flexible method for producing
components. Sand being inexpensive is used to make moulds.
The process is termed as “Sand Casting”. Irrespective of the
metal being poured into sand moulds, the product is called a
Sand Casting. Furthermore, sand can be reused by
reconditioning it with water, clay and other binding materials.
 2.2.1 Fundamental steps of sand casting processes
(methods):
 In the production of sand casting the following sequence of
steps are involved.
- Preparation of the Pattern and Core-boxes,
- Preparation of Mould and Core;
 Making sand mould (cavity) and cores using patterns and core
boxes,
 Core setting; i.e. positioning the cores in moulds,
 Closing the mould and Weighing
- Melting of the metal.
- Pouring the molten material into the mould (cavity).
 5 Fettling (or Cleaning the casting),
 6 Inspection and testing
 2.3 PATTERN FOR CASTING
 As explained above the first step in making a casting is to
prepare a model of the component, known as a “Pattern”. In
other wards a Pattern is essential for the Casting Process. The
quality of the casting produced depends on the design,
 construction, accuracy of pattern and the pattern material.
Patterns may be classified as follows:
 2.3.1. Reusable patterns: These patterns are generally made
from wood, light weight metals and alloys, etc. Once a pattern
made is used to cast number of components.
 2.3.2. Consumable patterns: Consumable patterns are used in
cases where its removal from the mould is impossible. These
patterns are used once only. These patterns are made from
materials having low melting/burning point and low ash content.
The heat of the molten metal vaporizes the patterns so that it
leaves the mould in the form of gas. The materials used for
making such patterns are; plastics, waxes, thermocol, etc.
 2.4 Types of Patterns:
 2.4.1 Solid or one piece pattern:Single piece Patterns, as
shown in Figure 2.1, do not necessarily mean patterns that are
made from one piece of wood but patterns whose construction
permits them to be moulded without partings, joint or loose
pieces. The patterns of large sized castings of simple shapes are
generally made as single piece pattern.

 Figure 2.1 Solid or one-piece pattern

 2.4.2 Split or Multi piece pattern: For some components
patterns cannot be made in a single piece owing to the problem
faced in removing them from the mould. To conquer this
problem, some patterns are made in two parts, so that half of the
pattern will rest in the lower part of the mould (called drag) &
half in the upper part (called cope). The split in the pattern
occurs at the parting line of the mould as shown in Figure 2.2(a).
 The two parts of the pattern during moulding are aligned with
dowel pins. For more complicated components, a pattern is
constructed in three or more pieces, such a pattern is called
multi-piece pattern.
 In three piece pattern, as shown in Figure 2.2(b), the middle part
of mould is called ‘cheek’. Sometimes patterns are also given
name as cope and drag patterns.

 Figure 2.2(a) Two piece Pattern and their Moulds


 Figure 2.2(b) Three piece Pattern and their Mould
 2.4.3 Loose piece pattern: Sometimes a pattern has to be made
with some of parts projecting out on vertical sides of the main
body or overhanging parts, as shown in Figure 2.3. These parts
make the removal of pattern from the mould difficult. Therefore,
such parts are made into loose pieces. A loose piece is held on
the pattern, with a dovetail slide joint or wooden dowel pins, in
such a way that they may be detached easily when the main
 pattern is withdrawn. The detached parts left in the mould are
removed with the help of lifters.


 Figure 2.3 Loose piece pattern
 2.4.4 Gated Pattern: For the mass production of small sized
parts/components, which otherwise are difficult to handle during
moulding process, gated patterns as shown in Figure 2.4, are
used. Such patterns are made of metal to give them strength and
to eliminate warping. The connectors between the individual
patterns are used as gates and runners for the molten metal. The
gating system is actually a part of the pattern and eliminates
hand cutting of the gates.

 Figure 2.4 Gated pattern
 2.4.5 Match plate pattern: Match plate pattern, as shown in
Figure 2.5, is made by fastening each half of a split pattern to
the opposite side of one plate called the match plate. The
runners and gates are also attached to the match plate. The plate
is equipped with locator holes, which fit into the dowel pins,
provide on the drag portion of the flask. It is used for producing
small casting in larger quantities in moulding machine.

 Figure 2.5 Match plate pattern and final casting

 2.4.6 Follow board pattern: Thin and fragile patterns are made
with follow boards. The follow board has the two purposes:
- It forms the parting of the mould.
- It supports the pattern and keeps it from being rammed out
of shape by the pressure of sand when the drag is made.
 The follow board pattern, as shown in Figure 2.6, is made to
conform to the inside of the pattern and is used as under. The
pattern is placed on the board and the drag is rammed. Since the
whole pattern is supported there can be no distortion. The follow
board is removed when cope of the pattern is made, then being
supported by the sand in the drag. When the outlines of the
pattern are very irregular, follow boards are often made of
plaster or some other composition and are called 'matches'.


 Figure 2.6 Follow board pattern and component
 2.4.7 Skeleton pattern: When one or two large-sized castings
are required, as in turbine casings, it is not advisable to use a
large solid pattern. In such circumstances, a skeleton pattern, as
shown in Figure 2.7, is made in the hallow form, consisting of a
wooden frame and strips. In using the pattern, the skeleton is
placed on cast iron plate; sand or loam is rammed inside the
frame and shaped. Wooden tools with suitable shaped edges are
used in shaping the sand between riles of the pattern. The tools
are known as 'sweeps or stickles' and the art of working of the
 surface to shape it is called stickling.

 Figure 2.7 Skeleton pattern

 2.4.8 Lagged-up Patterns: When a pattern or core box is so
large or of such a form that it cannot be made economically
from a solid piece or when such a method would result in a
pattern of little strength or excessive weight, it is necessary to
use a lagged-up or staved pattern as shown in Figure 2.8. The
cylindrical patterns (e.g. barrels, pipes or columns) are built up
with lag or stave construction to ensure proper shape. The lags
are longitudinal strips of wood bevelled on each side for
making the joint tight outside. These lags are glued and nailed or
screwed to the wooden end pieces called heads. Such a
construction gives the maximum strength and permits building
close to the finished outline of the pattern so that there is
comparatively little excess stock to be removed to bring it to the
re quired shape.
 In building pieces that are not cylindrical, the heads are
frequently cut to follow a line parallel to the finished outline of
the pattern, so the staves, when fastened in place, will closely
 approximate this
outline.

 Figure 2.8 Lagged-up pattern

 2.4.9 Segmental pattern: Segmental patterns, as shown in
Figure 2.9, also known as part patterns are used mainly for
producing a large circular work, such as rings, wheel rims, gears
etc. These patterns are section of a pattern so arranged as to
form a complete mould by being moved to form each section of
the mould. The segmental pattern attached to an arm, which is
pivoted to a vertical spindle firmly fixed in the centre of flask.
The sand is rammed outer side and inner side of the segmental
pattern except at the ends. After completing on segment, the
second segment is rammed, and so on, until entire mould is
completed.

 Figure 2.9 Segmental pattern
 2.4.10 Sweep pattern: Many moulds of symmetrical and
regular shape usually of large size may be constructed by the
use of sweep patterns, which sweeps the desired shape into the
sand mould thus eliminating the need for costly three
dimensional patterns. A sweep pattern is a template of wood or
metal which has contour corresponding to the shape and size of
casting. The sweep pattern, as shown in Figure 2.10, is arranged
to rotate about a central axis on a spindle.

 Figure 2.10 Sweep pattern and mould cavity
 2.4.11 Shell pattern: The shell patterns, as shown in Figure
2.11, are used for drainage fittings and pipe work. The shell
pattern is a hollow construction like a shell and is usually made
of metal. These patterns are parted along the plane passing
through the centre line. The two sections are fitted together
accurately by dowel pins The outside shape is used as a pattern
to make the mould, while the inside is used as a core box for
making cores.

 2.11 Shell pattern
 2.4.12 Left and Right Hand Patterns: Some patterns are
required in pairs, and when their form is such that they cannot
be reversed and have the centre of hubs, bosses etc. opposite and
in line, then they must be made right and left hand separately. A
few examples where a pair of left and right hand patterns are
required are legs for wood turning lathe, legs for garden bench,
legs for paddle type sewing machine, brackets for luggage racks
in the railway carriages etc.
 A bracket, as shown in Figure 2.12, is an example of left and
right hand pattern. The hub and foot flanges are fastened with
screws and are moved from side to side to make the pattern right
and left hand. The ribs are also kept loose if provide.

 Figure 2.12 Left and right pattern
 Note: Sometimes old components are used as a pattern in case
of emergency. The component to be used as pattern must be
well cleaned and made smooth so that they can be drawn out of
the mould without difficulty. Consequently, to increase the
dimensions so as to provide allowances for machining and
shrinkage etc. the surface of old components are lagged with
thin strips of wood or leather.
 2.5 Pattern Allowances:
 Although the pattern is used to produce a casting of the desired
shape and size. It is not dimensionally identical with the
resulting casting. It differs in a number of respects from the final
casting. These differences are known as pattern allowances
compensate for metal shrinkage, provide sufficient metal for
machining the surfaces and facilitate the moulding process. The
different allowances provided on the pattern are shown in Figure
2.13 and described below:

 Figure 2.13 Pattern Allowances
 Shrinkage Allowance: Shrinkage Allowance on patterns is a
correction for solidification shrinkage of the metal and its
contraction during cooling to room temperature. Although the
total contraction is volumetric but the correction for it is usually
expressed linearly. Shrinkage allowance is the amount the
pattern must be made larger than the casting to provide for total
contraction. It may vary (from a negligible amount to 5%)
depending on the metal and the nature of the casting. Double
allowances are taken if a wooden pattern is to be used for
making master pattern of some other metal.
 Pattern Draft: Draft is the taper allowed on vertical faces of a
pattern to permit its removal from the sand or other moulding
medium without tearing the mould-cavity surfaces. A taper of
0.5% (or 5 mm per meter) is common for vertical walls on
 patterns drawn by hand. Machine drawn patterns require the
taper of about one degree.
 Size Tolerance: It is defined as the variation that may be
permitted on a given casting dimension. It is equal to the
difference between the minimum and the maximum limits for
any specified dimension.
 Machining allowance: This allowance is provided on the
surface of pattern, which are to be machined. The thickness of
surface is made larger than desired size of finished product to
allow machine operations. The allowance for machining
depends upon surface finish of pattern, size of the part material
being cast and final finish to be achieved. Common machining
allowance in average castings varies from 1.5 mm to 3.5 mm.
 Distortion Allowance: Sometimes, castings of components,
such as large flat plates, dome and U-shaped, distort when
reproduced from a straight or perfect pattern. In such cases, the
pattern may be intentionally distorted, or "faked". The distorted
pattern then produces a casting of the proper shape and size. For
dome or U-shaped castings the distortion applied is called
camber allowance.

 LESSON 3. PATTERN MATERIALS AND MOULDING

SAND
 In the previous lesson we discussed steps of casting process and
types of patterns used in casting process. In this lesson we will
discuss characteristics of pattern materials, different materials
used to make patterns and characteristic of moulding sand.
 Pattern Materials
 There are several materials commonly used in the construction
of patterns. The selection of pattern materials depends on the
following factors:
 Service requirements of pattern, e.g. quantity, quality and
intricacy of casting (minimum thickness, level of accuracy and
finish required).
 Type of production of castings and the type of moulding
process.
 Possibility of design changes.
 Number of castings to be produced or possibility of repeated
orders.
 Modern pattern making practice employs the use of materials
that are:
 Light in weight
 Can be easily worked and shaped.
 Strong and durable, so that it may be resistant to wear and
abrasion (All patterns for sand castings are subjected to
considerable wear and tear on use. This is due to the ramming
and rapping that are necessary and to the abrasive action of the
sand.), to corrosion, and to chemical action;
 Dimensionally stable in all situations;
 Easily available at low cost;
 Repairable and reusable;
 Able to take good surface finish.
 Unaffected by moisture, since they are alternately subjected to
damp and dry surroundings.
 The materials which meet the above characteristics are:
- Wood
- Metal and alloys
- Plastics
- Plaster
- Waxes
- Rubber
 Wood: If number of castings to be produced is less, the wooden
patterns are most suitable, as they are cheap, light weight, easy
to work with and to shape, reasonably strong and durable, can
take up good surface finish and have significant dimensional
accuracy. Patterns can be made from a variety of woods. Pine
(white or sugar) wood is commonly used, because it has straight
grains, light in weight and easy to work. Other woods used are
cherry, beech, popular, bass wood maple is desirable for
working on lathes. Dried and seasoned wood is used for
patterns. Wood has tendency to warp and shrink. As the patterns
 always comes in contact with the damp sand they must be
painted to reduce the effect of moisture.
 Metal and alloys: When large quantity of same component is to
be produced by casting process then metallic patterns are
preferred. Metallic patterns are durable and strong. The
metal/alloys mainly used are cast iron, brass, bronze,
aluminum alloy or magnesium alloy etc. For mass production,
steel or cast iron patterns may be preferred. For preparing these
patterns first of all a wooden pattern is made from which the
metal pattern is cast. The wooden pattern is called master
pattern. Moisture has no effect on metal patterns, so they do not
change their shape when subjected to damp conditions and
require a minimum of maintenance work to keep them in
operating conditions. Aluminium is the best of all the metals
because it is easy to work, light in weight and is resistance to
corrosion.
 Plastic: Plastic patterns can be reusable or consumable. They
are highly resistant to corrosion, and are lighter & stronger than
wooden patterns. Moreover, moulding sand sticks less to
plastics than to wood. Plastic can be easily shaped by knife and
the pattern can be made of several parts and then cemented
together. It is best suited for cases where it is difficult or
impossible to draw the patterns out of the mould. Plastic
patterns, on the base of epoxy resins, have a high mechanical
strength and dimensional accuracy. They are not subject to
warping, swelling, shrinkage and corrosion. Plastics are
available in two types, i.e. thermosetting and thermoplastic.
Polystyrene is used for consumable patterns. Disadvantage of
plastics is that some of the plastic materials are toxic in nature.
 Plasters (Plaster of Paris): It is used for making patterns and
core boxes. It has a high compressive strength and it can be
easily worked with wood tools. When talc and cement are mixed
with water, it forms a plastic mass capable of being cast into a
mould. Gypsum plaster pattern can be prepared either by
directly pouring the slurry of plaster and water in moulds
prepared earlier from a master pattern or by sweeping in into
desired shape or form by the sweep and stickle method. Patterns
 of these materials can be made easily but have rough surface
finish.
 Waxes: Wax patterns are excellent for consumable pattern
casting process. The materials generally used are mixtures of
several kinds of waxes, and other additives that act as
polymerising agents, stabilizers, etc. The waxes commonly used
are paraffin wax, shellac wax, bee’s wax, Saracen wax, and
microcrystal-line wax. The properties desired in a good wax
pattern include low ash content, high tensile strength and
hardness and substantial weld strength. The normal practice of
forming wax pattern is to inject liquid or semi-liquid wax into a
split die. Solid injection is also used to avoid shrinkage and for
better strength.
 Rubber: In consumable pattern casting process silicon rubber is
also used for making pattern of a very intricate type of
components. This material (like epoxy resin), is available in two
parts called the Binder and the Hardener. When the two
compounds, originally in liquid form, are mixed together,
poured over a master pattern or into a die and cured, a solid
shape called a Pattern is produced.
 Mould
 The mould into which molten metal is poured for solidification
is made of some heat resisting material. The type of mould
material used has an important influence on; i) the ease and the
cost of making the mould, ii) the permanency of mould, iii) the
speed of production, iv) the rate of cooling of molten metal, v)
surface roughness, dimensional tolerances, and vi) the
mechanical strength of casting.
 The moulds may be classified as expandable moulds and
multiple-use moulds. The expandable moulds are used to cast
one casting only, and are generally made from sand. Multiple-
use (or reusable) moulds are used repetitively or one mould is
used for producing a large number of castings. Multiple-use
moulds are made from gray cast iron, steel, bronze, graphite etc.
 Sand is most commonly used for making expandable moulds, as
it can be easily packed to any shape and is some but porous and
resists high temperature. In addition silica sand is low in cost,
 has long life, and is available in wide range of grain sizes and
shapes. Pure silica sand is not appropriate for moulding, since it
lacks binding properties. The binding properties can be achieved
by adding 8% to 15% of clay. Some natural moulding sands are
adequately bonded with clay when quarried and need little
alternation to make them suitable for use.
 Ingredients of moulding sands
 Moulding sands are mixtures of three or more ingredients.
Green sand contains sand (SiO2) as the principal constituent as
well as clay and water. These three elements provide the bulk
and plasticity required of the moulding sand. Other materials
called “Additives and Binders” may be added to the sand
aggregate to improve certain specific properties and are more
stable at elevated temperatures.
 Sand: Granular particles of sand, that is, SiO2 principally,
comprise upto 95% of the total aggregate in a moulding sand. In
different moulding sands, these sand particles may differ as
following:
 Average grain size, shape and grain distribution.
 Chemical composition.
 Refractoriness and thermal stability.
 Clay: Moulding sands may contain about 8 to 15% of clay. In
the presence of moisture it acts as a binder. So, with suitable
water content, it is principal source of the strength and plasticity
of the moulding sand. In some mineral deposits, clay and sand
occur in proper proportions, so that the sand can be mined and
used directly for moulding. It is then referred to as “natural
moulding sand". As the same sand is reused it loses its
colloidal clay. Therefore, clay should be added from time to
time.
 Water: Water present in amounts of about 2 to 8%, activates the
clay in the sand that causes the aggregate to develop plasticity
and strength. Water in moulding sands is often referred to as
“tempering water”. The water is absorbed by clay up to a
limiting amount. Only that water rigidly held (absorbed) by the
clay appears to be effective in developing strength. The rigid
clay coatings of the grains may be forced together, causing a
 wedging action and thus developing strength. Additional water
acts as a lubricant, and makes the sand aggregate more plastic
and more mouldable, though the strength may be reduced. Thus
control of the water percentage in sand aggregate is
considerably important. Water may engage in ion exchanges
with the clay if dissolved minerals are present.
 Moulding sand, a plastic mixture of sand grains (SiO2), clay,
water, and other additive materials, which can be used for
making mould may be defined as “Green sand or Green
moulding sand”
 The size of sand grains will depend on the type of work to be
done. For small and intricate castings the use of fine sand is
desirable so that all the details of the mould will be brought out
sharply. As the size of the casting increases, the sand particles
likewise should be coarser to permit the ready escape of gasses
generated in the mould.
 Sharp, irregular shaped grains are usually preferred because of
their ability to interlock and add strength to mould
 Properties of moulding sand
 A good quality moulding sand must have the properties
explained below. These properties are not only determined by
the chemical composition of sand, but also by the amount of
clay, moisture content and by the shape and size of silica grains
in the sand.
- Permeability: The passage of gassier water & steam
vapours through the moulding sand is related to
permeability or porosity. The permeability of sand
depends upon;
 Size of the grain.
 Shape of the grain (round, angular, sub-angular or compound),
the round shape is more favourable for porosity.
 Compactness density has also a bearing on the permeability.
 Moisture content in the moulding sand affects permeability,
since the excess moisture tends to collect in the interstices.
 Bonding content also affects the porosity of the sand through the
interstitial structure.
 The sand used for casting must be porous enough, so as to allow
the gaseous material and steam vapours to escape freely when
the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity. Insufficient
porosity of moulding sand causes casting defects such as gas
holes and pores. There are four conditions of permeability:
 Base permeability is defined as the permeability measured in a
specimen of packed dry sharp sand.
 Green permeability is defined as the permeability measured in a
specimen made of moist moulding sand.
 Dry permeability is defined as the permeability measured in a
specimen made of sand and dried at about 100 to 110°C.
 Baked permeability is defined as the permeability measured in a
specimen made of sand with thermo-setting binders and baked
at some temperature above 105°C.
- Cohesiveness: The ability of sand particles to stick
together is termed as cohesiveness or strength of the
moulding sand. Strength or cohesiveness of sand depends
upon;
 Grain size & shape, which affect the strength characteristics to a
considerable extent.
 Mixture of various size grains.
 Bonding material or bond content and its distribution.
 Moisture contents a major factor that affects strength of sand.
 Moulding sand must have a good strength; otherwise it may lead
to collapse of the mould or its partial destruction during
conveying, turning over or closing.
- Adhesiveness: The sand particles must be capable of
sticking to the other bodies particularly to the moulding
box and it is due to only this property that sand mass is
held in the moulding box properly, and does not fall when
the mould is moved. At the same time the sand must not
stick to the casting and strip off easily, leaving a clean
surface.
- Plasticity: It refers to the condition of acquiring
predetermined shape under pressure and to retain it when
the pressure is removed. In order to have a good
 impression of the pattern in the mould, moulding sand
must have good plasticity.
- Refractoriness: It is the ability of the silica sand to
withstand high heat without breaking down or fusing. Sand
with poor refractoriness may burn at high temperature. The
fusion point of moulding sand can be increased by the
removing impurities particularly metallic-oxides.
- Chemical resistivity: Moulding sand should not
chemically react or combine with molten metal so that it
can be used again and again.
- Durability (Reusability): It is the ability of a moulding
sand to retain its properties and be mouldable enough in
repeated use. The more durable the sand mixture, the
lesser amount of fresh moulding materials it requires
during reconditioning. Reconditioning of moulding sand is
the removal of burnt binding material from the used sand
and the addition of fresh sand and clay to restore the
original properties of the sand mixture.
- Collapsibility: It is the property owing to which the sand
mould may automatically crumples after solidification of
the casting to allow a free contraction of the metal. In the
absence of this property the contraction of the metal will
be obstructed by the mould which will result in tears and
cracks in the casting.
- Thermal stability: This property of the sand is related to
dimensional stability of sand during rapid heating. Heat of
the molten metal during solidification of casting causes
expansion of the sand surface at the mould-metal interface.
The mould or core surface may crack, buckle or flake-off.
- Ease of preparation and control: The moisture content
of the moulding sand is the most significant factor as
values of other properties are dependent on it. However,
moisture content of moulding sand varies due to
continuous evaporation. Therefore, it should be monitored
and controlled before testing of other properties.
Preparation of sand needs to be done by adding sufficient
moisture content to mix it thoroughly so its moisture
 content is distributed uniformly and to provide each sand
grain with an adequate coating of colloidal clay.
 Parting Sand
 It is a beach or bank sand without any bond. It is extremely dry,
and when dusted across the face of a mould it prevents the two
parts from sticking together, enabling easy separation for
removal of the pattern.
 Core Sands and Core Sand Moulds
 Core sands usually consist of mixtures of sand grains and
organic binders which develop great strength after baking at
120-350°C. Their strength after baking makes it possible to cast
metal around thin sand projections without having them break or
erode because of the hot-metal action. The process is more
costly, owing to baking operation and the core binders plus
difficulties in reusing the sand. This cost is usually justified,
however, in the intricate castings made by this process.
 Core sand moulds are also sometimes made with dry moulding
sands or cement-bonded sands, where the great strength and heat
resistance of a dry sand mixture are required, as in large
castings.
 3.1 SAND BINDERS AND ADDITIVES
 Sand Binders
 Any material added to or naturally exists in the moulding sand
that enhances it sufficient strength and cohesiveness, so as to
enable it to retain its shape after the mould has been prepared
and the pattern withdrawn is called a binder. However it
produces an adverse effect on the permeability of the sand
mould. The common binders used in foundry can be grouped as:
 The clay is a natural binding material in moulding sand that
becomes plastic when moistened.
 Organic binders are mostly by-products of vegetables or wood,
specifically used in core making. These include dextrin,
molasses, linseed oil, cereal binders, pitch, and resins (like
phenol and urea formaldehydes).
 Inorganic binders have a considerable strength at high
temperature. They may be used to obtain green strength, baked
 strength, and hot strength. Iron oxide, Sodium silicate, Portland
cement and clay (i.e. bentonite, kaolonite, and fire clay etc.).
 The common binders used in foundry are as:
 Cereals: Cereals are finely ground corn flour or starch from
corn. It increases green or dry strength or collapsibility. It is
used in amounts up to 2 %.
 Ground pitch: It is a by-product of coke making. It improves
hot strength of sand or surface finish on ferrous castings. It is
used in amounts up to 3%.
 Asphalt: It is a by-product of the distillation of petroleum. It
improves hot strength of sand or surface finish on ferrous
castings.
 Iron Oxide: Fine iron oxide is added in small percentages in
some sands to increase hot strength.
 Molasses: Cane or blackstrap molasses (containing 60 to 70%
sugar solids) are used to increase dry strength of the sand and
edge hardness of moulds.
 Dextrins: It is used to increase dry strength of the sand and edge
hardness of moulds.
 Sand Additives
 A material added to moulding sand which rather than increasing
binding strength improves some special feature of mould, i.e.
collapsibility, mouldability and surface finish, etc. is called the
Sand additive or simply additive. The common materials used as
additives are briefly described below:
 Sea Coal: It is a finely ground soft coal. It is employed 2- 8%
for improving the surface finish and ease of cleaning.
 Graphite: It is used upto 2% for improving the mouldability of
the sand and the surface finish of the castings.
 Gilsonite: A solid asphalt mineral used to improve casting
finish.
 Fuel Oil: It is used up to 0.10 % to improve mouldability to the
sand.
 Wood Flour: Ground wood flour/other cellulose materials such
as cob flour, cereal hulls, and carbonised cellulose may be added
in amounts up to 2 % to control the expansion of the sand by
 burning out at elevated temperature. To improves collapsibility
and flowability of the sand.
 Silica Flour: Pulverized silica, finer than 200 mesh used in
amounts up to 35 % for increasing the density of the sand for
resisting metal penetration.
 Perlite: An aluminium silicate mineral up to 1.5 % used for
better thermal stability of the sand. It may also be used as a riser
insulator.

 LESSON-4. MOULDING PROCESSES

 In the previous lesson we discussed characteristics of pattern
materials, different materials used to make patterns and
characteristic of moulding sand. In this lesson we will discuss
moulding sand preparation and preparation of green sand mould
and gating system.
 4.1 Moulding Sand Preparation and Handling
 The moisture content in the moulding sand is the most
significant factor as values of properties of moulding sand are
dependent on it. However, moisture content of moulding sand
varies due to continuous evaporation. Therefore, it should be
monitored and controlled before testing of other properties.
Preparation of sand needs to be done by adding sufficient
moisture content to mix it thoroughly so its moisture content is
distributed uniformly and to provide each sand grain with an
adequate coating of colloidal clay. The mechanical mixer used
for sand preparation is called “muller”. Further the coarse-sand
agglomerates are broken and separated in small particles by a
beating and screening action by an “aerator”. Aerated moulding
sand becomes fluffy and easier to handle and use.
 About 4 or 5 tons of sand is prepared and handled per ton of
molten metal poured. Owing to this and the fact that the sand so
greatly influences the quality of the castings, much
consideration has been devoted to this part of mechanization.
 4.2 Sand mould preparation
 The process of making a green sand mould using split pattern
and turn over method is explained below:
 A flat board, known as moulding board, is placed on
the floor or top of a bench with half pattern (i.e.
drag) is placed in position.
 The lower half of moulding box called as drag is
placed on the moulding board keeping the pattern in
centre.
 The green moulding sand is filled in the box and
pressed around the pattern with hands.
 More sand is added in the box and rammed with
hand rammer. It may be noted that if the sand is not
rammed sufficiently, it will not hold together and
collapse when handled or when the molten metal
strikes it. On the other hand, if it is rammed to hard
the permeability will be reduced and will not permit
the steam and gases to escape when molten metal is
poured.
 After ramming, the excess sand is scraped off with a
strike-off bar.
 Loose sand is sprinkled over the mould and another
moulding board is clamped to mould board and
moulding box.
 The drag is now rolled over and the previous
moulding board is removed exposing the pattern.
 The surface of the drag is first smoothed over with a
trowel and then dusted dry parting sand. It prevents
from sticking of cope and drag.
 Now cope (upper half) pattern is fixed in position on
the drag and cope box is placed.
 The facing sand is riddled over the pattern and sprue
and riser pegs are fixed in position. The cope box is
filled with green sand. The method of filling,
ramming is similar to that of drag. A vent wire is
thrust into the cope in a number of places to reach
 the pattern so that small vent holes are made to
escape of the gasses when molten metal is poured.
 The sprue and riser pegs are withdrawn, the top of
sprue is shaped as funnel and the cope is lifted from
the drag and rolled over.
 Any loose sand is removed from the faces of the
cope and drag parts of mould and water from the
swab is sprinkled on the sand around the pattern so
that the edges of the mould hold firmly when the
pattern is withdrawn.
 A draw spike is driven into the patterns and rapped
lightly in all directions in order to loosen the pattern
in the mould. The patterns from both parts of the
mould are withdrawn by lifting up with draw spike.
 The gate and runner channel are cut from the mould
at the bottom of the sprue.
 The centre core is fixed in the print left by the pattern
in the drag.
 The mould surfaces may be dusted, sprayed or
swabbed with a coat in g material composed of silica
flour and graphite. These coatings improve the
surface finish of thecasting and reduce possibility of
surface defects.
 The cope is rolled back, carefully lowered into
position on the drag, and clamped or weighted. The
mould, as shown in Figure 4.1, is ready for pouring
the molten metal.
 
 Figure 4.1 Sand Mould
 4.3 The Gating System
 The term gate is defined as one of the channels that in fact lead
molten metal into the mould cavity and the term gating or gating
system refers to all the channels of delivering molten metal to
the mould cavity. The functions of the gating are:
 To supply molten metal at constant and regular feed rate with a
little turbulence as possible to the mould cavity. Too much
turbulence results in the formation of dross and entrapment of
air.
 To provide molten metal to the casting at best location in the
minimum possible time to avoid temperature gradient, to
achieve proper directional solidification and optimum feeding of
shrinkage cavities.
 To retain least of excess metal in the gates and risers. Inadequate
rate of metal entry, on the other hand, will result many defects in
the casting.
 To avoid erosion of the mould surfaces by molten metal stream.
 To avoid slag, sand, and other foreign particles from entering
the mould cavity.
 A Gating system usually consists of; 1) Pouring basin, 2) Sprue,
3) Runner, 4) Skimming gate and 5) Flow off gate, as shown in
Figure 4.2.

 Figure 4.2 Gating system (sand casting)

 Pouring Basin: Pouring Basin is made on/in the top of the
mould. Sometimes a funnel-shaped opening which serves as
pouring basin is made at the top of the sprue in the cope. The
key function of the pouring basin is to direct the flow of metal
 from the ladle to the sprue, to help in retaining required flow
rate of liquid metal, and to minimize turbulence and vortex
formation at the sprue entry. The pouring basin should be made
sufficient in size and should be placed near the edge of the
moulding box to fill the mould quickly. Also it should have
sufficient depth to reduce vortex formation. Pouring basin must
be kept full during the entire pouring operation to compensate
metal shrinkage or contraction.
 Sprue: Sprue is a vertical passage that passes through the cope,
linking the pouring basin with the runner or gate. The cross-
section of it may be circular, square or rectangular. They are
generally tapered downwards to avoid entrapment of air and
metal damage. Sprue upto 20 mm diameter are round in cross-
section whereas larger ones are often rectangular. A circular
cross-sectional sprue has a minimum surface exposed to cooling
and offers the minimum resistance to the flow of metal. But in a
rectangular sprue, aspiration and turbulence are minimised.
 Runner: In large sized castings, molten metal from the sprue
base is fed to several gates around the cavity through the
channel called the runner. Normally, the runner is preferred in
the drag, but sometimes it may be located in the cope,
depending on the shape of the casting. It should be streamlined
to avoid entrapment of air and turbulence.
 Skimmer: Skimmer or skimming gate removes impurities from
molten metal, which are lighter in weight than molten metal.
 Gate: The gate is an entrance of molten metal from the runner
to the mould cavity. The size and location of the gates are so
arranged that they can supply molten metal to the casting at the
rate synchronized with the solidification rate. A gate should not
have sharp edges as they may break by flow of the molten
metal, as a result sand particles may entrapped with the molten
metal and flow into the mould cavity. However, the gate should
be located in such a position from where they can be easily
removed without damaging the casting. According to the
position of gates in the mould cavity, gating may be classified
as:
 Toping gate, ii) Parting line gating, and iii) Bottom gating.
 Proper filling of mould cavity and quality of the castings
produced depends, not only upon the most excellent gating
system,
 but upon the casting properties of the metal alloy as well.
 Section Thickness: The minimum section thickness that can be
cast for small castings of simple design is given in Table 4.1.
For Long flow of molten metal larger section thickness than
given in the table should be provided. The minimum value of
thickness for obtaining sound castings will be high if there are
intricacies in the mould cavity.
 Table 4.1 Minimum section thickness for different metals

 4.4 Classification of sand moulds

 As already stated, sand moulds are prepared from green
moulding sand, a plastic mixture of sand grains, clay, water, and
other materials. The sand moulds are classified on the basis of
condition of moisture content in the mould at the time of
pouring molten metal.
 4.4.1 Green sand mould: In this process, the molten metal is
poured in the mould in wet or green state. The castings produced
are called “green sand mould castings”.
 4.4.2 Dry sand mould: The sand mixture is modified (special
additives are used) somewhat to favour good strength and other
properties after the mould is dries. Usually, the mould cavity
surface is coated or sprayed with a mixture, which, upon drying,
imparts greater hardness or refractoriness to the mould. The
entire mould is then dried in an oven at 150 -350°C or by
circulating hot air through the mould. The time-consuming
drying operation is the disadvantage of the dry sand mould.
 4.4.3 Skin-dried mould: The effect of a dry-sand mould may be
partially obtained by drying the mould surface to some depth, 5
to 25 mm. Skin drying may be performed by torches, a bank of
radiant-heating lamps, or electrical heating elements directed at
the mould surface. Skin dried moulds must be poured shortly
after drying, so that moisture from the un-dried sand will not
penetrate the dried skin.
 4.4.4 Core moulds: Sometimes moulds are made entirely of an
assemblage of cores. In place of patterns, core boxed are used
for making all parts of the mould. The cores are fitted together
to make the mould. The cores are located by alignment bosses
and holes. They are usually poured without a flask surrounding
the mould.
 4.5 Classification of moulding processes
 4.5.1 Manual moulding: In manual moulding method, hand
ramming with loose patterns is employed. It is a slow and
labourious method.
 [Link] Bench moulding: Bench moulding is carried out on a
convenient bench and the moulds prepared are relatively small.
In this, hand ramming with loose patterns is employed and so it
is a slow and labourious method.
 [Link] Floor moulding: In this method the moulding of
medium and large moulds is directly carried out on the floor
with the proper flasks.
 [Link] Pit moulding: In this method very large moulds are
made, the moulding is carried out in the pit and generally, the pit
serving the purpose of flask. Generally green sand is used in pit
moulding but cement bounded sand sections may also be used.
 In manual moulding processes the production rate is quite low
are very slow and time consuming. Therefore, this method is
uneconomical for mass production. To overcome these
limitations a variety moulding machines have been developed.
 4.5.2 Machine Moulding: A variety of moulding machines, as
shown in Figure 4.3, are used for carrying out the moulding of
small, medium and large moulds. This method is quick and
gives homogeneous mould, however involves mounted patterns.
 The mould generated by this method produces good quality
castings.


 Figure 4.3 Sand Moulding Machines
 [Link] The basic functions performed by moulding machine
are:
- Ramming of moulding sand by jolting, squeezing or
slinging.
- Rolling or rocking moulds or cores over through 180°.
- Rapping of pattern or core box by vibrating.
- Drawing of pattern or core box by raising or lowering the
pattern or core box.
 [Link] Types of moulding machines : Out of the above
explianed functions, the moulding machine performs the job of
ramming of moulding sand around the pattern in one or more of
the following methods depending upon the design and type of
machine.
  Jolting
 Squeezing
 Slinging
 A moulding machine is named by the function it performs.
 Jolt Machine: Flask filled with loose moulding sand is placed
on the machine table. The table raised and lowered and the flask
is allowed to fall by gravity, thus producing impact and jolting
action. Due to inertia the sand particles set around the pattern.
By this process variable density moulds are produced.
Therefore, it is suitable and preferred for horizontal surfaces
moulds. Operation is noisy. Moulding flask used in this process
should be of sufficient strength, as it is raised and dropped
repeatedly.
 Squeezing Machine: The flask filled with loose moulding sand
placed on the table of machine is raised with a piston table
arrangement actuated by compressed air, which squeezes the
sand against a rigid board at the top. It is used relatively for
small sized work. The performance is not as good as in jolting.
Plain squeezing is limited only to shallow work. Hence, for most
of cases combined squeezing and jolting is preferred.
 Sand Slinging Machine: Loose moulding sand is propelled by
an impeller around the pattern in the flask. The inertia causes
even and homogeneous ramming of sand. This process is very
quick. But, initial cost of equipment is high.
 [Link] Advantages of Moulding Machines:
 Best suitable for mass production work.
 Reduces fatigue on workers.
 Semi-skilled persons can be employed.
 The production rate is high, quality of mould is better; hence
castings with lesser defects are produced.
 [Link] Limitations of Moulding Machines:
 Unsuitable for bigger and complex jobs.
 The machines can't justify their cost for different size and types
of moulds,
 These lack flexibility for more specialised mould-making
procedure.
 4.1 Casting Properties of Metals and Alloys
 Proper filling of mould cavity and quality of the castings
produced depends, not only upon the most excellent gating
system, but upon the casting properties of the metal as well. The
most important casting properties of metals and alloys are
fluidity, shrinkage, segregation, liability to cracking, and
chilling tendency. These properties are exhibited during pouring
into mould, crystallization, and further cooling of the castings.
 Fluidity: Fluidity (Flowability) of a molten
metal is its ability to fill the mould cavity freely
and evenly and thus produce the desired shape
of the casting. A metal of good fluidity will fill
both thick and thin sections of a casting and
gives dense high quality castings. Insufficient
fluidity will lead to incomplete filling of the
mould with metal thereby forming misruns
especially in the thin sections of the casting.
The fluidity of a metal depends on its:
 Metal properties (i.e. Viscosity and Surface tension)
 Other factors are the impurity content, tendency to oxidation,
and heat transfer capacity of the mould material.
 Fluidity of all alloys decreases with increasing viscosity. The
viscosity of an alloy depends on its composition, temperature
and the amount of impurities. Thus, solid inclusions and de-
oxidation products increase the viscosity of an alloy, while
liquid non-metallic inclusions, whose melting point is below
that for the base metal, decrease its viscosity. An increased
viscosity of the molten alloy is responsible for rejection of
casting owing to short run.
 Surface tension: If surface tension increases, the alloy becomes
less fluid.
 Effect of Mould Properties: During pouring, the mould walls
take off heat from the melt. The ability of a mould to transfer
heat from the melt depends on its heat storage capacity. The
sand mould removes heat slowly, so that the melt fills it better
than the metal mould. As the melt flows into the mould, it rubs
against the mould walls. The coefficient of friction of the melt
 against the mould decreases with a decrease in the roughness of
mould walls.
 Effect of Chemical Composition: The fluidity of iron grows
with an increased content of silicon, phosphorus, and in
particular, carbon. Phosphorus lowers the melting point of iron
thus increases the fluidity, decreases its surface tension and
viscosity. An increased content of phosphorus (1% -1.5%) is
vital to art castings for they need better fluidity.
 Fluidity Test: The ability of a liquid alloy to fill the mould is a
complex casting property because this feature depends on a
number of factors such as the properties of the alloy, properties
of the mould, and design of its cavity. The test for finding the
fluidity of alloys consists in casting special fluidity specimens in
the form of thin rods, straight plates, or spirals. The fluidity of
an alloy is the path the molten alloy travels along the channels in
the standard mould (i.e., the length of the rod or plate cast). Test
spirals of trapezoidal cross section, 56 mm2 in area, are often
used to assess the fluidity of irons. The length of the spiral cast
characterizes the fluidity of the alloy under test.
 Shrinkage: Two basic types of shrinkage are;
i.e. linear and volume.
 Linear shrinkage (εl ) = [(lm – l0)/ l0]100%
 Volume shrinkage (εv ) = [(Vm – V0)/ V0]100%
 Casting shrinkage: This is the difference (expressed in percent)
between the linear dimension of the pattern (lp), and the casting
(lc)
 Casting shrinkage (ε [Link] ) = [(lp – lc)/ lc]100%
 Casting shrinkage differs from linear shrinkage in that the
former depends not only on the properties and condition of a
metal and alloy, but also on the design of a casting and mould,
and on some other factors.
 Segregation: It is the non-uniform distribution
of alloying elements, inclusions, and impurities
in a casting, which occurs during freezing. The
basis of this occurrence is the difference
between the solubilities of individual
components of an alloy in its solid and liquid
 phases. The larger this difference, the more
non-uniform is the distribution of an impurity
over the cross section of the casting and, hence,
the higher the degree of impurity segregation.
In iron-carbon alloys, it is the sulphur,
phosphorus and carbon that segregate most
heavily. Segregation is responsible for the non-
uniform mechanical properties of a casting in
its various portions and may be the cause of
rupture of the part when in service.
 Liability to cracking appears when shrinkage of solidifying
metal is restricted in a mould.
 Chilling tendency (affinity to form hard spots) is a particular
property of cast irons to precipitate the excess of structurally
free carbides beyond what is required to form a pearlitic
structure. The chilling effect mainly depends on the composition
of molten iron and the rate of cooling of the casting sections. At
higher cooling rates, pig irons are more liable to chilling. The
elements which can delay the chilling effect are carbon, silicon,
aluminium, titanium, nickel, copper, cobalt, and phosphorus and
those which increase it are vanadium, manganese, molybdenum,
chromium, tin, tungsten, sulphur, tellurium, and boron.

 LESSON-5. MELTING OF METAL, DESCRIPTION AND

OPERATION OF CUPOLA
 Melting of Metal
 In order to melt different types of cast metals and alloys, a large
number of furnaces have been designed and developed. The
selection of a particular type of furnace is largely based on; a)
type of metal; b) quantity of metal to be melted per hour; and c)
economic considerations etc.
 The most used furnaces for melting various alloys of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals in small and medium shops are described
below:
 Furnaces for melting nonferrous metals: For melting
nonferrous metals and alloys, crucible furnaces and metal pot
furnaces are mainly used. In these furnaces the metal is melted
out of contact with the fuels and there is very little change in
composition during melting. The crucible and pot furnaces may
be fired by liquid, gaseous or pulverised fuels. The capacities
range from 30 kg to 150 kg.
- Metal Pot Furnace: Metal pot fornace, as shown in
Fugure 5.1, are used for melting metal alloys having
relatively low melting point, such as alloys of aluminum,
lead, magnesium, antimony, zinc, cadmium and tin. The
pots used are made of cast iron or steel. The pot is
supported by its rim in the furnace which is fired by gas or
oil fuel. The products of combustion are discharged
through a flue.


 Figure 5.1 Metal Pot furnace
- Crucible Furnace: In these furnaces, graphite crucibles
are used to hold the charge for melting. These furnaces are
of two types;
  pit type, and 2) tilting type.
- Pit type: Pit type furnace, as shown in Figure 5.2, is made
in the form of a pit below the ground level, so that the
crucible can be conveniently lifted, operating from the
floor of the shop. The furnace is usually fired with coke,
sufficient coke being packed round and above the crucible
pot to melt and superheat the charge without reheating
with coke. In the bottom of the furnace it is provided with
a removable fire gate and an ash pit below it. The inner
lining of the furnace above the grate is made of fire-bricks
and the natural draught provided by a tall chimney is
controlled by means of a loose brick or damper at the foot
of the stack.


 Figure 5.2 Pit type furnace
- Tilting furnace: Tilting furnaces, as shown in Figure 5.3,
are raised above the floor level, mounted on two pedestals,
 and rotated by means of a geared hand-wheel or a
hydraulic ram. Forced draught is employed and the furnace
is fired by coke, oil or gas. The coke-fired tilting furnaces
are provided with an enclosed ash pan. In an oil-fired
furnace, instead of coke, oil is used as the fuel. A drum of
fuel oil is placed at a height of 5 to 6 m above floor level.


 Figure 5.3 Tilting type furnace
 Description of Cupola (Furnace for melting Cast Iron)
 Cupola is used for melting gray cast iron. The fuel is burnt in
contact with metal. The melting is continuous. Cost of melting is
low. Chemical composition control is possible. Temperature
control; for fluidity in pouring castings can be obtained. But
carbon content below 2.8 % is difficult to attain. Alloying
elements (Cr and Mo) are in part lost by oxidation.
 Cupola Size: Cupola is rated by number from 0 to 12; and
varies in capacity designated as melting rate in ton per hour (0.1
to 35 ton/hr). Generally shell diameter is 0.6 m to 2.75 m.
 The cupola shown in Figure 5.4 is a vertical cylinder of steel
sheet, 6 to 12 mm thick, and lined inside with acid refractory
 bricks or acid tamping clay. The bottom of the shell is provided
with drop-bottom doors made of cast iron, through which debris,
consisting of coke, slag, etc. can be discharged at the end of a
melt. In drop-bottom cupola, the working bottom is built up with
mould sand which covers the drop-doors. This bottom slopes
towards the metal tapping hole situated at the lowest point at the
front of the cupola. Opposite this tap hole, and somewhat above
it, is another hole, called the slag hole, which enables the slag to
be taken out.
 A constant volume of air for combustion is obtained from a
motorised blower. The air is carried from the blower through a
pipe called wind pipe (air blast inlet), first to a circular jacket
around the shell called windbox and then into the furnace
through a number of openings called tuyeres which are provided
at a height of between 450 to 500 mm above the working bottom
or bed of the cupola. These tuyeres are generally 4, 6, or 8 in
numbers depending on the size of the cupola. Auxiliary tuyeres
are sometimes provided to raise melting efficiency.
 A charging door is provided through which metal, coke and flux
are fed into the furnace, and this is situated 3 to 6 m above the
tuyeres, according to the size of the cupola. A large platform or
stage usually surrounds the cupola at the level of about 300 mm
below the bottom of the charging door. The shell is usually
continued for 4.5 to 6 m above the charging door to form a
chimney. At the top of the furnace a conical cap called the spark
arrester, prevents the spark from emerging to the outside. The
spark arrester cools down the sparks and allows only smoke to
escape from the opening.

 Figure 5.4 Description of Cupola
 Steps in operation:
 Preparation of Cupola: The first step in preparing a cupola is
to clean out the slag and refuse on the refractory lining and
around the tuyeres from the previous run and repair of the
refractory lining, tap hole (dia. 20 mm), slag hole (dia. 35 mm)
and preparation of sand bottom/bed (sand layer upto 100-200
mm height above doors).
 Firing the Cupola: A kindling wood is put down, taking care
not to damage the sand bottom. The firing should be done 2.5 to
3 hours before the molten metal is required. On the top of the
 kindled wood, a bed of coke is built. Additional coke is added
up 700-800 mm above the upper row of tuyers. The layer of
coke resting on the sand bottom before start the heat is called
bed charge. The height of the bed charge or coke-bed is very
important to the cupola operation; it affects the temperature,
melting rate, and chemical composition. A low bed will yield
the cooler metal than one which is high. Sometimes, gas-torch
inserted through openings at the side near the bottom or Electric
spark igniters are used.
 Charging: When coke bed ignites uniformly throughout, then
alternative layers of iron charge, coke and flux (lime stone,
fluorspar & soda ash) are charged until the Cupola is full. Iron
scrap (upto 25% of molten metal out) is added to control the
chemical composition of melt. Deoxidizer (2 to 4% ferro-
manganese) is used. Lime stone required 30 to 40 kg per ton of
iron melt or 25% of coke charged.
 Soaking of Iron: As the cupola is charged full, the charge
should soak in the heat for about 45 minutes. The charge gets
slowly heated since the air blast is kept at a lower than normal
blowing rate (practically kept shut) during this time. This causes
the iron to get soaked.
 Starting air blast: As soaking is over, full blast is turned on.
Before turning on the blast, the tuyeres and the tapping hole are
kept closed. After the blast has been set on molten metal starts
accumulating in the well in a few minutes (about 10 minutes).
When the metal in the cupola starts melting, the rate of charging
should be equal to the rate of melting, so that the furnace is kept
full throughout the heat. At the end of the melt the charging is
stopped but the blast is kept on until all the metal has melted.
 Tapping and slagging: The first drain of molten metal can be
made 40 to 50 minutes after the full air blast is turned on.
During this period, sufficient metal is collected in the well.
When slag starts flowing from the slag hole it is collected
preferably into a bogie for easy removal. Plastic clay bot is
removed from the tap hole and the molten metal is collected in
ladles and is carried to the moulds for pouring. The same
 procedure is repeated until all the metal is melted and the
operation is over.
 Closing the Cupola: When the melting is over, the blast is shut
off and the prop under the bottom door is knocked down so that
the bottom door swings open. This enables the cupola remains
to drop on to the floor or into a bucket. They are then quenched
and removed from underneath the cupola.
 Zones in Cupola
 On the basis of combustion reactions, as shown in Figure 5.5,
the entire shaft of the cupola may be divided as under:


 Figure 5.5 Zones in Cupola
 Crucible zone is between top of the sand bottom of the tuyeres.
The molten iron is accumulated here. This is also called the well
or hearth.
 Combustion or oxidizing zone is situated normally 150 to 300
mm above the top of the tuyeres. All the oxygen in the air blast
is consumed here owing to the actual combustion taking place in
this zone. Thus a lot of heat is liberated and this is supplied from
here to other zones. Heat is also evolved due to the oxidation of
silicon and manganese. Due to this high heat, the temperature
being 1550 to 1850°C, molten drops of cast iron pour into the
hearth. The chemical reactions which occur in this zone are:
- C + O2 = CO2 + Heat
- Si + O2 = SiO2 + Heat
 Mn + O2 = 2 MnO2 + Heat
 Reducing zone extends from the top of the combustion zone to
the top of the coke bed. In this zone, the reduction of C0 2 to in
CO occurs and the temperature drops to about 1200°C at the
coke bed. Due to the reducing atmosphere, the charge is
protected from any oxidizing influence. The reaction taking
place in this zone is:
- CO2 +C(coke) = 2CO - Heat
 Melting zone starts from the first layer of metal charge above
the coke bed and extends up to a height 900 mm. Highest
temperature is developed in this zone for complete combustion
of the coke and iron is thus melted here. The temperature in this
zone is around 1600°C. A considerable carbon pick-up by the
molten metal also occurs in this zone according to the following
reactions:
- 3Fe + 2CO =Fe3C + CO2
 Preheating Zone or charging zone starts from above the
melting zone and extends up to the bottom of the charging door.
Preheating zone contains cupola charge as alternate layers of
coke, flux and metal and they are preheated there at a
temperature of about 1100°C before coming to the melting zone.
 Stack zone extends from above the preheating zone to the top of
the cupola. It carries the gases generated within the furnace to
the atmosphere.
 Charging of Cupola
 Before the blower is started, the furnace is uniformly pre-heated
and the metal and coke charges, lying in alternate layers, are
sufficiently heated up. The cover plates are positioned suitably
and the blower is started. The molten metal starts trickling down
and collecting in the well. The height of coke charge in the
cupola in each layer varies generally from 10 to 15 cm. The
requirement of flux to the metal charge depends upon the quality
of the charged metal and scarp, the composition of the coke and
the amount of ash content present in the coke. Generally about
40 kg to 50 kg of limestone, in form of flux, per metric ton of
the metal is used. The amount of this flux to be charged should
be properly determined. The excess amount of flux affects the
acid lining of cupola. Lesser amount of the flux than required
will result in the loss of molten metal. First charge received of
the molten metal is either allowed to drain out or used for rough
castings. For having desired composition of the casting, it is
essential to control the proportions of its various constituents at
the stage of raw material requirement for melting. It is also
necessary due to number of losses and gains of different
constituents take place inside the cupola during the process of
melting.
 Pouring the molten metal into the mould (cavity)
 Several types of pouring containers and equipment are used to
transfer the molten metal from the cupola to the pouring area
(mould). For small size castings the hand or shank ladles,
holding capacity 15 kg of molten metal, are common used. The
shank ladles holding capacity 30 kg to 60 kg of molten metal are
called ‘bull ladles’. In large foundries the common practice is to
store the molten metal temporarily into a large holding ladle
(such as lip pouring ladle, tea-pot ladle and bottom stopper
ladle), from which it is tapped off as needed. These ladles are
handled by monorail/overhead cranes.
 Pouring should be done continuously and at a uniform rate until
the mould, gates and risers are full.
 5.1 FURNACES FOR MELTING DIFFERENT METAL
ALLOYS
 The refractory lining used in the furnaces dictates the type of
process, either basic (magnesite) or acid (silica).
 Cupola : This is used to melt gray cast iron.
 Reverberatory furnaces: These furnaces are generally used for
melting iron low in carbon (below 2.8%) such as malleable iron,
and chilled iron.
 Open-hearth furnaces: These furnaces produce steel mainly for
large castings. The open hearth process is adaptable to the
manufacture of carbon, low-carbon, and medium-carbon steels
for shaped castings. The basic process is used to produce steel
due to the ability of melting the charge with higher content of
phosphorus and sulphur than the finished steel. The acid process
represents certain quality characteristics favourable for the
production of fine-grain high quality steels.
 Electric arc furnace: Arc furnaces used in foundries operate as
independent melting unit and as a part of a duplex process
layout that comprises an arc furnace and cupola or an arc
furnace and an induction furnace. Arc furnaces are used for
melting high-grade irons intended for special purpose parts,
particularly thin-walled and intricately shaped castings, and also
for producing alloy cast irons, inoculated and high-strength
spheroidal graphite iron.
 Induction furnace: Induction furnaces are used for melting iron
from a solid metal charge, for preheating the iron and refining it
the analysis. These furnaces used in foundries are of two types;
a) Coreless induction furnaces (or high frequency) but core-
type induction furnaces are suitable for heating iron and steel.
Core-type induction furnaces find effective use in the making of
casting from gray, malleable and high strength irons.
 Resistance type furnace.
 Electric furnace with the heater placed under the bath.
 According to the quantity and properties of metal alloys to be
controlled the following furnaces are used:
 Iron Casting
 Cupola – Coke fired – gray cast iron
 Reverberatory Furnace – Pulverized coal or oil- iron low in
carbon (below 2.8%) such as malleable iron, and chilled iron or
to reduce carbon content in gray cast iron.
 Electric arc furnace – alloy cast irons, and high grade irons.
 Electrical operated - Coreless induction furnace
 Electrical operated - Cored induction furnace
 Steel Casting
 Open-hearth furnace – producer or coke gas, liquid fuel.
 Electric arc furnace –
 Coreless induction furnace. – alloy steel for specific purpose.
 Aluminium
 Crucible furnace, lift-out type
 Pot furnace-stationary or tilting type -fuel fired
 Reverberatory furnaces –gas fire, oil fired, electric-stationary
and tilting type
 Barrel-type furnaces-fuel fired
 Electrical Resistance furnace
 Electrical operated-Induction furnace –low frequency
 Electrical operated -Induction furnace –high frequency
 Electric furnace- heater place under the bath.
 Cored induction furnace.
 Copper alloys
 Crucible furnances, lift out type
 Reverberatory- gas fire, oil fired, electric-stationary and tilting
type
 Electric arc furnce
 Electric Induction furnaces
 Magnesium alloys.
 Crucibles - Lift out and stationary- Oil or Gas fired,
b) Reverberatory furnaces
c) Electrical Resistance furnaces
d) Electrical operated - Induction furnaces - Low frequency
 LESSON-6. FETTLING, INSPECTION AND DEFECTS
OF SAND CASTINGS
 Cleaning (Fettling) of Castings:
 When the molten metal has solidified as casting, it is removed
from the sand in the moulding box. This operation is called
shake out.
 Castings, when taken out of the mould are not completely free
of sand particles. Also they have spures, risers, gates etc.
attached to them. The operation of cutting off unwanted parts,
cleaning and finishing the casting is known as ‘fettling’. This
includes;
 Removal of dry sand cores by tapping or knocking with an iron
bar. Pneumatic or hydraulic devices may be engaged for quick
knocking.
 Removal of gates, risers, sprues, and runners by knocking off or
breaking with a hammer, sawing, torch cutting, electric-arc
cutting, abrasive wheel cutting, etc.
 Removal of unwanted metal fins, projections, etc. from the
surface of the casting is called snagging. This includes grinding,
chipping with hand or pneumatic tools, gouging and flame
cutting, air-carbon arc torch cutting, filing etc.
 Surface cleaning i.e. removal of adhering sand and oxide scale
from the surface of the castings. In small foundries, it is
performed with wire brushes. In big foundries, this is done on a
commercial basis by fettling machines such as tumbling barrels
and sand-blasting, pneumatic shot-blasting, and hydro-blasting
machines.
 Small castings may be cleaned in round or square tumbling
barrels. The castings are loaded into the barrel equipped with
jack stars made of white cast iron. Rotation of the barrel causes
the castings to tumble and abrade one another and thereby the
adhering moulding sand is removed.
 Sand or shot-blasting machines are broadly employed for
surface cleaning of castings. In these machines dry sand or cast
iron shots are blown by a stream of compressed air against the
surfaces of the casting. The impact of the sand or shot, travelling
at a high velocity, removes the adhering sand from the surface.
 Hydro-blasting is the most effective surface cleaning method,
in which, a high velocity stream of water and sand is blasted on
the castings. This action results in more efficient cleaning and
polishing of sand castings. The hydro-blast method is most
suitable to nonferrous castings since ferrous ones tend to get
corroded by the action of water.
 Sometimes pickling in a suitable acid (sulphuric acid, hydro-
fluoric acid or nitric acid) facilitates in removing any adhering
sand from the casting. Pickling is used mostly for preparing the
surfaces of casting for plating, although it is occasionally used
for cleaning fragile castings.
 Inspection and Testing of Casting:
 Inspection is an act of checking the suitability of a casting. After
the castings have been cleaned, they are inspected to ensure if
they will carry out specified functions during service. It broadly
envelops a large number of methods and techniques used to
check the quality of castings. These methods are classified into
five categories:
- Visual inspection,
- Dimensional inspection,
- Mechanical testing,
- Flaw detection by nondestructive methods, and
- Metallurgical inspection.
 Defects in castings
 Casting defects refer to those characteristics that create a
deficiency exceeding quality limits imposed by design and
service conditions. Casting defects are classified as below:
 Minor defects: The castings having minor defects can be
economically and easily repaired and used.
 Intermediate defects: The castings having intermediate defects
may result in high cost of repair but the castings may be usable.
 Major defects: They result in scraping of the casting since fails
either to meet physical as well as functional requirements.
 The castings engage a number of procedure parameters, and
accessories. Any of the following factors may result into
defective castings.
 - Defective, design of pattern, core making and moulding
equipment.
- Improper core and mould material composition.
- Improper placement of gating and risers.
- Improper handling of the equipment.
- Non-optimal temperature of the molten metal.
- Lack of experience of the foundry men.
 The castings with defects, such as blow holes, gas holes, cracks,
warping, deformation, etc., cannot be rejected outright for
reasons of economy as they are repaired by suitable means
which include various types of welding, soldering, resin
impregnation, epoxy filling metal spraying etc. Deformed or
warped castings may be straightened in a press.
 Common types of defects found in castings and their causes:
 Shifts: This is an external defect in a casting usually at the
parting line as a result of mismatching of cope and drag parts of
mould or core misplacement.
 Warpage: This is an external defect resulted by unintentional
and undesirable deformation in a casting that occurs during or
after solidification.
 Fin: It is a thin projection of metal, not a proposed part of the
casting, generally takes place at the parting of the mould or core
sections. Improperly assembled moulds/cores cause fins.
Insufficient weighting of the moulds/improper clamping of
flasks may also produce the fin.
 Swell: It is an enlargement of the cavity by molten metal
pressure, resulting in localised or overall enlargement mould
cavity and the resulting casting. This is due to insufficient
ramming of the mould.
 Blowholes: These are seen as a cluster of a large number of
small sized round holes below the surface of the casting. These
are entrapped gas bubbles having smooth walls resulted by
excessive moisture in the sand, too fine grains, low
permeability, excessive ramming of sand, or when venting in
mould is insufficient.
 Drop: It occurs when the upper surface of the mould cracks, and
sand falls into the molten metal. This is due to low strength and
 soft ramming of the sand, insufficient fluxing of molten metal
and insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope.
 Dirt: These are particles of dirt and sand embedded in the
casting surface. This is caused by sand wash and presence of
slag particles in the molten metal.
 Honeycombing or sponginess: This defect is a cluster of small
cavities in close proximity. This defect is caused by dirt or
"scurf" held mechanically in suspension in the molten metal,
and is due to lack of skimming in the ladle.
 Metal penetration and rough surface: This defect refers to the
condition of surface when the molten metal penetrates in the
interstices of the sand grains of mould surface. This defect
appears as a rough external surface of the casting. This defect
occurs due to high permeability, large grain size, low strength
and soft ramming of sand.
 Sand holes: These are irregularly shaped depressions spaced
randomly found on outer surface or inside the casting. They are
caused by loose sand swabbed into the mould cavity and fusing
into the interior of the casting or speedy pouring of the molten
metal.
 Pin holes: This defect is a cluster of small holes (usually less
than 2 mm) observed on the surface of the casting during
cleaning by shot blasting. This defect is caused by sand with
high moisture content and by absorption of gas (hydrogen or
carbon monoxide) when steel is poured from wet ladles or is not
sufficiently gasified.
 Scabs: When a thin layer of the molten metal enters underneath
a portion of the surface of mould or lifted core. These may be
owing to the effect of low permeability of sand mould, high
moisture content, too fine sand grains and uneven mould
ramming or intermittent or slow running of molten metal over
the sand surface thereby producing intense local heating.
 Shrinkage cavity: It is an empty space caused by uncontrolled
and random solidification of the metal during casting. It may
also be caused by too high pouring temperature of molten metal.
 Hot tears (Pulls): These are the cracks occurred in casting
owing to ragged edges immediately after the metal has
 solidified. These are resulted by abrupt sectional changes, sharp
corners in design of casting and wrongly placed chills,
inadequate pouring temperatures and improper position or
gates/risers and excessive ramming.
 Cold shut and misrun: This defect, appears like a crack/seam
with rounded edges, is created due to unsatisfactory fusion of
two steams of metal in the mould cavity or unequal sections of
pattern. The casting which lacks completeness produced by the
failure of the molten metal to fill the mould cavity is called a
misrun casting. The reasons for this defect may be too thin
sections and wall thickness, improper gating system, spoiled
patterns, slow and intermittent pouring, and poor fluidity of
metal caused by low pouring temperature, improper alloy
composition, etc.
 Poured short: When the quantity of molten metal filled in
mould cavity in one pouring is less than the quantity required to
fill it completely, the defect is called poured short.
 Internal air pockets: The appear as small holes when the
surface of the casting is removed by machining and is caused by
pouring boiling metal or by rapid pouring of the molten metal in
the mould. Imperfect and poor quality of metal and excessively
moist sand may also create air pockets.
 LESSON-7. SPECIAL CASTING AND MOULDING
PROCESSES
 To produce high-quality castings improved moulds are required.
Therefore, owing to the significance of the mould, casting
processes and castings are often depicted by the materials and
methods used in moulding. The term moulding process refers to
the methods of making the moulds and material used. The term
casting process conveys a extensive meaning that take account
of the moulding processes, the method of pouring the molten
metal into the mould or all the processes used in making the
casting.
 Special moulding processes other than sand casting have been
developed:
 To produce better quality moulds and cores,
 To affect a saving in time and expense,
 To increase productivity with less efforts and skill.
 The principles and techniques applicable to sand casting apply
also to these processes, with some expectations. The following
special moulding processes have been developed:
- Carbon dioxide moulding process
- Ferro-Silicon moulding
- Dicalcium silicate moulding
- Cement-sand moulding
- Investment moulding
- Shell moulding
- Hot- and cold- box moulding
- Full moulding process
- Plaster moulds (Antioch process)
- Ceramic shell moulding
- Graphite moulds
- Slush casting
- Permanent metal mould castin
- Die casting
- Centrifugal casting
- Continuous casting
 7.1 Sodium Silicate or Carbon dioxide Moulding:
 In this process a mixture of sand and 1.5 to 6% liquid silicate is
first packed around the pattern or into the core box. A hardened
mould is produced by passing CO2 gas through the sand
mixture. The mould is then assembled from the hardened pieces.
 Na2O(x) SiO2 + (x) H2O + CO2 → Na2CO3 + SiO2. (x)
H2O
 (Sodium silicate) (Sodium carbonate) (Silica gel)
 7.2 Ferro-Silicon Moulding:
 If sodium silicate and powdered ferro-silicon are mixed in the
ratio of 2.25:1 by weight, foaming action takes place and the
temperature rises by exothermic reaction between them. At
room temperature, this reaction takes place slowly but once the
temperature is rises, the reaction accelerates. Finally, the silica
sand forms a hard spongy mass. No baking of the mould/core is
needed as in the CO2 process. Normally, for ferrous casting
clean, dry sand of 65 mesh, while for nonferrous casting, sand of
 100 mesh is suitable. The moulds have to be coated with a
suitable wash before they are closed for pouring molten metal.
 7.3 Dicalcium Silicate Moulding:
 This process is based on the principle that if about 2 to 3%
dicalcium silicate, known to be a very effective hardening agent,
and 5% sodium silicate are mixed with sand along with suitable
foaming chemicals, flowability of sand mass increases. As a
result, the sand mix can easily flow in the mould, and there is no
need of ramming as required in conventional moulding process.
Finally, the sand forms a hardness having sufficient
collapsibility.
 7.4 Cement-Bonded Sand Moulds:
 Cement-bonded moulding sand is a mixture of sand, 8 to 12%
cement and 4 to 6% water. This aggregate develops great
hardness and strength. The sand must be allowed to set/harden
before the pattern can be withdrawn. The mould is allowed to
continue setting for up to 72 hours before the mould can be
closed or assembled for pouring molten metal. When the mould
is poured, heat causes the water of crystallization of the cement
to be driven off. Therefore, the steam must be allowed to pass
off through the sand by means of its porosity and suitably
distributed vent holes. Cement-bonded sand moulds can be
made with considerable accuracy, often more than that
obtainable in other processes for making large moulds. As a
result, more accurate castings may be obtained.
 7.5 Investment Casting or Precision Casting or Lost Wax
Process:
 This process is used for producing light and intricate parts of
special steels and hard-cutting alloys with high dimensional
accuracy (within 0.05 mm) that they do not require subsequent
machining.
 The main advantage of this process is the great saving in labour
input and moulding equipment since no drying or backing are
needed. Also high quality defect-free castings are produced.
This finds wide application in medium and heavy castings, both
in grey iron and steel castings.
 The process of investment casting consists of:
 - Making the die for producing the wax pattern with gating
system.
- Production of wax pattern (having gated system) using
dies or by cutting with knife.
- Assembling the wax patterns to a wax gating system.
- Coating the wax assembly with slurry consisting silica
flour and small amounts of kaolin and graphite mixed in
water with an addition of water glass.
- Investing the wax pattern to produce the mould.
- Removing the pattern from the mould by heating.
- Pouring the molten metal into the mould.
- Removing the casting from mould.
- Cleaning and inspection.
 7.6 Shell Moulding:
 It consists of making a mould that has two or more thin shells or
shell like parts which somewhat hard and smooth, with a quality
similar to that of a well made sand core that can be easily
handled and stored. Thermosetting plastic resin bonded sand
consisting of, 90% fine dry silica sand, perfectly round grained
(AFS fineness 60 - 140), free from organic impurities and with
not more than 1% clay and synthetic resin binder 3 to 5% by
weight. The resin is added as powder in dry mixtures. It may
also be applied as liquid and then dried on the sand grains. For
moulding the mixture must be dry and free-flowing. Resins used
are the phenol-formaldehydes, urea-formaldehydes, alkyds and
polyesters. Patterns used for shell moulding are made of metal
as they are heated to 540°C during the cycle.
 The shells are 6 to 20 mm thick and can be easily handled and
stored. Shell moulds are made so that machined parts fit
together easily, held with clamps or adhesive and molten metal
is poured either in horizontal or vertical position.
 The metal pattern fixed on one sides of the metal plate heated to
220-260°C is secured at the mouth of the box containing a
mixture of silica sand and thermosetting resin. The pattern is
coated with an emulsion to prevent the sand mixture from
sticking/adhering to it. The box is inverted and kept in this
position for about 20 second. First the resin in the layer of
 moulding mixture adjacent to the pattern melts and then it
partially thermo sets and builds up a homogeneous sand and
resin shell from 6 to 20 mm thick on the pattern plate. The box
is again inverted and brought to original position. A shell of
resin bonded sand sticks to pattern and the excess moulding
mixture falls. The pattern plate with the shell is placed into an
oven where the shell is cured by holding at 250 to 300°C for 1 to
3 minutes. Stripping the shell from the mould presents a
problem since the shell is very strong and grips the mould
tightly. The shell mould is released from the pattern plate with
the help of injector pins, or parting agent (silicon parting
solutions) is sprayed on the pattern.


 Figure. 7.1 Shell Moulding process
 The solid shell formed on the pattern plate is a half mould. Two
shells assembled, clamped and properly packed with sand in the
suitable box to form a shell mould. The finished shell mould is
poured with molten metal through the gating system made
together with the mould. When the metal solidifies the mould is
broken up. The sprues, runner, gates and risers are removed
from the finished casting. Semi-automatic shell moulding
machines in use at the present time have an output of 60 and
more moulds per hour per operator. Shell moulding is mostly
used for making cores than moulds.
 7 Hot and Cold-Box Moulding:
 The hot-box moulding process, mainly adapted in core making,
uses the same materials as that used in shell moulding, but here
 the resin is applied for coating the sand grains. The resin- sand
mix is then blown over the metal pattern or core box heated to
about 200 to 300°C and allowed to form a solid mass instead of
shell formation. Special hot-box machines are available where
the sand mix is blown over the heated pattern, the blown sand
cured, and mould or core then stripped from the pattern or core
box. Greater dimensional accuracy and higher production rates
are achieved than in the case of shell moulding. This is a
moulding and core making process essentially for mechanised
production of small casting required in big quantities.
 The cold-box process consists of mixing fine dry sand with a
polyisocyanate resin binder and alkyd phenolic resin, blowing
the mix into a sealed core box and injecting an airborne catalyst
tri-ethylamine vapour through the core box. The hydroxyl group
of the liquid phenolic resin combines with the isocyanate group
to form a stiff urethane resin. The two binder components are
usually used in a 1:1 ratio with from 1 to 2 % by weight of the
resin mixture added to the sand. The process has the advantage
that no heating of pattern is required, and the curing takes place
in only within 20-30 seconds. So it is a simple, high production
coremaking process, and extremly suitable for small-sized
castings required in large quantities.
 7.8 Full Moulding Process:
 In this method, a polystyrene foam pattern, comp1ete with
sprues, bottom gates, runners, and risers, and coated with a
suitable mould wash is rammed up in a flask filled up with no-
bake type of sand. For small-sized castings furan or alkyd
isocyanate, while for medium and large size castings CO2,
ferrosilicon may be used. When the molten metal is poured
through the sprue, the heat from the molten metal vaporizes the
pattern and consequently displacement of the pattern materia1
takes place by the mo1ten metal. The amount of gas produced is
so small that it can easily escape through the sand without
causing any back pressure. The shapes with high dimensional
accuracy can be cast quickly and inexpensively by this method.
 7.9 Antioch (Plaster) Moulding:
 The advantages of plaster moulds are that non-ferrous
(specially, aluminum and copper-base alloys) castings can be
made with good surface finish and dimensional accuracy, but for
ferrous alloys may not.
 In this process moulding is done with a mixture of sand,
gypsum, asbestos, talc, sodium silicate and water. Sand being
the bulk ingredient and gypsum the binder. A pattern-parting
stearic acid dissolved in petroleum spirits may be used. Metal
patterns are necessary because the water in the plaster rinse the
grain on wood patterns and makes them almost impossible to
draw. It is obvious that the time required for curing plaster
moulds is an undesirable part of this process.
 After mixing, the aggregate in a creamy condition, is poured
over the pattern retained in suitable flasks or metal core boxes.
The mixture develops a set strength of about 5 kg/cm2 in
compression in about 7 minute. After standing about 6 hours,
the moulds are assembled and autoclaved in steam at a pressure
of about 2 atmospheres. They then are dried in air for about 12
to 20 hours at 230°C.
 10 Ceramic-Shell Moulds:
 A modification of investment casting is ceramic-shell molding.
Ceramic-shell moulds may be made by alternately dipping the
pattern in a coating slurry composed of refractory grains and
ceramic binder. A shell of 5 mm or more thickness may be built
up in this way. The pattern is then melted out, and the mould
processed as described previously in shell mould casting
process.
 11 Graphite Moulds:
 Some reactive metals (e.g. titanium alloys) can be poured only
into inert moulds such as those made of graphite. Graphite
moulds are used either as expendable or as permanent moulds.
The former are moulded with a plastic aggregate consisting 70%
of graphite grains (fineness No. 85) and 30% of binders
composed of pitch, carbonaceous cement, starch, and water.
 Permanent graphite moulds are made by machining the mould
cavity into solid blocks of graphite. The machined mould makes
it possible to obtain very good finish and dimensional accuracy
 in the castings. Aluminum, magemesium, zinc, lead, copper-
base alloys, and cast irons are the principal alloys so cast. The
extremely high temperatures of casting and resulting mould
erosion usually make it unsuitable for steel castings.
 7.12 Slush Casting:
 Slush casting, a form of permanent mould casting, is limited to
some tin, zinc, or lead base alloys. The principle involves
pouring the molten metal into a permanent mould. After the skin
has frozen, the mould is turned upside down or slung to remove
the metal still liquid. A thin-walled casting (shell) results, the
thickness depending on the chilling effect from the mould and
the time of operation. In this process hollow castings can be
produced without the use of cores. Slush castings find wide
application in the production of such products as statues,
lighting fixtures, ornaments and toys, where strength is not of
prime importance and good appearance is an absolute necessity.
- 13 Permanent Metal Mould Casting:
 The advantages of casting in permanent metal mould are; a
sharp increase in labour productivity, rejection percentage
lower, higher mechanical strength of the casting, improved
surface finish of the castings and the possibility of assigning
smaller machining allowances.
 A sand mould can be used for making one casting only, where
as each permanent metal mould can be used to make several
hundred/thousand castings of low melting point alloys, or from
1500 to 5000 gray iron castings, or from 600 to 700 small steel
castings.
 Permanent moulds are usually made in several pieces assembled
together by fitting and clamping. They may be made of cast iron
or steel. Mould life is extended by coating the surface of the
mould cavity, with which the molten metal comes into contact,
with a refractory lute. The coating is applied with a spray gun or
brush after heating the mould to 200 – 250°C.
 7.14. Die Casting:
 In die casting (also known as pressure die casting) the molten
metal is forced into the die (mould cavity) under high pressure
(7 to 200 MPa) and pressure is retained till solidification of
 alloy. The material is dense and homogeneous and has no
possibility of sand inclusions or other impurities. Thin wall can
be produced and uniform thickness can be maintained. As a
result, a very smooth and accurate part is obtained. No
machining is required.
 Die casting is used for mass production and most suitable for
low melting point non-ferrous metals and alloys. Depending on
the melting temperature, alloys are classified as:
 Low temperature (below 500°C) category i.e. zinc, tin and lead
base alloys and these have the advantages of lower cost of
production and low die maintenance cost.
 High temperature (above 500°C) category i.e. aluminium and
copper base alloys. These alloys create lot of difficulties in die
casting due to destructive effective of high temperature. The
erosion of dies increases with rise in temperature because at
high temperature the molten alloy has solvent action on machine
parts and dies.
 Types of die casting machines
 7.14.1 The hot chamber machines:
 In this die casting machine, as shown in Figure 7.2 (a), heating
chamber is an integral part of the machine unit used for low
melting point alloys such as zinc, tin, lead. etc.


 Figure 7.2(a) Hot-Chamber die casting Machine
 7.14.2 The cold chamber machines:
 In this die casting machine heating chamber is outside the
machine unit, used for high-melting point non-ferrous alloys
such as Aluminium, magnesium, copper base alloys etc.


 Figure 7.2(b) Cold-Chamber die casting Machine
 7.14.3 Vacuum die casting machines:
 During casting with ordinary die casing machines (hot and cold
chamder) air inside the die is entrapped in the molten metal that
causes major defects in castings like blow holes etc. To conquer
this drawback air is sucked out by a vacuum pump to create
vacuum in the die cavity. A mechanism is used to cut off the
vacuum pipe connection to die after appropriate vacuum is
attained in the die so that the metal does not flow into the
vacuum pipe. Owing to vacuum, the metal entres quicky and
automatically in the die.
 In each die casting machine, the following provisions are
necessary:
 Die set mechanism for opening and closing dies.
 Arrangement of forcing the metal in the die.
 Device to keep the movable die half pressed till the
solidification of molten metal.
 Arrangement for automatic insertion and removal of cores from
die casting.
 Ejector pins to eject casting from the die.
 In each of the sand mould casting process a separate mould had
to be created for each casting. Variations in mould consistency,
 mould strength, moisture content, pattern removal, and other
factors contribute to dimensional and property variation from
casting to casting. In addition, the need to create and then
destroy a separate mould for each pour results in rather low
production rates.
 Advantages of die castings:
- Die retain their accuracy and usefulness for large number
of casting.
- Production rates are high.
- Close tolerance of dimensions can be held.
- Thin sections can be cast.
- Good detail can be obtained on the surfaces produced in
die casting.
- Good surface smoothness.
- Die castings may be quite intricate.
- Inserts can be easily cast in place.
- Requires less floor.
- Produces castings with high strength and quality, due to
fast cooling rate.
 Limitations of die castings:
 Only certain non-ferrous alloys can be economically
die cast.
 The size of components limit by the size of the die
and capacity of machines.
 Owing to high cost of dies/machine, less number of
castings will not be economical.
 Special skill is required to operate die casting
machines.
 Complex features limits the application of die
casting.
 7.15 Centrifugal Casting:
 Parts that have the shape of solids of revolution are most
conveniently cast by this process. In this process the molten
metal is poured in a mould and allowed to solidify while the
mould is revolving i.e. the metal solidifies under the pressure of
centrifugal force. The molten metal is subjected to centrifugal
force due to which it flows in mould cavities and results castings
 of high density, fine grained structure and high mechanical
strength are produced. The absence of runners and risers, the
small machining allowances that can be assigned, the small
percentage of rejects and the high rate of output make
centrifugal casting very econimical. Hollow cylinderical bodies
such as cast iron water supply and sewerage pipes, steel gun
barrels, and other symmetrical objects such as gears,
diskswheels, pullys, are conveniently cast without core by
centrifugal casting. There are three centrifugal casting
processes:
 7.15.1 True centrifugal casting: In this process, the castings
are made in a hollow, cylindrical mould rotated about an axes
common to both casting and mould, the axis may be horizontal,
vertical or inclined.
 For jobs (l > 4d) e.g. C.I. water supply & sewerage pipes, steel
barrelsà Horizontal Axis.
 For jobs (l < 4d) à Inclined Axis.
 For jobs (l <<d) e.g. bronze bushings, worm wheels & piston
ring blanksà Vertical axis.
 Usually the moulds is rotated in horizontal plane. The most
commonly cast parts by this process are cast iron pipes, liners,
bushes and cylinder barrels etc. The mould used for this process
may be either of permanent type of a sand-lined mould.
 Several types of centrifugal casting machines are available; their
design is dictated by the size of the castings accommodated and
their purpose. There are two types of horizontal axis machines
for pipe castings, which differ in the way the metal is distributed
along the length of the mould during pouring. In one the pouring
trough travels horizontally, while the spinning mould is
stationary; in the other the trough is stationary and the mould
travels as shown in Figure 7.3.

 Figure 7.3 Centrifugal casting
 In true centrifugal casting a low speed will cause slipping or
raining of the metal and a high speed will cause hot tears in
outside surface.
 The general practice is to spin a sand mould with a horizontal
axis at a sufficient rpm to produce a force on the metal equal to
about 75 times, the force of gravity. For moulds spinning about
a vertical axis, a force of 100g is recommended.
 Centrifugal force = m r ω2 = m r (2π N/60)2
 The spinning speed of the mould depends on the diameter of the
pipe, the composition of the poured metal and a number of other
factors.
 7.15.2 Semi centrifugal casting:
 This is also known as profited centrifugal casting. It is nearly
similar to true centrifugal casting with the only difference that a
central core is used to form the inner surface. The shape of the
casting is produced by the mould and core shape and not by the
centrifugal force. Centrifugal force only helps in proper feeding
of mould cavities like semi- sections and eliminates the
possibility of porosity in the castings. In this type of casting
process the axes of spin is always vertical. The molten metal is
introduced through a gate which is placed on the axis, flows
outwards to the rim by centrifugal force. Part produced by this
process are large sized which are symmetrical about their own
axis such as gears, fly wheels pulleys and track wheels.
 7.15.3 Centrifuged or Pressure casting:
 This process is used for non symmertical castings having
intricate details and also for precision casting.
 In this process several identical or nearly similar mou1ds are
located radially about a vertically arranged Central riser or sprue
which feeds the metal into the cavities through a number of
radially gates. The entire moulq is rotated with the central sprue
which acts as the axis of rotation. Thus; it is not a purely
centrifugal process.
 This type of casting is suitable for small, intricate parts where
feeding problems are encountered. This method can be used to
advantage for stack moulding of six or more moulds mounted
one above the other.
 7.16 Countinuous Casting:
 The continuous casting process involves pouring of liquid metal
(White-hot steel) continuously at a constant rate into the tundish
from where it flows down wards into a water cooled mould. The
poured metal comes out of the lower end of water cooled mould
in the plastic state at a controlled speed. The solidifying metal is
further rolled into a variety of useful shapes such as rods, pipes,
sheet metal. This process is economically used in steel plants to
replace the casting of ingots, the removal of ingots from moulds,
the re-heating of ingots. The process can be done vertically or
horizontally. The vertical contiuous pipe casting process is
illustrated in Figure 7.4.

 Figure 7.4 Continuous casting
 The advantages that account for a high economic effectiveness
are as follows:
 Can produce required cross-section of unlimited length.
 Requires less labour and materials for production of dies.
 Reduced inhomogeneity of castings due to a minor segregation
effect and elimination of shrinkage cavity and gas porisity.
 Enhanced casting yield due to decrease in the amount of metal
spent on the top and bottom ends of ingots.
 LESSON-8. CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
PROCESSES
 The welding of metals is an old tradition of joining two metal
pieces, but its application was limited. By the integration of
recently developed techniques, now it can be utilized in all types
of fabrication and production work. Welding is a technique by
which a permanent joint is made by creating interatomic bonds
 between ends (in the weld zone) of two pieces of metal, as they
are heated in the vicinity of joint or all over, or by subjecting
them to plastic deformation, or by using both heat and plastic
deformation. The heat may be developed in several ways and
the plastic deformation at the edges can be attained by applying
either static or dynamic compressive force. Welding is also
defined as the intimate joining of metals in which blend or
unification is created by heating to appropriate temperatures,
with or without the use of either pressure or filler metal.
 Weldability
 It is the ability of a metal or an alloy to form an inseparable
strong bond with specified properties (such as strength,
toughness, proper metallurgical structure, etc.) under pressure,
when in plastic state or during solidification when in molten
state. Today, there is no metal or alloy that cannot be welded by
one or the other process of welding, if all the metallurgical
aspects are sufficiently controlled. In a practical situation, it may
be in a welding design to use materials that need particular
treatment and complex welding technique. To handle such
circumstances, an engineer engaged in fabrication work, must
consider the weldability of materials and should not decide
whether a material can be welded, but whether it is practical and
economical to weld. The definition of weldability as ability of
metal to form a weld is very vague. Though, the actual criterion
in deciding the weldability of a metal is the weld quality and the
ease with which it can be obtained. The term weldability cannot
have a universally accepted meaning, because it surrenders to
the factors; such as, effects of welding heat on base metal,
effects of base metal on weld deposit, effects of heat on alloy
formation at the weld zone, etc.
 To get a sound joint free from defects (such as porosity, non-
metallic inclusions, cracks, hard-zones etc.) weldability
recommends a suitable procedure with some precautions for
successful welding. The concept of weldability differs from
metal to metal and alloy to alloy. Particularly in steels, the
variation is owing to air-hardening tendency, which is a function
 of carbon and alloy contents. Therefore, the weldability of
metals can be judged on the basis of following many factors:
 The melting temperature of metal and fusibility.
 Thermal conductivity of metals.
 Thermal expansion.
 Strength and surface conditions.
 Alterations in microstructure.
 Classification of welding processes
 There are many welding processes in use now-a-days. Efforts
are going on to develop advance welding processes to increase
welding efficiency and to minimize welding defects. The
following criteria can be used to classify the welding processes:
 Classification on the Basis of Metallurgical Aspects:
 Autogeneous Welding: Joining the two parts of the same
chemical composition using no additional metal to accomplish
joint.
 Homogeneous Welding: Additional metal of the same
composition as that of part being joined is added to accomplish
the joint.
 Heterogeneous Welding: Addition of the different composition
metals compared to the composition of metals under welding.
Even the parts under welding may not have the same
composition.
 Classification on the Basis of Heat Source:
 Electric arc welding,
 Electrical resistance welding,
 Organic fuel welding, and
 Chemical welding, etc.
 Classification on the Basis of Physics of Making the Joint:
 Plastic welding ( or Pressure welding)
 Fusion welding (or Non Pressure welding)
 In the Plastic welding (Pressure Welding), the metals to be
welded are heated to plastic state and then brought together and
the welding (joining) is achieved under the influence of external
pressure (forge welding, resistance welding, etc). Whereas in
Fusion welding (Non Pressure Welding), the ends of the
 metals to be welded are held close to each other and heated to
nearly molten state and then the joint is achieved by putting
additional molten metal (filler material) between the two (gas
welding, electric arc welding, etc).
 In some welding processes, no external energy is supplied for
welding purpose e.g. the energy is developed due to high
relative speed and high pressure applied to complete welding
(molecular fusion at interface).
 Advantages of Welding
 A properly welded joint is as strong as the base metal.
 The cost of welding equipment is less.
 The welding equipment is portable and can be moved to the
welding site.
 As the welding can be performed in any position and at any
place, it permits substantial choice in design.
 By welding continuously, air (pressure) tight joints are
produced.
 By welding all metals/alloys are joined, even if they are similar
or dissimilar.
 Welding process can be mechanised.
 Disadvantages of Welding
 The welding arc produces harmful light radiations and spatter.
 The fluxes used in welding produces harmful fumes.
 A skilled welder is essential to make a sound welding.
 The metallurgical structure of the weld is not as that of the
parent metal, due to the changes made by the welding heat and
filler metal.
 Welding produces residual stresses in workpieces and distortion.
To avoid distortion welding fixtures are required to hold the
workpieces to be welded.
 Welding has brought an unbelievable economy in the field of
manufacturing science. The significance can be recognized in
the light of followings:
 Replacing castings,
 Replacing riveting,
 Only technique of fabrication,
 Newly developed materials and specially developed welding
processes,
 Sales value, etc.
 Advantages of welding in comparison to casting and riveting
 In many fields welding has replaced riveting and casting
processes. In machine tool industry, beds and supporting
structure of machine tool which were earlier cast are now
fabricated from mild steel by welding. Similarly in construction
and fabrication work such as bridges, ships, and boilers which
were previously riveted are now welded. As compared to casting
and riveting process:
 Welding process is much faster and economical.
 Structures fabricated from mild steel are light in weight, have
high tensile strength and rigidity.
 Cost of making and storage of patterns is reduced.
 Less manpower is involved in welding process.
 Welding fabrication involves much less inventory, less cost of
handling.
 Welding design involves lower costs and is very flexible.
 Minimises machining costs.
 Produces air tight joints having high strength.
 Better finish and appearance.
 Welding joints are more efficient.
 Old structure can easily be improved and reinforced.
 However, casting has got its own features:
 As casting can be produced as one piece.
 Bulky and heavy structures can be cast which are otherwise
difficult.
 Thermal effect as compared to welding is negligible.
 Applications of Welding
 The innovations in the welding processes and their economics
have made it an outstanding technique for manufacturing,
construction, maintenance, etc. Different fields of application of
welding processes are as follows:
 Aircraft industries,
 Boilers, pressure vessels, drums, tanks, etc,
 Construction of bridges and building,
 Cutting tools and dies,
 Earth moving equipments,
 General maintenance and repairs,
 Pipe manufacturing,
 Nuclear power plants, etc.
 On the basis of above we can conclude that almost no industry is
untouched by the welding process.
 The following is the list of various welding processes:
- Electric Arc Welding:
 Carbon arc welding
 Metallic-Inert Gas (MIG) welding
 Submerged arc welding
 Metal arc welding
 Tungsten-Inert Gas (TIG) welding
 Plasma arc, etc.
- Gas Welding:
 Oxyacetylene
 Air-acetylene
 Oxy-hydrogen
- Thermit welding: based on casting process by chemical
reaction
 ( 8 Al + 3 Fe3O4 = 9 Fe + 4 Al2O3 + the temperature of 3000o C)
- Resistance welding:
 Spot welding
 Seam welding
 Butt welding
 Flash welding
 Projection welding
 Percussion welding
- Solid state welding:
 Friction
 Diffusion
 Explosive
- Related processes:
 Gas cutting
 Arc cutting
- New Welding Processes:
 Electron beam
 Laser beam
- Low temperature welding:
 Brazing
 Soldering
 Hard facing
 LESSON-9. GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT
 Gas welding is a fusion-welding process in which heat of
combustion of a mixture of oxygen (or air) and fuel gas is used
to join metals. Therefore, gas welding processes are technically
called oxygen-fuel gas welding. The most important gas
welding process is, of course, oxygen-acetylene welding. As an
alternative of acetylene, other fuel gases, such as hydrogen,
natural gas, propane, propylene can also be employed. The
commonly used fuel gases along with the maximum as well as
neutral flame temperatures are given in Table 9.1:
 Table: 9.1 The commonly used fuel gases and
the maximum as well as neutral flame
temperatures

 Max.
 Neutral
 Fuel Gas Temp.
Temp. (oC)
(oC)
 Accetylene  3300  3200
 Propylene  2857  2500
 Hydrogen  2870  2390
 Propane  2777  2450
 Natural Gas  2740  2350

 Oxy-acetylene welding is a versatile process and can be used for

welding a variety of metals. When acetylene is burnt in correct
ratio, the resulting flame is sufficiently hot to melt and join the
metals. The equipment for gas welding is relatively inexpensive
 and the cost of welding is mainly determined by the cost of the
required fuel gases.
 Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment
 The commonly used equipment for oxy-acetylene welding, as
shown in Figure 9.1, consists of the following:


 Figure 9.1 Oxyacetylene welding equipment
- Welding Torch: The welding torch (also known as blow
pipe) as shown in fig. 9.2(a), is a device for mixing the
oxygen and acetylene in the desired volumes and burning
the mixture at the tip-end, to produces a high temperature
flame. The welding torches have handle at one with two
inlet connections for gasses. Control valve at each inlet
provided to regulate the amount of oxygen or of acetylene
passing through. The desired proportion of oxygen and
acetylene are thoroughly mixed, before releasing from the
torch to the tip or nozzle. By igniting the mixture at the
torch tip high temperature flame is produced. The
following types of welding torches are commercially
available:

 Figure 9.2 Schematic of an oxyacetylene welding torch and two
types of mixing chambers which are used within the torch.
 Injection or low pressure type; and
 Positive or equal-pressure (also known as high pressure) type
 The main difference between these types of torches is in the gas
mixing chambers. The gas mixing chambers are shown in Fig.
9.2 (b) and (c). A gas mixing chamber must be able
- To mix gases thoroughly for proper combustion,
- To detain flash backs that might occur through improper
operation,
- To stop any flame, travelling back through the tip at the
mixer, and
- In some design, to permit a range of tip sizes to be
operated by the one size of mixer.
 The injector or low pressure type welding torch operates at an
acetylene pressure of less than 0.07 kg/cm2. This low pressure
acetylene is produced at the welding site in an acetylene
generator by the chemical reaction between water and calcium
carbide (CaC2). The oxygen is, however, supplied at a pressure
ranging from 0.7 to 2.8 kg/cm2, depending upon the tip size. The
high pressure stream of oxygen passing through the venture
creates a low pressure which draws in low pressure acetylene
and mix with it before both gasses pass on to the tip.
 In case of positive or equal pressure type welding torch, the
delivery of gases to the torch must be at pressures generally
above 0.07 kg/cm2. In the case of acetylene, the pressure must
 be between 0.07 kg/cm2 and 1.05 kg/cm2 while oxygen is
generally supplied at approximately the same pressure. This
welding torch is the more common of the two types. The mixing
chamber in the equal-pressure torch allows both of the gases to
flow together in equal amounts.
 Note:
 A high pressure welding torch should never be connected to a low pressure a
 b) The high pressure acetylene is usually stored in strong steel cylinders.

- Welding torch tip. The welding torch tip (also called

nozzle) is that portion of torch through which the gases
pass just prior to their ignition and burning. The tips are
made of material having high thermal conductivity, for
instance copper or copper alloy.
 The tip size is specified by the diameter of the hole through
which the gaseous mixture passes. The tip size is selected
depending upon the thickness of the material to be welded. The
welding torches are usually provided with interchangeable tips
for welding different thickness jobs.
- Gas cylinders. The oxygen and acetylene are usually
obtained from strong steel cylinders, as shown in Fig. 9.3,
which are filled by commercial suppliers of these gases.

 Figure 9.3 Showing oxygen cylinder & acetylene cylinder with
their accessories
 The oxygen cylinders having capacity 6.23 cubic metres are
usually filled at a pressure of 125 to 140 kg/cm2 and are
coloured black being the standard colour for them. The oxygen
cylinder weighs approximately 66 kg when it is full. The
acetylene cylinders having capacity of 7.6 cubic metres are
under an initial pressure of 15 atmospheres (15.45 kg/cm2).
When the cylinder is full, it weighs about 86 kg. Fusible plugs
are provided at the bottom of acetylene cylinder in order to save
the cylinder from explosion in case of fire. The acetylene
cylinders are coloured maroon being the standard colour for
them.
 The pure acetylene is not stable at pressures above atmospheric
pressure (i.e. 1.03 kg/cm2) and may decompose explosively.
 Therefore, to store acetylene at high pressure it is dissolved in
acetone that is capable of absorbing a large volume of acetylene
and of releasing it as the pressure reduced. One volume of
acetone at 15°C and at atmospheric pressure dissolves about 25
volumes of acetylene. The dissolving capacity of acetone grows
in proportion to the pressure, so that at the constant temperature
but at 15 atmospheres pressure, one volume of acetone absorbs
about 25 x 15 = 375 volumes of acetylene. The acetylene
cylinder is first filled with a dry porous material (e.g. charcoal
or asbestos) which keeps the acetylene well separated. Then
partially the tank is filled with acetone and acetylene is
dissolved in it under a pressure of 15 atmospheres.
 Acetone is a chemical compound of hydrogen, oxygen and
carbon (CH3 CO CH3). It is a liquid with a pungent smell and
is slightly poisonous.

- Pressure regulators. The pressure regulators do the

following functions:
 It reduces the cylinder pressure to a workable pressure. If the
gas is supplied from acetylene-generator, manifold or pipe line it
reduces the supply pressure to a workable pressure.
 It maintains the constant delivery pressure and gas volumetric
rate despite of pressure variations at the source.
 It permits adjustment to deliver gas at a certain desired pressure
within its rated pressure range.
 The constructional details of a regulator may change among the
different manufacturers, but the basic operating principles are
the same for all regulators. Normally, a pressure regulator has a
union nipple to connect it to the cylinder and an outlet to
connect the hose leading to the torch. Two gauges on the body
of the regulator are mounted; one indicates pressure in the
cylinder while the other shows pressure being supplied to the
torch. According to the requirements of the job the working
pressures are adjusted by the operator initially. The desired
pressure at the welding torch for oxygen is between 0.7 and 2.8
kg/cm2 and for acetylene it is between 0.07 and 1.03 kg/cm2.
- Hose and hose fittings. The hoses connecting the welding
torches to pressure regulators should be strong, durable,
non porous, flexible and light weight. Two lengths of hose
(one for oxygen and one for acetylene) are required to
connect the regulators and the torch. The colour of oxygen
hose is black and of acetylene hose is red being standard
one. The special hose fittings or connections are provided
for attachments to the torch and pressure regulators.
- Goggles and gloves. The goggles, fitted with coloured
glasses, should be worn by the operator when welding.
The goggles protect the eyes from the glare of the flame
cone and molten metal. The gloves should also be used to
protect the hands from heat.
- Spark lighter. It provides a convenient and instant means
for lighting the welding torch.
- Welding rods. The composition and properties of the
welding rods should match the base metal very closely.
The main function of welding rod is to deliver filler metal
to molten pool and it also controls the metallurgical
composition of welded joint. The welding rods should be
such that there is no undue sparking, spitting or boiling.
The molten filler metal should flow smoothly and freely
and should unite readily with the base metal to produce
sound and clean weld. The welding rods are available in a
number of sizes, usually from 1.5 to 10 mm in diameter
and in standard lengths of 90 cm.
- Fluxes. The fluxes are chemical compounds mainly used
to prevent oxidation and other unwanted chemical
reactions during welding. At welding temperature the
fluxes react with the oxides of most metals to form a
fusible slag having low density. The low density slag
floats on surface of the molten metal pool and it will not
interfere with the weldment or the fusion of filler metal. A
good flux protects the molten metal pool from atmospheric
oxygen and prevents the absorption and reaction of other
gases in the flame. Also, it helps to clean and protect the
surfaces of the base metal.
 The fluxes are available in several forms, such as dry powder,
paste or thick solution or as a preplaced coating on the welding
rod. The dry fluxes are usually applied by heating the end of the
filler rod and dipping it into the powdered flux material. The
flux sticks to the heated surface and is utilized with the rod
during welding operation. The paste type fluxes are usually
applied on the base metal with a brush, while the filler rod is
either painted or dipped. The common metal and welding rods
which require fluxing for satisfactory results are brasses,
bronzes, cast iron, stainless steel and aluminium. The carbon
steels do not require fluxing.
 LESSON-10. TYPES OF OXYACETYLENE FLAME AND
WELDING TECHNIQUES
 Oxy-acetylene Flame
 The description of oxyacetylene flame is shown in Figure 10.1.
The combustion reaction of acetylene in the presence of oxygen
is given below. The reaction is written as follows:
 C2H2 (1 mol.) + O2 (2.5 mol.) = CO2 + H2O + 307 k cal
 According to the above reaction, one volume of acetylene
requires 2.5 volume of oxygen. But in actual practice the
volume ratio 1:1 is used for economy. In fact, the combustion of
the acetylene with pure oxygen at the tip of a gas welding torch
takes place in two stages. In the first phase, the carbon of the
acetylene combines with the oxygen to form carbon monoxide
and the hydrogen of the acetylene is freed. This stage is
described by the primary reaction and called inner cone. The
reaction is as follows;
 C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2 + Heat
 The second stage is named by the outer cone, where secondary
reaction takes place when the carbon-monoxide produced in
inner cone further react with oxygen of the surrounding air;
 2CO + O2 == 2CO2

 Figure 10.1 Cones of oxyacetylene flame
 Types of Flames (Chemical Nature of the Flame): As shown
in Figure 10.2, three types of flames can be obtained by varying
the ratio of acetylene to oxygen;


 Figure 10.2 Types of oxyacetylene flames
 - Neutral flame (Acetylene = Oxygen)
- Oxidising flame (Acetylene < Oxygen)
- Carburising or Reducing flame (Acetylene > Oxygen)
 Neutral flame (Acetylene = Oxygen):
 When about equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are mixed
in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip, the flame
produced is called ‘neutral flame’. It is named so because it has
no effect on composition and chemical change in the molten
metal. This flame will not oxides or carburize the metal. In this
flame, the middle cone of flame disappears. The flame has
nicely defined inner cone with light blue in colour. It is
surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced by the
combustion of oxygen in the air and super heated carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner cone. The flame
temperature is about 3260°C. This cone is much darker blue
than the inner cone. The neutral flame is used for welding of
mild steel, stainless steel, cast iron, copper and aluminium.
 Oxidising flame (Acetylene < Oxygen):
 If the supply of oxygen is more than acetylene, the resulting
flame will be an oxidizing flame. The inner cone becomes
smaller, much blue in colour and more pointed than that of the
neutral flame. During oxidizing flame a loud, roaring noise is
heard. The outer flame envelope is much shorter. The highest
temperature of the oxidizing flame is about 3480°C. It would
introduce oxygen into the weld metal. For this reason the use of
oxidizing flame for welding is limited. It is not preferred for
welding steel. A slightly oxidising flame is used for welding
copper base alloys, zinc-base alloys, a few steels (e.g.
manganese steel) etc.
 Carburising or Reducing flame (Acetylene > Oxygen):
 If the supply of oxygen is less than acetylene, the resulting
flame will be a carburizing or reducing flame. It has three cones
namely; the inner cone, middle cone and outer flame. The
middle cone will have feather like appearance due to more
acetylene. The temperature of flame is about 3040°C. The
unburned carbon in this type of flame may be added to the weld.
 Carburising flame is used for welding lead, high carbon steel or
carburising the surface of low carbon or mild steel.
 Oxy-acetylene welding techniques
 In oxyacetylene welding process the welding torch is held in the
right hand, the tip pointing towards the left. The filler rod is held
and fed by left hand. A sound welded joint may be obtained by
proper selection of torch size, filer material, method of moving
the torch along the weld and the angle at which torch is held, as
well as proper regulation of the welding flame. The size of the
torch required depends upon the thickness and heat conductivity
of the metal being welded. Metal with higher conductivity
require a torch tip with large gas consumption. The angle at
which the torch is inclined to the surface being welded depends
upon the thickness of the metal. Thicker metal requires a higher
concentration of heat and, consequently, a larger torch angle.
The welding rod or wire used as filler material in gas welding
should have a chemical composition similar to that of the parent
metal. The diameter of the filler rod is selected to suit the
thickness of the parent metal.
 The following empirical formula can be employed for
approximate determination of the rod diameter:
 Rod diameter (mm) = ½ Thickness of parent metal (mm) + 1
 The use of flux improves the quality of gas welding as it
protects the weld against oxidation.
 First of all, the acetylene is turned on by using the control valve
on the torch and then it is ignited with a friction spark lighter.
The flame is adjusted by supplying the oxygen with the oxygen
control valve on the torch. The pieces to be welded are properly
prepared and positioned. The weld is started by preheating and
melting a small puddle of molten base metal. When a welding
rod is used to supply filler metal, it's tip should be detained in
the flame so that its end melts at about the same time as the base
metal. In order to achieve appropriate penetration and to create a
good quality weld, the tip of the torch should be moved with a
side to side motion, slowly and uniformly. The usual techniques
in oxy-acetylene welding are as follows:
 Left-ward or fore-hand welding
 Right-ward or back-hand welding
 Vertical welding
 Linde welding
 Fore-hand or left-ward welding:In this
method, the weld is made from right to left.
The torch makes an angle of 60°- 70° with the
plate and the welding rod makes an angle of
30°- 40°, as shown in Figure 10.3. To get
uniform fusion on edges of the plates to be
welded, the torch tip is given a circular,
rotational or side-to-side motion. This welding
method is more suitable for making butt
welding joint of plates having thickness upto 3
mm. When plates over 3 mm thickness are to
be joined by butt welding, then the edges of
plate to be welded are bevelled to produce a 'V'
of 80° to 90°. The larger volume of this 'V'
requires sufficient quantity of filler material. If
the 'V' is reduced, the welding torch flame
pushes the molten metal from the pool towards
the sides of the 'V'.

 Fig. 10.3 Fore-hand (Left-ward) Welding
 Note: The plates above 6 mm thickness are not economical to
weld with this method.
 Back-hand or Right-ward welding: In this
method, the welding starts at the left hand end
of the joint and proceeds towards the right. The
tip of filler rod detained in the flame is given
helical/circular motion while the welding torch
moves in straight line. In this welding method
the torch tip makes an angle of 40°- 50° with
the plate and the welding rod makes an angle of
30° to 40°, as shown in Fig.10.4. This is a
better and cheap method for welding plates
 more than 6 mm thickness. A good fusion is
obtained with this method without preparing 'V'
upto 8 mm thick plates. For plates above 8 mm
thickness the edges are bevelled to produce 'V'
of 60°.
 Backhand welding is faster by 20 to 25% and from 15 to 25%
less acetylene is needed.


 Fig.10.4 Back-hand (Right-ward) Welding
 This process uses a larger flame for a given plate thickness. This
larger flame gives greater welding speed and less filler rod
consumption. Since the welding torch moves in a straight line,
the molten metal is agitated very little and excess oxidation is
prevented. The plates up to 16 mm thick may be welded in one
pass and above 16 mm thickness more runs must be deposited
but the number is kept to a minimum. Horizontal and overhead
welding is usually done by the backhand technique while
vertical joints are welded upwards by the forehand method.
 Vertical welding: The vertical welding, as
shown in Fig. 10.5, may be carried out either
by the left-ward technique or by the right-ward
technique. The great advantage of the vertical
welding is that the plate edge preparation is not
required upto 16 mm thickness. In vertical
welding for plates above 5 mm thickness, two
operators are required. These operators use the
identical welding torches, same nozzle size,
pressure settings, angles of welding torch and
rod, speed of travel etc. The fusion is more
easily achieved by this process, particularly
when the two operators are employed. The both
sides of the weld then have a uniform convex
bead of weld metal. When the thickness of
plates to be welded exceeds 6 mm, the
combined power of two torches is much less
than a single torch required to welding an equal
thickness even if the right-ward technique is
used.

 Fig. 10.5 Vertical Welding.
 Linde welding: It is a special welding
technique which is basically used for butt
welding of steel tubes at a temperature below
the melting point of the parent metal. In this
method the use of oxy-acetylene flame with
excess acetylene is made and the right-ward
technique is used. The edges of the tube should
be bevelled to have an included angle of 70°
and placed together with a gap of
approximately 2.5 mm. They are then tacked at
regular intervals. The welding is carried out in
the flat position and the tubes are being rotated
to achieve this.
 Advantages of Oxy-acetylene Welding
 The oxyacetylene equipment is low cost and needs little
maintenance.
 The temperature of the flame is sufficient for welding any of
engineering metals.
 The equipment is portable.
 The equipment is versatile and can be used for cutting as well as
welding.
 It can be used for brazing, heating the metal for hot working,
heat treating, and flame hardening also.
 With neutral flame filler wire can be deposited in a joint and
mixed with base metal with no effect on the chemical
composition of the mixture.
 The carburising flame increases the carbon percentage of the
weld which lowers the freezing point of the weld pool
significantly below the parent metal permitting good control of
pool and consequent increased welding speed.
 The cooling rate is slow because the welding speed is low.
 While welding hardenable steel, with oxy-acetylene process,
fewer precautions need to be taken than required in arc-welding.
 Limitations of Oxy-acetylene Welding
- The welding rate is slower than arc welding. It has two
reasons:
 The super temperature of the flame over the melting temperature
is much lower than that of the arc.
 The heat of the flame should get transferred to the work surface
which consumes sometimes and apart is lost by radiation. In arc
welding, much of the heat is generated right at the work
- It is difficult to weld materials like aluminium and copper
having high thermal conductivity due to the fast rate of
heat transfer. Only highly skilled operator can weld the
materials such as aluminium and copper.
- While welding with carburizing flame, an operator with
high skill is required to avoid building up the carbon
content to excessive level.
 LESSON-11. FORGE WELDING, ELECTRIC
RESISTANCE WELDING & ITS TYPES
 Forge / Blacksmith / Plastic Welding
 It is the ancient as well as the simplest method of welding. This
welding is completed by heating the edges of the pieces to be
joined to forging (plastic stage) temperature, holding the pieces
in position, and then applying force. This process is carried out
 in blacksmith shop. The heating may be done by using any
suitable source of heat in any suitable furnace and force is
applied by manual hammering or by a power hammer. Power
hammering is used for large work and faster production rate.
Otherwise the production rate is quite slow and the process
becomes justified for small work only.
 The quality of the weld depends to a great extent upon the
amount of heating. If the ends to be joined are not heated
enough, they will not stick together. If overheated, due to the
formation of oxides the metal becomes burned, brittle and has
spongy appearance. For lowering the melting temperature of
iron oxide the commonly used fluxes are borax (Na2B2O7) and
silica sand (SiO2).
 Forge welding temperature of steel varies from 900°C to
1000°C and the efficiency of the joint is approximately 80 % of
parent or base metal.
 The materials commonly joined by this welding are wrought
iron and low carbon steels. They oxidize quickly if exposed to
the atmospheric air when heated to high temperature. So that
small amount of oxygen should be permitted to contact the
metal being heated.
 Commonly used forge welding processes are:
 Hammer welding
 Die welding.
 Roll welding.
 The principal difference between these processes is the manner
in which force is applied. In case of hammer welding, the force
is applied at high velocity in the form of blows. In die welding,
the force is exerted either by means of a bell or a mandrel. In
roll welding the work is fed longitudinally between rolls, which
supply required force.
 Following factors controls the physical properties of forge weld
joints:
- Capability of the persons making the weld.
- Weldability of the metal to be joined.
- The quality and type of fuel used in the forge.
- The atmospheric conditions surrounding the process.
 - The amount of flux used and
- The time of application.
 The forge welding joints are of four types as shown in Figure
11.1.


 Figure 11.1 Forge welding joints
 Electric-Resistance Welding
 In this process of welding, a heavy electric current is passed
over a limited area through the metal sheets to be [Link]
heavy current causes them to be locally heated to plastic state
and the welding is completed by the application of pressure. In
this process, as shown in Figure 11.2, two copper electrodes are
used and the metals to be welded are pressed between the
electrodes. The current is passed through electrodes that produce
low resistance to current flow and resistance at the joints
 (contact) of the metal is very high. Thus maximum heat is
produced at the point of contact where welding is to be made.
Generally A.C. is used and the voltage is stepped down to about
4-12 volts by a transformer in order to have high amperage and
good heating effect. The current required for welding is
inversely proportional to the duration of time and directly
proportional to area of contact. For proper welding the pressure
may vary from 25 to 55 N/mm2.


 Figure 11.2 Schematic of Electric Circuit of Resistance
Welding Machine
 The amount of heat generated can be calculated from the
formula,
 H = I2 R t
 where,
 H = Heat generated,
 I = Current in Amperes,
 R = Resistance of the metals to be weld, and
 t = The time or duration of current flow.
 The voltage needed in resistance welding depends on
composition, area and thickness of the metals to be weld. Hence,
in order to supply possible variation of secondary current, the
transformer is equipped with a regulator on primary side that
varies the number of turns on the primary coil.
 The pressure is exerted through a system of springs or cams or
hydraulic or pneumatic operated arms. In resistance welding, the
time for which current flows is very important. Automatic
 provision is made to switch off the supply after a predetermined
time from starting of welding operation.
 The spot welding cycle consists of four stages as shown in
Figure 11.3.


 Figure 11.3 Stages in resistant welding
- Approach/squeeze time: No current flow, pressure
increases from zero to maximum
- Heating or weld time: Pressure (maximum) is maintained
and current is passed.
- Hold or forging time: Due to heating metal attains the
plastic state and pressure is reduces to zero. No current
flow.
- Pause or off time: Period for positioning of new weld.
 Resistance welding is employed mainly for mass production. It
is easily adapted to those components that can be moved to the
machine and are light in weight. The operation is extremely
rapid and simple. This is the only process where heat can be
controlled and which permits a pressure action at the weld.
 This process is suited to nearly all metals, except tin, lead, zinc,
etc. which exhibit many problems.
 Classification of resistance welding:
- Spot welding
- Seam welding
- Projection welding
- Butt welding:
 Upset butt welding, and
 ii) Flash butt welding
- Spot welding: This is the simplest form of resistance
welding and best suited for ordinary metal sheet (thickness
upto 12.7 mm). It makes lap type joints. In fact it replaces
riveting in sheet metals. A resistance spot welding
machine is shown in Figure 11.4.


 Figure 11.4 Schematic of resistance spot welding machine
 Two pieces to be joined by spot welding are placed between the
two electrodes and then electrodes are pressed against each
other (by pressing a foot lever) so as to put desired pressure on
the sheets. Spot welding is shown in Figure 11.5. The sheet
surface must be clean i.e. free from scale or any foreign
substance. Otherwise there would be variation in surface
resistance and would cause uneven increase in temperature even
the area of contact resulting into imperfect weld. The spot weld
has current regulation system, to take care of different thickness
 of materials. Lower arm remains stationary where as the upper
arm is movable. The electrodes are water cooled to keep its
temperature under control.


 Figure 11.5 Spot welding
 In spot welding there are five zones of heat generation, as shown
in Figure 11.6.

 Figure.11.6 Zones of heat
 At interface of two sheets (1),
 At contact surfaces of the sheets with electrodes (2),
 In the metal of sheets (2),
 There are three types of spot welding machines.
 Stationary single spot,
 Portable single spot, and
 Multiple spot.
 Stationary single spot machine, as the name suggests, remains at
a place and the parts to be joined are moved to it. The use of this
machine becomes improper if big assemblies are to be welded
which are difficult to move on to the machine. Hence portable
welding machines are designed which can be moved from work
to work. Such welding machines have long cables connected to
the transformer. The multi-spot welding machine can produce
two or more welds (spots) simultaneously. Thus it is suitable for
mass production.
 - Seam Welding: Seam welding is used for making
continuous welds between two over lapping pieces of
sheet metals. In this process the current is not passing
continuously but is regulated by a [Link] work to be
weld is placed between the two copper alloy disc shaped
electrodes, as shown in Figure 11.7(a), which apply
sufficient pressure between the sheets, and also carry
sufficient current for producing continuous welds. In seam
welding, a series of over-lapping spot welds are formed as
shown in Figure 11.7(b). These have sufficient over lap to
produce a pressure tight joint. Seam welding produces leak
proof or air tight joints, hence is used for manufacture of
stove pipes, refrigerator cabinets, metal containers,
automobiles mufflers etc.


 Figure 11.7(a) Seam welding using rolls

 Figure 11.7(b) Seam weld joint
- Projection welding: In this process one of the two sheets
being joined is dimpled at the points to be welded, as
shown in Figure. 11.8, that is small buttons or projections
are made on one of the sheets hence the name projection
welding.


 Figure 11.8 Projection Welding
 First of all the projections are produced by embossing. As the
current passes the projections are melted and flattened allowing
the two surfaces to come together. The melted projections
become the welds. This process is thus similar to the spot
welding. Projection welding is commonly used in attaching
small components and fasteners to structural members, forgings
or machined parts.
- Butt welding: This is further of two types:
 Upset butt-welding, and
 ii) Flash butt welding.
 Upset butt-welding: In this welding, as shown in Figure 11.9,
parts previously clamped together are heated by the electric
current passing through the work to the welding temperature
(i.e. 1200–1300°C for low carbon steel). The gap between the
edges of parts to be joined is maintained such that no arcing or
flashing should take place. The heat developed is so controlled
that the parts does not melt. Then the power is turned off and
clamping force is increased to complete the weld. The pressure
varies from 15-50 N/mm2. The amount of current required for
welding depends upon the;
- pressure between the parts,
- composition of the material, and
- surface condition of the parts.

 Figure 11.9 Up-set butt Welding
 For uniform heating at the joints the two parts should have same
resistance. Due to the pressure, the joint is upset somewhat, but
this defect is eliminated after welding by rolling or grinding.
This welding process is usually adopted for parts of small area
of cross-section however for larger areas could also be used.
Upset butt-welding is specially adopted for welding pipes, rods
and parts of uniform cross-section.
 ii) Flash butt welding: In this process, as shown in Figure
11.10, the parts are brought together in a very light contact. A
high voltage is applied which produces flash, between the two
joining surfaces, which continues till the forging temperature is
reached. The ends melt, the molten ends are forced together as a
result fusion takes place. Note that heating is mainly due to the
arc or flash and not due to the resistance of the metals. In this
process it is very important to have proper timing and current
for the size and section of parts to be weld. This process requires
 less current and is quite rapid. This welding process is used for
rear-axle housing, steel rims, steel forgings etc.


Figure 11.10 Flash butt Welding
 Lesson-12. ARC-WELDING, ARC-WELDING
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS
 The electric arc welding is a fusion process. In this process the
welding heat is obtained from an electric arc produced in the
following ways:
 Between a consumable metal electrode and workpiece;
 Between a non-consumable electrode and the workpiece.
 Between two non-consumable electrodes.
 Electrodes for Arc Welding
 Consumable electrodes are available for welding various metals
depending upon their purpose and chemical composition. The
consumable electrodes are of two types;
 Lain or bare electrodes or uncoated electrodes.
 Coated electrodes which serve the following several purposes:
 to facilitate the establishment and maintains the arc;
 to protect the molten metal from the O2 and N2 of the air by
producing a shield of gas around the arc and molten metal pool;
 to provide the formation of slag so as to protect the weld seam
from fast cooling; and
 to provide a means of introducing alloying elements not
contained the core wire.
 Non-consumable electrodes (single or in pair) made of carbon,
graphite or tungsten are used to produce arc only.
 Basic Arc Welding Circuit
 The basic arc welding circuit, shown in Figure 12.1, consists of,
an AC or DC power supply, connected by a ground cable to
the work piece, and through a hot cable to an electrode holder,
which makes electrical contact with welding electrode. When
the circuit is energised and the electrode tip is touched to the
grounded workpiece and than withdrawn and held close to the
spot of contact, an arc is produced across the gap. A temperature
of about 3600°C is produced at the tip of the electrode by the arc
and is maintained. The heat produced melts the base metal in the
vicinity of the arc and any filler metal supplied by the electrode
or by a separately introduced rod or wire. The common pool of
molten metal produced is called "Crater". This crater solidifies
behind ,as the electrode moves along the joint being welded,
resulting a fusion bond and the metallurgical unification of the
work piece.

 Figure 12.1 Schematic of Basic Arc Welding Circuit
 Nature of arc: The arc, shown in Figure 12.2(a) and (b), is
generated between an anode, which is positive pole of DC
power supply, and the cathode, the negative pole. When these
two conductors of an electric circuit are touched together and
separated for a small distance, such that the current continues to
flow through a path of ionised particles, called "plasma" an
electric arc is formed. The space, between the two electrodes, or
in arc welding, or the spacing between the electrode and work
piece, can be divided into three zones of heat generation:

 Figure. 12.2(a) Arc Welding

 Figure. 12.2(b) Nature of Arc
 The cathode: Heat is produced by the positive ions
striking surface of cathode. Only 1/3 of total heat is
produced at the cathode.
 The anode: Heat generated by the electrons striking
surface of anode. More heat (i.e. 2/3 of total heat) is
produced at the anode.
 The arc plasma: The plasma or arc column is a
mixture of neutral and excited gas atoms. In the
central column of the plasma, atoms and ions are in
accelerated motion and constantly colliding. The
hottest part of plasma is the central column, where as
the outer portion or the arc flame is somewhat cooler
 and consists of recombining gas molecules that were
disassociated in the central column.
 Welding equipment and tools
 The equipment and tools required for arc welding consists of
 Arc welding power source
 Electrode
 Electrode holder
 Cables and cable connectors
 Earthing clamps
 Hand gloves
 Apron
 Safety goggles
 Helmet
 Chipping hammer
 Arc welding power source: The power source supplies the
current to maintain the arc between the electrode and base
metal. AC or DC power sources are used in arc welding that
depend upon the application, but in some cases either of them
can be used.
 DC Welding Source: DC supply is usually obtained from
generator driven by electric motor or diesel engine. The
generator supplies voltage in the range of 15 to 50 Volts and
current output 200 to 600 Amperes. The generators have
varying-voltage characteristic so that voltage itself adjusts
automatically to the varying voltage demanded by the arc. The
DC welding is mostly used for heavy work and at sites where
electricity is not available. DC welding is easier to perform
because the arc is steady and smooth. The polarity connections
can be of two kinds:
- DC straight polarity (DCSP)- (Electrode –ve, plate +ve)
- DC reverse polarity (DCRP) - (Electrode +ve, plate -ve)
 In DC straight polarity (DCSP) electrode is negative and plate is
positive. In DCSP electrons flow from the electrode to the work
piece and positive ions travel from workpiece to the electrode.
In this case nearly 2/3 of heat is concentrated around the
positive terminal (e.g. workpiece). Therefore, melting and
 deposition rate are high. This polarity produces a narrow and
shallow penetration. Straight polarity is used for welding thin
sheets and for plates with wide gap.
 In DC reverse polarity (DCRP) situation is reversed (i.e.
electrode is positive and plate is negative. In DCRP electrons
flow from the work piece to the electrode and positive ions
travel from electrode to the workpiece. In this case nearly 2/3 of
heat is concentrated around the positive terminal (e.g.
electrode). Reverse polarity produces maximum penetration and
hence, it is widely used for root passes and for out-of- position
welding.
 Advantages:
- Arc starting is easier in DC welding.
- Welding can be carried out in all positions.
- Straight and reverse polarity can be employed to
advantage.
- All ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be welded.
- Generator output is not affected by normal variation in
power line voltage.
 Disadvantage:
- Higher initial and maintenance costs.
- Noisy machine operation, due to moving parts.
- A voltage drop occurs along the cables and therefore, the
cable should be as short as possible.
- Arc blow is encountered, when the arc gets deflected in the
direction of travel is called forward blow and the backward
blow when the arc is deflected in a direction opposite to
direction of welding.
 Alternative Current (AC) Source: Where AC supply mains
are available AC source transformers are used. The function of
transformer is to step down the voltage from 440V to the normal
open circuit welding voltage (80-100V). Formerly AC arc
welding was limited to small thickness jobs, but now a day its
applications are gaining importance, because there are many
excellent AC welding rods. AC welds have the advantage of
speeds, soundness and lower power cost.
 Alternating current welding can be considered as DCSP welding
in periodic cycles. Since the voltage drops to zero during
reversal, the arc is not steady. AC welding requires greater skill
on the part of the welding operator. The penetration
characteristic of AC intermediates between those of DCSP and
DCRP welding.
 Advantages:
- The voltage drop in cables is less as compared to DC
welding.
- Arc blow is not a problem in this process of welding.
- Least initial, operating and maintenance costs.
- Efficiency is high.
- Good forceful arc.
- Operation is noiseless, as no moving part in transformer.
 Limitations:
 Polarity cannot be changed.
 Due to alternative nature of AC arc initiation is difficult as
compared to DC.


 Welding Process Characteristics

 Deposition rate: Deposition rate is the weight of metal
deposited in a given period of time, usually expressed in kg/hr.
Deposition rate depends on melting rate of the electrode and
deposition efficiency. Melting rate is related to arc current and is
not affected by arc voltage. This increases almost linearly with
arc current. With increasing current deposition efficiency is
slightly reduced, due to higher losses of metal by weld spatter.
As a general rule, higher deposition rate is obtained with higher
 arc current, i.e. with greater electrode diameter. To increase
productivity, therefore, larger diameter wires are preferred while
avoiding an excessive heat input.
 Deposition efficiency: Deposition efficiency or electrode
efficiency in arc welding is the ratio of weight of deposited
metal to the net weight of filler metal consumed.


 Penetration: Penetration is measured as the ratio of depth of
weld to its width.
 Welding speed: Welding speed is the speed with which the
electrode moves or deposition takes place. It is expressed as
mm/sec or m/hr. For a given set of conditions, higher welding
speed will result in lower penetration.
 Heat input: Heat input or energy input is an operational
parameter of great importance for a welding process. For
electric arc welding process:


 Flux Welded Joints: A flux is a substance that is added to
remove oxides from surface of the parent metal and to help float
oxides up out of the molten metal pool. Fluxes react with oxides
to produce slag with adequately low melting temperatures. The
resulting slag is also more fluid, and floats easily to the surface
of the molten metal puddle. Moreover, a good slag will also
cover the molten metal puddle, and thus help to keep out of
contact atmospheric oxygen, nitrogen and other gases. The
fluxes may be applied as a dry powder, paste, thick solution, or
as an ingredient in the coating of the weld rods.
 In general, the surface to be joined by welding should be clean.
For high quality welds, the weld area must be free of oil, grease,
paint, moisture, or other material from which gases may evolve.
With many metals any oxide formed during welding may
interfere considerably with the weld. Most oxides have higher
melting temperature than the metals from which they are formed
(Al2O3 has higher melting temperature than parent metal,
prevents proper fusion between the base metal and weld metal).
 In some cases where the oxide is viscous, or its density is about
equal to that of the molten metal, it is difficult to float the oxides
up out of the metal. It will become trapped within the weld, if
not removed.
 LESSON-13. ARC-WELDING METHODS
 Classification of Arc-welding methods:
 Arc-welding Methods can be classified as
 Carbon arc welding
 Metal arc welding
 Inert-gas arc welding:
 Metal-inert-gas arc (MIG) welding,
 ii) Tungsten-inert-gas arc (TIG) welding
- Atomic hydrogen arc welding
- Plasma arc welding
- Submerged arc welding
- Flux-Cored Electrode Arc Welding
- Electro-slag welding
- Carbon arc welding: Carbon arc welding, shown in
Figure 13.1, may be classified as single carbon electrode
arc welding and twin carbon electrode arc welding. In
single electrode arc welding the arc is obtained between
the carbon (copper coated) electrode and the work piece by
using D.C. supply. Whereas, in twin carbon electrode arc
welding the arc is produced between carbon electrodes
using A.C. supply, workpiece does not form a part of
electric circuit. Carbon arc welding may be carried out in
air or under an inert atmosphere obtained through the use
of a flux or an inert gas. Filler material may or may not be
used.

 Figure 13.1 Carbon Arc Welding
 In single electrode carbon welding the electrode is connected to
negative and the work piece to positive terminal. The
temperature at the electrode is 3200°C and at workpiece
3900°C. This process is used for welding sheet steel, copper
alloys, brass, bronze, & aluminium
- Metal arc welding: Metal arc welding is shown in Figure
13.2. This is also called shield metal arc welding
(SMAW) is a manual welding. Heat required for the
welding is obtained from the arc struck between the
workpiece and the coated electrode, which melts and joins
the weld pool. Therefore, this process is classified under
consumable electrode arc welding. The coating of the
electrode burns, producing a dense smoke which covers or
shields the metal drops during their transfer from electrode
to weld pool. This prevents oxidation and absorption of
nitrogen by the molten metal. Some of the coating melts to
form a slag that covers the molten metal pool. During
welding, the parent metal also melts to a particular depth;
the weld metal deposited, therefore, is derived partly from
parent metal and the rest from the electrode. The greatest
advantage of this welding is the versatility and flexibility
to perform welding in difficult places and cost of the
equipment is lesser. This welding process can be
performed by both AC and DC welding power sources.
 The important step for correct welding by this process is
proper selection of electrode.


 Figure 13.2 Shielded metal arc welding
- Inert-gas arc welding: In conventional arc welding, the
fluxes are used to shield the atmosphere around the molten
metal pool. In inert gas welding, inert gas such as argon,
helium, carbon dioxide are used for surrounding the
electric arc and thus keeping the atmospheric air and
contaminations away from the molten metal pool. This
welding process can be classified as;
 Metal-inert-gas arc (MIG) welding,
 ii) Tungsten-inert-gas arc (TIG) welding
 Metal-inert-gas arc (MIG) welding or GMA (Gas-metal-
arc): In this process, consumable bare electrode wire from a reel
is continuously fed to the arc at the rate at which it is consumed
and transferred to the base metal, as shown in Figure 13.3. The
arc is shielded by an inert gas, which flows from the holder
nozzle through which the electrode wire also passes. Welding
machine is DC constant voltage, with both straight and reverse
polarity.

 Figure 13.3 Metal-inert-gas arc (MIG) welding or GMA (Gas-
metal-arc)
 The welding area is flooded with an inert gas to keep away O2
of air from the hot molten metal pool. For welding steel CO2, for
welding Aluminium and Copper Argon alone or mixture of
argon-helium, and for stainless steel Argon-oxygen or argon-
helium are used.
 Advantages:
 No flux required,
 High welding speed,
 Resistance to corrosion high,
 Can be automated easily,
 Welds all metals,
 Efficiency high.
 Tungsten-inert-gas arc (TIG) welding: Tungsten-inert-gas arc
(TIG) welding is shown in Figure 13.4. This welding process is
also known as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). This process
uses a non-consumable electrode, made of Tungsten or
Tungsten-alloy, mounted at the centre of the welding
torch/holder. In this process the filler material is supplied
separately from a bare rod. The arc temperature is 3300°C. The
torch tip is made of high impact ceramic, or is water cooled.

 Figure 13.4 Tungsten-inert-gas arc (TIG) welding
 Advantage:
 This process produces high quality welds in nonferrous metals.
 No post cleaning of weld joint is required.
 During the process Arc and Weld pool are clearly visible to the
operator.
- Atomic hydrogen arc welding: Atomic hydrogen arc
welding is shown in Figure 13.5. In this welding process
arc is maintained between two non-consumable tungsten
alloy electrodes and a stream of hydrogen gas under a
pressure of 50 kN/m2 is passed through the arc. In the arc,
the hydrogen molecules are converted to atoms and absorb
a considerable amount of energy, when they recombine
just outside the arc large amount of heat is liberated. Arc
temperature is 4000°C.

 Figure 13.5 Atomic Hydrogen welding
 This welding process produces smooth, uniform, strong, and
ductile welds, due to the absence of other gases O2, N2 etc.
 This process is employed to weld alloy steel, stainless steel and
most nonferrous metal.
- Plasma arc welding: This welding process, shown in
Figure 13.6, employs a high temperature constricted arc or
plasma jet to obtain the melting and joining of metals. A
non consumable tungsten electrode within a water-cooled
nozzle is enveloped by a gas. Any gas or mixture of
gasses that does not attack tungsten or copper cathode can
be used; argon and argon mixtures are most commonly
 used. The gas is forced through a constricted opening at
the end of nozzle. In this process two inert gases are used;
one forms the plasma and second shields the arc plasma. In
this process arc temperature is 11000°C. In the process
penetration is deep and thorough, and much work can be
done without filler metal.
 It requires automatic control and is not practical for short welds.


 Figure 13.6 Plasma arc Welding
- Submerged (hidden) arc welding: This welding process
is shown in Figure 13.7. This welding process is so named
because of metal arc is shielded by a blanket of granular
flux and bare electrode is used. The flux is continuously
applied before the electrode and the flux feeder and the
electrode feeder together advance as the welding proceeds.

 Figure 13.7 Submerged (hidden) arc welding
 The arc is formed between the wire electrode and the end of a
continuous (i.e. depositing surface, under a layer of protective
mineral powder, known as flux or melt).
 No smoke, arc rays, radiant heat or spatter due to protective
layer.
 Protective mineral powder can be used to add alloying elements
to the weld joint.
 The bare electrode wire is feed from a reel down through the
gun or nozzle.
 Various kinds of automatic feeding equipment are available to
feed wire electrode.
 The flux is mixture of silica, metal oxide, and other compounds
fused together and then crushed to proper size.
 Voltage used is from 25 V to 40 V and current used depends on
work piece thickness.
 600 A – 1000 A for DC, and 2000 A for AC Supply.
 This process is suitable for joining thicker steel plates.
 - Flux-Cored Electrode Arc Welding: In this welding
process the flux cored wire is fed continuously to the arc.
The sufficient shielding is provided by the gas produced
from the flux contained in the wire.
- Electro-slag welding: This is the specialized adoption of
submersed-arc-welding for joining thick materials in
vertical position. In this process, a granular flux is placed
in the gap between the plates being welded. Water cooled
Copper shoes are used to hold the flux mixture. The
process is initiated by an arc which heats the flux and
melts it to form the slag. The arc stops, slag is kept in
molten state by its resistance to electric current passing
between the electrode and the work. The electrode wire
melts, the droplets pass through the slag and deposit on the
joint. The interior temperature of the slag bath for steel is
about 1925°C; its surface temperature is 1650°C (approx.)
 LESSON-14. WORKING PRINCIPAL OF LATHE AND
IT’S TYPES
 As already explained, the general term machine tool is applied
to various types of power driven metal cutting machines, such as
Lathe, Shaper, Milling, Grinder, Slotting and Drilling machine
etc., that are used in machine shop. Machine tools enable a
cutting tool to operate upon a piece of material to produce the
desired shape, size and surface quality by cutting away of
material in the form of chips. They require specific tool for
performing their operation. The tool must be harder than the
material to be operated. Machine tools may be called as mother
of other machines, and almost any product can be produced with
them. Machine tools serve the following purposes:
- They hold the work or the part to be cut.
- They hold the cutting tool or tools.
- They impart to the cutting tool/work/or both whatever
motion is required for cutting or forming the part.
- They are equipped with for regulating the cutting speed
and also the feeding movement between the tool and the
work.
 Lathe
 Lathe is one of the most important machine tool in any
workshop. The main purpose of lathe was to remove undesired
material from outer surface by rotating the work piece against a
cutting tool to give it the predetermine shape and size. However,
today it has become an all-purpose machine tool, employed in
production and repair work, because it allows a large number of
operations to be performed on it. However, a lathe was primarily
meant to produce cylindrical work, yet it may also be used for
producing flat surfaces and also for other operations such as
drilling, milling, threading, and grinding etc.
 Working Principle of a lathe: The working principle of a lathe
is illustrated in Figure 14.1. The work piece is tightly held in a
chuck or between centres and rotated (counter-clockwise) at a
uniform speed about the axis of lathe spindle. The cutting tool
held firmly in the tool post is fed into the work piece for a
desired depth and feed. Owing to relative motion between the
work piece and the cutting tool the material is removed in the
form of chips and the required shape is produced. To cut the
material properly the tool should be harder than the material of
the workpiece.


 Figure 14.1 Working principle of lathe
 Types of Lathe
 To suit the various machining operations lathes with different
designs and constructions have been developed. However all of
 them work on the same fundamental principal and perform the
same function. Generally, used types of lathe are:
 Speed lathe
 Wood working lathe
 Centering lathe
 Polishing lathe
 Spinning lathe
 Engine lathe
 Belt drive
 Individual motor driver
 Gear head lathe
 Bench lathe
 Tool room lathe
 Capstan & Turret lathe
 Automatic lathe
 Special purpose lathe
 Wheel lathe
 Gap bed lathe
 T-lathe
 Duplicating lathe
- The speed lathe: The “speed lathe” shown in Figure 14.2,
has been so named because of the very high speed of the
headstock spindle usually range from 1200 to 3600 rpm.
This lathe, in comparison to other types of its family, is
simple in construction and easy to operation. Its main parts
are bed, a headstock fixed on the left end of bed, a
tailstock mounted on the right end of bed, and a tool-post
mounted on an adjustable slide. The tool mounted on tool
post is fed into the work by hand. The depth of cut and the
thickness of chip are very small. The construction of
headstock is very simple and only two or three spindle
speeds can be obtained. Operations using small cuts at
high speeds demand the use of this type of lathe, where
minimum cutting force is acting, such as in centering,
polishing, spinning, woodworking, etc.

 Figure 14.2 Speed lathe
- The engine lathe or centre lathe: This lathe, shown in
Figure 14.3, is the most significant member of the lathe
family and is the most widely used in workshops. It differs
from a speed lathe that it has been equipped with
additional mechanism for controlling the spindle speed and
for supporting and controlling the feed of the cutting tool.
The cutting tool may be fed both in cross and longitudinal
direction with respect to the lathe axis with the help of a
carriage. With these added features an engine lathe has
proved to be an all-around machine adaptable for every
type of lathe work. Depending upon design of head stock
for receiving power, may be classified as belt driven lathe,
motor driven lathe and geared head lathe.


 Figure 14.3 Engine (Centre) lathe
- The bench lathe: This is a small sized engine lathe, as
shown in Figure 14.4, generally mounted on a bench. It
can perform almost all operations. The bench lathe is
suitable for precision and small sized work.

 Figure 14.4 Bench Lathe
- The tool room lathe: This is a very precisely constructed
engine lathe, as shown in Figure 14.5. It has a wide range
of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high
speed up to 2500 rpm. It is equipped with all the
accessories essential for precision work. these includes
chuck, draw in collect attachment, thread chasing dial,
relieving attachment, taper turning attachment, steady and
follower rest, pump for coolant, etc. This lathe is intended
for making precision component such as dies, gauges,
tools, and jigs etc. Its price is more than an engine lathe of
the same size.


 Figure 14.5 Tool Room lathe
- The capstan and turret lathe: These lathes, as shown in
Figure 14.6, are modification of an engine lathe, meant for
mass production of identical parts in minimum time. This
 type lathes are semi-automatic in operation. In these lathes
the tailstock of an engine lathe is substituted by a
hexagonal turret, called capstan and turret heads that act as
multi tool holder. The tools are held in turret and fed into
the work in proper sequence. The advantage of this lathe is
that different operations can be performed on a workpiece
without resetting of work or tools.


 Figure 14.6 Capstan and turret lath
- Automatic lathes: An automatic lathe is shown in Figure
14.7. These are high speed, heavy duty, lathes with full
automatic control. These are used for mass production of
identical components. The tools are automatically fed to
the work and withdrawn after all operations to finish the
component are performed successfully. The change of
tools, speeds, feeds are automatic. After the first job is
finished adequately, the machine will continue to repeat
the cycles even without the attention of the operator. An
operator who watching over five or six automatic lathes at
a time will take care of the general maintenance of the
machines and cutting tools, load up bar stock and remove
finished components from time to time.

 Figure 14.7 An Automatic Lathe
- Special purpose lathes: The special purposes lathes are
used for the jobs which cannot be conveniently
accommodated or machined on a standard lathe. The
wheel lathe is made for machining the journals and turning
the tread on wheels of locomotive and railroad car. The
gap bed lathe, in which a section of the bed adjacent to the
headstock is removable, is used to swing extra-large-
diameter pieces. The T-lathe, as shown in Figure 14.8, a
new member of the lathe family, is used for machining of
rotors for jet engines. The axis of spindle of the headstock
is at right angle to the movement of carriage on the lathe
bed in the form of a T. The duplicating lathe is one used
for copying the shape of a flat or round template on to the
workpiece. Mechanical, air, and hydraulic devices all are
used to co-ordinate the actions of the tool to reproduce
accurately the shape of the template. The missile lathe,
which has a very large swing for accommodating long
missile component of very large diameter, is the most
modern and latest in lathe design.

 Figure 14.8 T-Lathe
 The Size and Specifications of a Lathe
 The size of a lathe is specified by the following items and
illustrated in Figure 14.9:


 Figure 14.9 Lathe Specification
 The height of the spindle-axis, H, measured from the lathe bed.
 The swing diameter, D, over bed. This is the largest diameter of
work that will revolve without touching the bed and is twice the
height of the spindle-axis above the lathe bed.
 The length, L, between centres. This is the maximum length of
work that can be mounted between the live and dead centres of
lathe.
 The swing diameter, D1, over carriage. This is the largest
diameter of work that will revolve over the lathe saddle, and is
always less than the swing diameter over bed.
 The length of bed indicates the approximate floor space
occupied by the lathe.
 The maximum bar diameter. This is the maximum diameter of
bar stock that will pass through the hole of the headstock
spindle.
 In ordering a lathe it is essential to ask for certain other key
details to specify the lathe correctly. These are depth and width
of the bed, depth and width of gap (if it is a gap bed lathe),
swing over gap, spindle nose diameter, centre taper Morse No,
number and range of spindle speeds, number of feeds, number
and range of Metric and English threads that may be cut,
leadscrew pitch, power input and floor space required.
 LESSON-15. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A LATHE AND
THEIR DESCRIPTION
 Principal Parts of Lathe
 The principal parts of a geared head lathe are shown in Figure
15.1:

 Figure 15.1 Principal Parts of a Geared Head Lathe
 Bed
 Headstock
 Tailstock
 Carriage
 Feed mechanism
 Screw cutting mechanism
- The Bed: The bed is a heavy, rigid casting made in one
piece that acts as the base or foundation of the lathe. All
other parts of the lathe are mounted on and attached it. Its
top is machined to provide guide ways for the sliding
movement of carriage and positioning of the tailstock. The
guide ways are of two types, i.e. wide flat guide ways or
inverted V-guide ways. Generally, the combination of both
the flat and inverted V-guide ways is used. Figure 15.2
illustrates different types of lathe bed guide ways.

 Figure 15.2 Different types of lathe bed guide ways.
 The head stock lathe is positioned and secured at left end of bed.
The lathe bed being the main guide for the cutting tool, for
perfect machining work, must satisfy the following conditions:
 It must have sufficient depth and width so that it
should be adequately strong and rigid to avoid
deflection under intense cutting force, which is
transmitted from the tool through the tool post and
carriage to the lathe bed and absorb vibrations.
 It must resist the twisting stress set up as a result of
two forces-the vertical cutting force acting on the
tool and the force tending to move the tool away
from the workpiece in the horizontal direction. This
is best done by diagonal ribbing or making box
section casting.
 The bed material must have high compressive strength, should
be wear resistant and should be capable of absorbing vibrations.
Cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium forms a good
material suitable for lathe bed. Generally lathes are constructed
with a gap in the bed.
- The Headstock: The headstock is secured permanently on
the inner ways at the left hand end of the lathe bed. It
houses the spindle. It is equipped with a step-cone pulley
or a geared head drive mechanism to control speed change.
All lathes receive power through the head stock. The
modern lathes are provided with all-geared type headstock,
 as shown in Figure 15.3 which provides large variation of
spindle speeds.


 Figure 15.3 Nine-speed all-geared headstock
 The headstock spindle as shown in Figure 15.4 is made hallow
in order to allow the long bar to pass through. The front end of
the hole is tapered for holding centres and other tools having a
standard Morse tapered shank. Threaded nose spindle is
commonly used in lathes. The spindle is housed in the headstock
by mounting on two large bearings.

 Figure 15.4 Headstock spindle
- Tailstock: The tailstock, also called loose head stock, is
clamped to the inner ways at the right hand end of the bed.
It has two main purposes;
 It holds the other end of the workpiece when it
is being machined between centres or when a
long workpiece is to be held in the chuck.
 It is also used for holding and feeding the tools
for performing operations such as drilling,
reaming, tapping, etc.
 The tailstock, as shown in Figure 15.5, consists of two parts i.e.
the base and the body. The two parts are held together by
clamping bolts. The body of the tailstock is a casting and placed
on its base which is shaped to fit the innerways of the bed. To
accommodate different lengths of work, the body of the tailstock
can be adjusted by sliding along the ways to the desired position
and can be clamped by bolts and plates. The tailstock body is
made sliding in the base and can be moved towards or away
from the operator by means of an adjusting screw for taper
turning and to realign the tailstock centre for straight turning.
The body is bored to act the barrel which carries the tail stock
spindle that moves in and out of the barrel by means of a screw
when tail-stock handwheel is turned.

 Figure 15.5 Tailstock of Lathe
 The tailstock spindle is a hallow shaft and is mounted in the
barrel/hole made in the tailstock body. The front of the spindle
has taper hole into which the dead centre or other tools fit. The
spindle has a keyway in the underside which mates with a small
key fitted on the barrel to prevent rotation. After the adjustment
is made, the spindle is clamped by tightening the locking bolt.
The clockwise rotation of the handwheel causes the advance,
due to the lefthand thread cut on the screw. The anticlockwise
rotation causes the spindle to be drawn inward and ultimately
the end of the screw strikes the back of the dead centre or any
tool that is fitted into the hole.
- Carriage: The carriage consists of a number of sub-units
that have means to support, move and control the cutting
tool. Since the carriage moves on the inner guide ways of
 the bed, thus its motion is parallel to the rotational axis of
the spindle. This motion is used for producing cylindrical
surfaces. The carriage, as shown in Figure 15.6, has the
following five sub-units:


 Figure 15.6 Lathe Carriage
 Saddle:It is an H-shaped casting that fits over the bed and slides
along the guide ways between the headstock and tailstock.
 Cross-slide: It is fitted to the saddle by a dovetail joint. The
movement of the cross-slide is obtained by turning the cross-
slide hand wheel. It supports the compound rest.
 Compound rest: It is mounted on the top of the cross-slide. It
can be swiveled to any desired angle within the range in a
horizontal plane and its base is graduated in degrees to indicate
its angular setting.
 Tool post: It is mounted above the compound rest. It is used to
rigidly clamp the cutting tool or tool holder, in the required
position.
 Apron: It is secured to the saddle and hangs in the front of the
bed. It contains gears, clutches and levers for operating the
carriage manually as well as automatically. The apron hand
 wheel can be turned to move the carriage longitudinally back
and forth by hand.
- Feed mechanism: The feed mechanism of a lathe is
engaged for imparting various feeds to the cutting tools.
The feed i.e. the movement of the tool relative to the
spindle axis may be longitudinal, cross and angular, as
shown in Figure 15.7.


 Figure 15.7 Types of lathe feeds
 The feed is said to be longitudinal feed if the tool moves parallel
to the spindle axis or axis of rotation of work.
 The feed is said to be cross feed if the tool moves in the
direction perpendi-cular to the spindle axis or axis of rotation of
work.
 The feed is said to be angular when the tool moves at an angle to
the spindle axis or axis of rotation of work. The angular feed is
achieved by swiveling the compound rest. The feed is given by
hand only or by taper turning attachment.
 The feed mechanism in a lathe transmits motion from the
headstock to the carriage. It consists of the following units.
 End of bed gearing,
 Feed gear box,
 Feed shaft and lead screw,
  Apron mechanism.
- End of bed gearing: The motion from headstock spindle
is transmitted to the feed shaft and lead screw by end of
bed gearing, either directly or through a gear box. The
direction of feed is reversed by two mechanisms namely,
tumbler gears or bevel gear reversing mechanisms. These
mechanisms are housed in the rear of the head stock and
transmit motion to the stud shaft. The output motion taken
from the stud shaft is further transmitted by a train of gears
‘called change gear stain’ to the lead screw or feed shaft
directly or through a gear box. The change gear train
consists of a gear on stud shaft, a gear on the lead screw or
on the feed shaft or gearbox and the intermediate gears.
- Feed or quick change gearbox: It is mounted on the front
of lathe bed below the head stock assembly. The motion
from gear train is transmitted through feed gearbox to lead
screw and feed shaft. Feed gearbox offers two functions
the first one is different feed rate to feed shaft and the
second one is the ratio between the revolutions of spindle
of headstock and lead screw. The lead screw further gives
movement to the carriage for cutting threads. Feed
gearboxes used in lathe are also of two type; a) gear cone
and tumbler gear mechanism, b) gear cone and sliding key
mechanism.
- Feed shaft and lead screw: The feed shaft is long shaft
that has the keyway extending from the feed gear box
across the bed. The feed shaft supplies motion to the apron
gears which moves the carriage for longitudinal feed and
cross-slide for cross feed.
 The lead screw is a long threaded shaft used as a master screw.
It is used only when threads are to be cut. Sometimes, in
absence of feed shaft lead screw may be used for providing
longitudinal feed during turning operation.
- Apron mechanism: Apron mechanism is installed in a
box attached to the front of the carriage. This mechanism
converts rotary motion of feed shaft and lead screw into
 translator feed motion of the tool for turning as well as
thread cutting.
 LESSON-16. LATHE ACCESSORIES
 The lathe accessories are used for holding and supporting the
workpiece or for holding the cutting tool. The various lathe
accessories are as follows:
 Centres: There are two types of centres i.e. live
centre and dead centre. A centre which fits into the
head stock spindle and revolves with the work is
called live centre while the centre which is fitted in
the tailstock spindle and does not revolve is called
dead centre. These centres have a standard Morse
taper shank at one end and a 60° point at the other
end. The various types of centres are shown in
Figure. 16.1.


 Figure 16.1 Various Types of centres
 Ordinary centre is used for most general work;
 Tipped centre contains a hard alloy tip brazed into a steel shank;
 Half centre, is ground away less than half of the centre,
facilitating facing of the work ends without removal of centre;
 Ball centre has a ball shape at the end of centre instead of a
sharp point. It is used to minimize the wear and strain on the
ordinary centre when taper turning by tailstock set over method.
 Revolving dead centre is used in tailstock for supporting heavy
work revolving at a high speed.
 Chucks: It is an important device used for holding
and rotating the workpiece in the lathe. The work
pieces which are too short to be held between centres
are clamped in the chuck. It is attached to the lathe
spindle by means of bolts with back plate screwed on
to the spindle nose. There are many types of chucks,
such as four jaw independent chuck, three jaw
universal or self-centering chuck, combination
chuck, magnetic chuck, collet chuck, drill chuck, and
air or hydraulic chuck. But the following two are
generally used.
 Four jaw independent chuck: The four jaw independent
chuck, as shown in figure 16.2(a), has four reversible jaws. Each
jaw is independently adjusted to accommodate the work in
required position. This type of chuck can hold regular (i.e.
square, round ) and any irregular shaped work in either a
concentric or eccentric position.

 Figure 16.2 a) Four-jaw independent
 Three jaws universal: The three jaw universal chuck, as shown
in Figure 16.2(b), is also called self-centering chuck or scroll
chuck. This chuck is mainly used for holding round and
hexagonal work.

 Figure 16.2 b) Three-jaw self-centering
 Drive plates and carrier: The work held between
centres is rotated positively by clamping the dog or
carrier to the end of the work. This is engaged with a
pin attached to the drive plate or face plate. Different
types of drive plates and carriers are shown in Figure
16.3. The lathe carrier may be of straight type or bent
type as shown. The drive plate is bored out and
threaded to be attached to the spindle nose. It also
carries a hole for a pin which is used to drive lathe
dog or carrier with straight tail. When bent-tail dog is
used, the plate with cuts is used and the bent portion
of tail is inserted directly into the cut.

 Figure 16.3 Different types of drive plates and carriers
 Face plate: The face plate, as shown in Figure 16.4,
is similar to a drive plate except that it is larger in
diameter. It contains more open slots or T-slots so
that bolts may be used to clamp the workpiece to the
face of the plate. The face plate is used for holding
work pieces which cannot be conveniently held in a
chuck.


 Figure16.4 Face plate
 Angle Plate: An angle plate, as shown in Figure
16.5, is simply a cast iron plate with two faces at
 right angled to each other and having slots for
clamping bolts. It is always used with a face plate for
holding such parts which cannot be clamped against
the vertical surface of the face plate.


 Figure 16.5 Angle plate
 Mandrels:The lathe mandrel is a hardened piece
cylindrical bar with centre hole at each end. It is used
to hold and rotate a hallow workpiece, that has been
previously drilled or bored, to machine their external
surface. The work revolves with the mandrel which
is mounted between the centres of the lathe. The
various types of mandrels used for different classes
of work are shown in Figure 16.6. a) Plain mandrel,
b) Stepped mandrel, c) Collar mandrel, d) Screwed
mandrel, and e) Cone mandrel.

 Figure 16.6 Various types of mandrels
 Rests: When a long slender workpieces are to be
turned between the centres, it must be supported at
some intermediate point in order to prevent bending
of the workpiece. This auxiliary is known rest. The
following two types of rests are commonly used;
 Fixed steady rest, and
 Travelling steady or follower rest.
 The fixed steady rest, as shown in Figure 16.7(a), consists of a
cast iron base, which is made to slide on the lathe bed ways and
is clamped at any desired distance from the chuck where a
support is necessary. Though its main function is to provide
support for long thin workpiece that is turned between centres,
yet it can be used for supporting free end of a long workpiece
for facing, drilling and boring operations. It may be noted that
 when steady rest is used the carriage cannot be fed to full length
of workpiece.


 Figure 16.7 (a) Fixed steady rest
 The travelling steady or follower rest, as shown in Figure
16.7(b), is used to provide support to the workpiece close to the
cutting tool. This rest is bolted to the back end of carriage and
moves with it. This rest prevents the work from springing away
when the cut is made. Also it is used in finish turning operations
or where the entire length of the workpiece is required to be
turned without disturbing the setting.

 Figure 16.7 (b) Travelling steady rest

 LESSON-17. LATHE TOOLS

 The tool used in a lathe, for general purpose work, is a single
point tool, but for special operations multi-point tools may be
used. The material used for lathe tools should have hardness,
toughness, heat resistance and low wear. The commonly used
materials are; high carbon steel, high speed steel, cemented
carbides, diamond tips, and ceramics.
 A tool which has primarily one cutting edge is known as a
single-point cutting tool, such as lathe tools, shaper tools, planer
tools, boring tools etc. According to the direction of feed single
 point cutting tools are classified as right hand tools and left hand
tools. In right hand tool, the cutting edge is on the left hand side
of the operator. The right hand tool during cutting operation
travels from right to left i.e. from tail stock to head stock. In
lefthand tool, the cutting edge is on right side of the operator.
The lefthand tool during cutting operation travels from left to
right.
 Basic Shape of the Cutting tool:All cutting tools used in metal
machining basically resmble a wedge, as shown in Fig. 17.1.
During chipping(cutting), the wedge must be set at an angle
inclined to the work surface so that separation of chip can take
place. During the process of cutting, the wedge is so set that its
lower surface does not rub with the finished surface of work.
The inclined angle between the lower surface of the wedge and
the finished workpiece surface is called clearance angle. This
angle reduces friction and lowers down the temperature rise.
The top face of the wedge on which the chip slides, also called
lip face of wedge is at angle from the line drawn perpendicular
to the machined surface of workpiece. This angle is called rake
angle of the wedge. This angle controls the nature of chip
formation considerably as the surface making rake angle is
always in contact with chip.

 Figure 17.1 Basic shape of cutting tool
 Cutting Tool Nomenclature
 Cutting tool nomenclature means systematic naming of the
various parts and angles of a cutting tool. The nomenclature of a
single point cutting tool is shown in Figure 17.2(a).

 Figure 17.2(a) Cutting tool nomenclature
 Shank:It is that portion of the tool bit that not ground to form
cutting edges and is rectangular in cross-section.
 Face: It is that surface against which the chip slides upwards.
 Flank: The flank of a cutting tool is that surface which faces the
workpiece.
 Heel: It is the lowest portion of the side-cutting and end-cutting
edge.
 Base: It is the under-side of the tool shank.
 Nose: It is the conjunction of the side and end cutting edge.
 In a single point cutting tool, there are various angles; each of
them has a definite purpose. Angles of single point cutting tool
are shown in Figure 17.2(b) and are explained below:

 Figure 17.2 (b) Angles of single point cutting tool
 Rake angle:It is the slope of the top face away from the cutting
edge. Each tool has side and back rake. Rake angle is the most
important angle of the tool. The normal rake angle is the angle
made by the face of the tool and the plane parallel to the base of
the cutting tool. If the rake angle is measured along the tool
shank, it is called back rake angle and if it is measured in a
direction at right angle to it, then it is called side rake angle. The
purpose of this angle is to allow the chip to flow plastically over
the tool face, so that smooth cutting action can take [Link]
strength of the cutting edge of tool depends mainly on rake
angle.
 Negative rake angle:For machining brittle materials (i.e. brass)
zero degree rake angle is provided, but for machining tougher
materials (i.e. copper) negative rake angles are used. The
tougher characteristic has a tendency to cause the cutting edge
of the tool to dig into the material and spoil the job [Link]
negative rake angle is usually used on carbide-tipped tool. The
main purpose of this is:
 To increase the strength of cutting tool point.
 To give better surface finish.
 To decrease the temperature rise at the tool-tip because more
heat flows to chip from tool.
 Clearance Angle: It is the angle of the end of side surfaces that
are below the cutting edge. When the tool is in the horizontal
position, the normal clearance angle is measured from the plane
perpendicular to the tool shank. The effective clearance angle
depends upon the position of the tool relative to the job. This
angle is provided to avoid any frictional drag of the tool on the
job.
 Cutting angle: it is the angle between the tool face and the line
tangent to the machined surface at the cutting point.
 Lip angle: It is the angle between the tool face and the ground
end surface of flank.
 Nose radius: Side and end cutting edges can be joined to form a
point but it is not desirable as it leads to high heat concentration
at a sharp point. Joining end and side cutting edges by an arc
(nose radius) is the common practice. Formation of nose radius
improves surface finish, tool life and reduces cutting forces.
But,to large nose radius results in chatter and is not desirable.
Therefore, nose radius should be selected accordingly.
 Tool Signature: It is the numerical technique of giving
specification of tool as standardized by the American Standards
Association (ASA), according to which the seven elements of a
single point tool are always stated in a fixed manner as shown in
Figure 17.3.

 Figure 17.3 Tool signature as per ASA
 The cutting tools used on the lathe for various operations have
different shapes as shown in Figure 17.4. The shape of cutting
tool depends upon the nature of operation to be performed. If the
cutting edge of the tool is directed towards the thumb of right
hand then the tool is called right hand tool and cutting action is
done by the tool while traveling from right to left. On the other
hand, if the cutting edge is directed towards the thumb of left
hand then the tool is called left tool and cutting action is done by
the tool while traveling from left to right.


 Turning, Parting and Threading tools


 (g) Form or Profile tool (Straight and Circular)


 (h) Knurling tool 
 
 Figure 17.4 Shapes of lathe tools

 The lathe tools are classified as follows:

- Right hand turning tool (a),
- Left hand turning tool (b),
- Round nose turning tool (c),
- Left hand facing tool (d),
- Right hand facing tool (e),
- Left hand chamfering tool (f),
- Right hand chamfering tool (g),
- Parting or necking tool (h),
- Threading tool (i),
- Form or profile tool (g), and
- Knurling tool (h).
 Tool Holders
 When the cutting tool is made of costly material, it will not be
economical to make the whole shank from same material. The
cutting tool is made quite small. The cutting tool is inserted and
clamped in a tool holder. The tool holders are shown in Figure
17.5. The tool holder,as shown in figure, 17.5 (a) can be used
for turning external surfaces only. The square hole in the nose of
tool holes is usually made at an angle of 15-20° with the
horizontal. Owing to this a flat faced cutting tool when inserted
in tool holder will have an effective rake angle. But the front
clearance angle will have to be increased in order to obtain the
required front clearance angle. The height can be adjusted as
required without shifting the tool holder. The tool holder shown
in figure (b) known as ‘boring bar’ is used for internal surfaces
(i.e. inside the hole/bore). For different operations the cutting
tool bit is grounded accordingly.

 Figure 17.5 Tool holders
 LESSON-18. LATHE OPERATIONS
 Elements of Machining Process:
 The process of metal machining, as shown in Figure 18.1, is
completed by a relative motion between the workpiece held
against the hard edge of cutting tool. Such a motion is produced
by a combination of rotary and translatory movements either of
the workpiece or cutting tool or both. The nature of this relative
motion varies for different metal cutting process like shaping,
turning, etc.

 Figure 18.1 Elements of machining process
 Cutting speed: The cutting speed for a cutting operation is the
speed at which the cutting edge passes over the material and it is
usually expressed in metre per minute.
 For lathe cutting speed = (π d N)/1000
 (N = rpm, d = diameter in mm)
 The cutting speed depends upon the following factors:
 Material being cut; Hard, strong materials require a lower speed
than soft and ductile materials
 The rigidity and condition of the machine tool, the rigidity of the
work.
 Material of which the tool is made: Special cutting alloys and
high speed steel tools cut at much higher speed than low
tungsten or carbon steel tools.
 The depth of cut and the feed.
 Feed (or the rate of feed): It is the travel of the cutting edge in
the direction of the feed motion (i.e. perpendicular to the
direction of cutting speed) relative to the machined surface in
unit time (or an equivalent value). In lathe, the feed is given in
mm per revolution of job.
 In lathe difference is made among longitudinal feed, when the
tool travels in the direction parallel to the axis of rotation and
cross feed, when the tool travels in a direction perpendicular to
the axis of rotation.
 Depth of cut: It is the thickness of the metal layer removed in
one cut, or one pass, measured in a direction perpendicular to
the machined surface.
 Lathe Operations
 In order to perform different machining operations in a lathe, the
workpiece may be supported and driven by any one of the
following methods:
 Held between centres and driven by carriers and catch plates.
 Held on a mandrel which is supported between centres and
driven by carriers and catch plates.
 Held and driven by chuck with the other end supported on the
tailstock centre.
 Held and driven by a chuck or a faceplate or an angle plate.
 The above methods of holding the work may be broadly
classified under two headings:
 Workpiece held between centres
 Workpiece held by a chuck or any other fixture.
 The common operations which can be performed on a lathe are
as follows:
 Facing: This operation is essential for all works. In
this operation, as shown in Figure 18.2, the work
piece is held in the chuck and the facing tool is fed
from the centre of the work piece towards the outer
surface or from the outer surface to the centre, with
the help of cross-slide.

 Figure 18.2 Facing
 Simple Turning: In this operation cylindrical
surface is produced by removing excess material
from the work. In this operation, as shown in Figure
18.3, the work piece is held in the chuck or between
centres and the longitudinal feed is given to the tool
either by hand or power.

 Figure 18.3 Simple turning
 Step Turning: It is also called shoulder turning. It is
an operation of producing various steps of different
diameters in the workpiece, as shown in Figure 18.4,
this operation is carried out in the similar way as
plain turning. The surface of step is made
perpendicular to the axis of rotation so that the
bearing/mating part should be properly aligned/
positioned.

 Figure 18.4 Step Turning
 Chamfering: Chamfering, as shown in Figure 18.5,
is the operation of beveling the extreme end of a
workpiece. This is done to remove burrs, to protect
the end of the workpiece from being damaged and to
have a better look. This operation is done at the end,
i.e. after performing other operations such as
knurling, turning, boring, drilling or thread cutting.
Chamfering is an essential operation in case of
mating parts, such a hole and shaft or bolt and nut.

 Figure 18.5 Chamfering
 Taper Turning: It is an operation of producing an
external conical surface on a workpiece. As shown in
Figure 18.6, a smaller taper may be produced with
the help of a forming tool or chamfering tool, but the
longer tapers are produced by swiveling the
compound the compound rest at an angle i.e. half the
apex angle. The taper turning is also performed by
offsetting the tailstock or by a taper turning
attachment.

 Figure 18.6 Taper turning
 Parting-off: It is the operation of separating or
cutting a workpiece from main stock after it has been
finished to desired size and shape. In this process the
speed of chuck is reduced to half as the speed used in
turning. As shown in Figure 18.7, a narrow parting-
off tool is fed at slow speed perpendicular to the
lathe axis by operating cross-slide by hand. The
carriage is locked in position before the start of
operation.

 Figure 18.7 Parting-off
 Grooving: It is an operation of reducing the diameter
of a workpiece over a narrow surface. In this
operation, as shown in Figure 18.8, a tool of
appropriate shape is fed into the revolving work upto
the desired depth at right angled to the axis of
rotation of workpiece.

 Figure 18.8 Grooving
 Boring: It is an operation of enlarging of a hole
already made in a workpiece. In this operation, as
shown in Figure 18.9, the work piece is held in the
chuck and a boring tool or a bit mounted on a rigid
bar is held the tool post and fed into the work
longitudinally by hand or power. If the size of the
hole is enlarged near the end up to a small length
then it is called counter boring. If the size of the
bore is reduced along the length then it is called
taper boring.

Figure 18.9 Boring
 Undercutting: In this operation a groove is
produced inside the hole or bore as shown in Figure
18.10. In this operation the work piece is held in the
chuck and a square nose tool or a bit (similar to
parting tool) mounted on a rigid boring bar is held
the tool post and fed into the work inside the hole in
radial direction or towards the operator by hand.
Undercutting is done at the end of an internal thread
hole or a counter bore to provide clearance for the
tool or any mating part. Undercutting is also done for
circlip-lock when fitting bearing in a bore.

 Figure 18.10 Undercutting (internal grooving)
 Drilling: It is an operation of making a hole in a
workpiece with the help of a drill. In this operation,
as shown in Figure 18.11, the workpiece is held in
the rotating chuck and drill is held in the tail stock.
The drill is fed manually by rotating the tailstock
hand wheel.


 Figure 18.11 Drilling
 Reaming: It is an operation of finishing the
previously drilled hole. In this operation, as shown in
Figure 18.12, the workpiece is held in the rotating
 chuck and reamer is held in the tail stock and fed into
the hole by rotating the tailstock hand wheel.


 Figure 18.12 Reaming
 Threading: It is an operation of cutting helical
grooves on the external cylindrical surface of
workpiece. In this operation, as shown in Figure
18.13, the work is held in the rotating chuck or
between the centres and the threading tool is fed
longitudinally by engaging half-nut. The longitudinal
feed is kept equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut.
If the threads are cut inside a bore/hole then it is
called internal threading. A bit shaped to cut
threads mounted on a rigid boring bar is held the tool
post.

 Figure 18.13 Threading
 Knurling: It is an operation producing knurled
surface on the workpiece. In this operation, as shown
in Figure 18.14, the work is held in the rotating
chuck or between the centres and a knurling tool is
moved longitudinally. The projections on the
knurling tool reproduce depressions on the work
surface.

 Figure 18.14 Knurling
 Tapping: This is the operation of cutting threads
inside a hole with a special tool called tap. In the
operation the workpiece is held in rotating chuck and
the tap is held in the tailstock spindle.
 Filing: This is the finishing operation performed
after turning. This is done to remove burrs, sharp
corners and marks on a workpiece. This operation is
also used to bring the workpiece to the size by
removing very small amount of material. The
operation consists of passing a flat single-cut file
over the cylindrical workpiece rotating at a high
speed. The file is held by hands and moved slowly.
 LESSON-19. CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPERS, PARTS
OF A STANDARD SHAPER
 The shaper is a machine tool, in which cutting tool reciprocates
over the stationary work. The primarily aim of the shaper was to
produce flat surfaces, that may be horizontal, vertical, or
inclined. But, the shaper can be used to produce any contoured
surface composed of straight line elements. In the shaper the
work is clamped in position on an adjustable table while the
cutting tool is given a reciprocating motion equal to the length
of the stroke desired. In the shaper the material is cut during the
forward stroke of the tool and the return stroke is idle.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPERS
 To classify shapers, several approaches are used depending
upon the features or the purpose for which they are designed.
Shapers are classified as follows:
- According to the type of mechanism used for giving
reciprocating motion to the ram:
 Crank type,
 Hydraulic type,
 Geared type.
- According to the position and travel of ram:
 Horizontal type,
 Vertical type,
 Traveling head type.
- According to the type of design of the table:
 Standard shaper,
 Universal shaper.
- According to the type of cutting stroke:
 Push type,
 Draw type.
 Crank shaper: This is the most common type of shaper. In this
shaper a slotted lever crank mechanism is employed to change
circular motion of a large gear called ''bull gear" installed in the
machine to reciprocating motion of the ram. The bull gear
receives power through a pinion either from an individual motor
or from an overhead line shaft if it is a belt driven shaper.
 Hydraulic shaper: In this type of shaper, reciprocating
movement of the ram is achieved by hydraulic power. The chief
 advantage of this type of shaper is that the cutting speed and
force of the ram drive are constant from the beginning to the end
of the cut. Hydraulic system also provides great flexibility to
feed and speed control, eliminates shock and permits slip or
slowing down of motion. If the cutting tool is overloaded,
hydraulic system protects the parts or the tool from breakage.
Another advantage is that the operation of this machine is
noiseless and hence works very quietly.
 Geared type: In this type of shaper the reciprocating motion of
the ram is resulted by means of a rack and pinion. The rack teeth
that are cut directly below the ram that meshes with a pinion
driven by a gear train. This type of shaper is not very widely
used.
 Horizontal shaper: It is very popular shaper. In this shaper the
ram holding the tool head reciprocates horizontally. These
shapers are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.
 Vertical shaper: In a vertical shaper, the tool mounting ram
reciprocates vertically as in the case of slotting machine. In
some of the machines arrangement is made to permit adjustment
of the ram to an angle of approximately +10° from the vertical
position. Vertical type shapers may be crank driven, rack driven
or hydraulic power driven. The worktable of a vertical shaper
can be given cross, longitudinal, and rotary movement. Vertical
shapers are used for machining keyways, slots or grooves. There
are vertical shapers which are specially designed for machining
internal keyways.
 Travelling head shaper: In this type of shaper, when the ram
reciprocates head in addition to reciprocating motion moves
crosswise to give the required feed to the tool. Awkward and
heavy jobs which are very difficult to hold on the table of a
standard shaper and fed past the tool are directly mounted on the
basement of the machine while the ram reciprocates and
supplies the feeding movements.
 Standard or plain shaper: A shaper is named as standard or
plain shaper if the table has only two movements, i.e. vertical
and horizontal, to give the feed and depth of cut. The table may
or may not be supported at the outer end.
 Universal shaper: If in addition to the two movements given to
the table of a standard shaper, the two other movements are
incorporated i.e. swiveling of the table about a horizontal axis
parallel to the ram ways and the upper portion of the table can
be tilted about a second horizontal axis perpendicular to the first
axis the shaper and the shaper is called universal shaper. As the
workpiece mounted on the table can be position in different
orientations/planes, the shaper is most suitable for machining
differently oriented surfaces of work. A universal shaper is
mostly used in tool room work.
 Push type shaper: This type of shaper removes metal during
the forward stroke of the ram. This type of shaper is commonly
used in practice.
 Draw type shaper: In this type of shaper, the metal is removed
during the return stroke of ram. The tool is set in a reversed
direction to that of a push type or standard shaper. In this shaper
the cutting force is towards the column which reduces the load
on the cross-rail and other bearings, also permits the shaper to
work with deep cuts. Vibrations in these machines are almost
eliminated.
 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A SHAPER
 The principal parts of a shaper, as shown in Figure 19.1 are as
follows:

 Figure 19.1 Parts of a standard shaper
 Crank shaper: This is the most common type of shaper. In this
shaper a slotted lever crank mechanism is employed to change
circular motion of a large gear called ''bull gear" installed in the
machine to reciprocating motion of the ram. The bull gear
receives power through a pinion either from an individual motor
or from an overhead line shaft if it is a belt driven shaper.
 Hydraulic shaper: In this type of shaper, reciprocating
movement of the ram is achieved by hydraulic power. The chief
advantage of this type of shaper is that the cutting speed and
force of the ram drive are constant from the beginning to the end
of the cut. Hydraulic system also provides great flexibility to
feed and speed control, eliminates shock and permits slip or
slowing down of motion. If the cutting tool is overloaded,
hydraulic system protects the parts or the tool from breakage.
Another advantage is that the operation of this machine is
noiseless and hence works very quietly.
 Geared type: In this type of shaper the reciprocating motion of
the ram is resulted by means of a rack and pinion. The rack teeth
that are cut directly below the ram that meshes with a pinion
 driven by a gear train. This type of shaper is not very widely
used.
 Horizontal shaper: It is very popular shaper. In this shaper the
ram holding the tool head reciprocates horizontally. These
shapers are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.
 Vertical shaper: In a vertical shaper, the tool mounting ram
reciprocates vertically as in the case of slotting machine. In
some of the machines arrangement is made to permit adjustment
of the ram to an angle of approximately +10° from the vertical
position. Vertical type shapers may be crank driven, rack driven
or hydraulic power driven. The worktable of a vertical shaper
can be given cross, longitudinal, and rotary movement. Vertical
shapers are used for machining keyways, slots or grooves. There
are vertical shapers which are specially designed for machining
internal keyways.
 Travelling head shaper: In this type of shaper, when the ram
reciprocates head in addition to reciprocating motion moves
crosswise to give the required feed to the tool. Awkward and
heavy jobs which are very difficult to hold on the table of a
standard shaper and fed past the tool are directly mounted on the
basement of the machine while the ram reciprocates and
supplies the feeding movements.
 Standard or plain shaper: A shaper is named as standard or
plain shaper if the table has only two movements, i.e. vertical
and horizontal, to give the feed and depth of cut. The table may
or may not be supported at the outer end.
 Universal shaper: If in addition to the two movements given to
the table of a standard shaper, the two other movements are
incorporated i.e. swiveling of the table about a horizontal axis
parallel to the ram ways and the upper portion of the table can
be tilted about a second horizontal axis perpendicular to the first
axis the shaper and the shaper is called universal shaper. As the
workpiece mounted on the table can be position in different
orientations/planes, the shaper is most suitable for machining
differently oriented surfaces of work. A universal shaper is
mostly used in tool room work.
 Push type shaper: This type of shaper removes metal during
the forward stroke of the ram. This type of shaper is commonly
used in practice.
 Draw type shaper: In this type of shaper, the metal is removed
during the return stroke of ram. The tool is set in a reversed
direction to that of a push type or standard shaper. In this shaper
the cutting force is towards the column which reduces the load
on the cross-rail and other bearings, also permits the shaper to
work with deep cuts. Vibrations in these machines are almost
eliminated.
 Size and Specifications of a shaper
 The shaper is specified as follows:
 Maximum length of stroke or cut it can make in millimeters,
 Size of the table, i.e. length, width and depth of table,
 Maximum vertical and horizontal travel of the table,
 Maximum number of strokes per minute,
 Power of the drive motor,
 Type of quick return mechanism,
 Floor space required, and
 Weight.
 LESSON-20. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SHAPER AND
FEED MECHANISM
 Shaper Mechanism
 In a shaper, input rotary motion is imparted as reciprocating
movement of ram by the mechanism housed within the column
of the machine. In a standard shaper the ram mounting the tool
head removes the metal in the forward stroke called cutting
stroke, while the return stroke goes idle. During return stroke no
metal is removed from the work. To reduce the total machining
time it is essential to reduce the return stroke time. Thus the
shaper mechanism must be so designed and constructed that it
can permit the ram to move at a comparatively slower speed
during the forward or cutting stroke, whereas during the return
stroke it can permit the ram to move at a faster speed to reduce
the idle return time. Therefore, the mechanism incorporated with
above condition is known as quick return mechanism. To
 impart reciprocating movement to the ram the following quick
return mechanism are usually used:
 1. Crank and slotted lever mechanism
 2. Hydraulic shaper mechanism
 1. Crank and slotted lever mechanism: The crank and slotted
lever mechanism is shown in Figure 20.1. The input motion or
power to a pinion 1 is further transmitted to the bull gear 2. To
the centre of the bull gear a radial slide 3 is bolted which carries
a sliding block 4 into which the crank pin 5 is fitted. Rotation of
the bull gear will cause the crank pin 5 to revolve at a uniform
speed. Another sliding block 6 which is mounted upon the crank
pin 5 is engaging with the slotted link 7. The slotted link 7
which is also known as the rocker arm is pivoted at its bottom
end attached to the base. The upper end of the rocker arm is
forked and connected to the ram block 8 by a pin. As the bull
gear rotates causing the crank pin to rotate, the sliding block 6
fastened to the crank pin 5 will rotate on the crank pin circle and
at the same time will move up and down the slot in the slotted
link 7 giving it, a rocking movement which is transferred to the
ram. Thus the rotary motion of the bull gear is converted to
reciprocating movement of the ram.

 Figure 20.1 Crank and slotted lever quick return mechanism
 Principle of quick-return motion: The rocker arm position for
two extreme situations of the ram/stroke is shown in Figure
20.2. The extreme backward position and extreme forward
position are shown by O1M and O2N respectively. O1M and O2N
are tangential to the circle of crank-pin. The forward or cutting
stroke occurs when the crank-pin rotates through CIKC2 and
return stroke occurs when the crank-pin rotates through C2 LC1.
It is evident that the angle C1KC2 made by the forward or
cutting stroke is greater than the angle C2LC1described by the
return stroke. Owing to constant angular velocity of the crank
pin the return stroke is, therefore, completed in a shorter time
for which it is known as quick return motion.


 Figure 20.2 Principle of quick- return mechanism

 The ratio between the cutting stroke time and return stroke time
may be determined from the formula:

 In shaper cutting time to return time ratio usually varies upto 2:1
and the practical limit is 3:2.
 The only disadvantage lies with this mechanism is that the
cutting speed and return speed is not constant throughout the
stroke. The speed is the minimum when the rocker arm is at the
two extreme positions and is the maximum when the rocker arm
is on its midway.
 Adjusting the stroke length: The detail of stroke length
adjusting mechanism of a crank and slotted lever shaper is
shown in Figure 20.3. The crank pin fastened to the sliding
block rotates in a circular path. The radius of crank pin can be
varied to adjust the stroke length of ram. The bevel gear placed
at the centre of the bull gear may be rotated by a handle causing
the bevel gear mounted upon the small lead screw to rotate. The
lead screw passes through the sliding block. Thus rotation of the
bevel gear will cause the sliding block carrying the crank pin to
be brought inwards or outwards with respect to the centre of the
bull gear. If the pin is brought closer to the centre of the bull
gear, the stroke will be the short. When the crank pin is shifted
towards the end of the slide largest stroke of the ram is obtained.


 Figure 20.3 Stroke length adjusting mechanism
 Adjusting the position of stroke: The ram position relative to
the work can also be altered by the use of mechanism installed
inside the ram body as shown in Figure 20.4.

 Figure 20.4 Stroke Position adjusting mechanism
 This is operated by rotating the hand wheel 1 that further
transmits motion by means of pair of bevel gears 2 to the
screwed shaft 3. The ram block 4 which is mounted upon the
screwed shaft 3 acts as a nut. When the machine is in operation,
the clamping lever 5 is tightened upon the ram body and the ram
block, the screwed shaft, and the ram acts as one unit. In order
to set the position of stroke, the clamping lever 5 is loosened
and the rotation the hand wheel 1 will rotate the screwed shaft 3
within the ram block 4. The ram block remains fixed in position
because it is held by the slotted lever arm, rotation of the
screwed shaft will cause the ram to move forward/backward
with respect to the ram block according to the rotation of the
hand wheel 1. Thus the position of ram may be adjusted with
respect to the job. The clamping lever 5 must be tightened after
the adjustment has been made.
 Hydraulic shaper mechanism: In a hydraulic shaper the ram is
moved forward and backward by a rod attached to a piston
moving in a cylinder placed under the ram. The shaper mainly
consists of a constant discharge oil pump 2, a direction control
valve chamber 5, a cylinder 9, and a piston 8. The piston rod 7 is
 bolted to the ram. As shown in Figure 20.5 (a) the oil under high
pressure (red colour) is pumped from the reservoir 1 and is
made to pass through the valve chamber to the right side of the
oil cylinder 5 exerting pressure on the piston 8. This causes the
ram 5 connected to the piston 8 to perform forward stroke, and
any oil present on the left side (purple colour) of the cylinder is
discharged to the reservoir through the throttle valve 3. At the
end of extreme forward stroke, the shaper dog 10 hits against the
reversing lever 11 causing the valves 5 to alter their positions
within the valve chamber as shown in Figure 20.5(b). Oil under
high pressure is now pumped to the left side of the piston
causing the ram to perform return stroke. Oil present on the right
side of the piston is now discharged to the reservoir. At the end
of the return stroke another shaper dog hits against the reversing
lever altering the direction of stroke of the piston and the cycle
is thus repeated.


 Figure 20.5(a) Mechanism of hydraulic shaper showing forward
stroke.

 Figure 20.5(b) Mechanism of hydraulic shaper showing return
stroke.
 The ratio of forward to return time is 2. This is achieved due to
the difference in stroke volume of the cylinder at both ends, the
left hand side being smaller due to the presence of the piston
rod. The pump being a constant discharge one, forces the same
amount of oil to the right or to the left hand side of the cylinder.
This will mean that the same amount of oil packed within a
smaller stroke volume will cause the oil pressure to rise
automatically and increasing the speed during the return stroke.
 The length and position of stroke is adjusted by shifting the
position of reversing or trip dogs. The cutting speed may be
changed by controlling the throttle valve 3 which regulates the
 flow of oil. When the throttle valve is partially closed the excess
oil flows out through the relief valve 4 to the reservoir
maintaining uniform pressure during cutting stroke. A hydraulic
shaper will now widely used for having many advantages. Some
of them are listed below.
 1. The cutting and return speeds are almost constant throughout
the stroke, that permits the cutting tool to work uniformly or
without shock during cutting stroke.
 2. The reverse of stroke of the ram is achieved quickly without
any shock as the oil on the other end of the cylinder offers
cushioning effect.
 3. Infinite number of cutting speeds may be achieved from zero
to the maximum value and the control is easier.
 4. With a high speed of return stroke, a larger number of cutting
strokes may be available within the range of cutting speed.
 5. The overload relief valve promise safety to the tool and the
machine when the machine is overloaded.
 Feed mechanism: In all types of shapers both downward and
cross feed movements may be achieved. These feed movements
are given intermittently and during the return stroke only. Figure
20.6 shows the tool head of the shaper. Vertical or bevel
surfaces are produced by rotating the downfeed screw of the tool
head by hand. Crossfeed movement is used to machine flat
horizontal surfaces. Crossfeed is given by rotating the crossfeed
screw either by hand or power. The rotation of the crossfeed
screw moves the table mounted on the saddle, sideways through
a predetermined amount and direction at the end of each return
stroke so as to bring the uncut surface of the work in the direct
path of the reciprocating tool.

Figure 20.6 Toolhead of the shaper
 The automatic cross feed mechanism used in the shaper is
shown Figure 20.7. The bull gear rotates the driving disc 1 in a
particular direction. The driving disc 1 is T-slotted and position
of the crank pin attaching the connecting rod may be shifted
from the centre to give throw of different eccentricity. The other
end of the connecting rod 2 is attached to the rocking arm 3 by a
pin. The rocking arm is pivoted at the centre of the ratchet wheel
4 which is keyed to the crossfeed screw. The rocking arm
houses a spring loaded, pawl 5 which is straight on one side and
bevel on the other side. With the rotation of the driving disc, the
connecting rod starts reciprocating and the rocking arm rocks on
the fulcrum. When the driving disc rotates through half of the
revolution in the clockwise direction, top part of the rocking arm
moves in the clockwise direction and the pawl 3 being slant on
one side jumps/slips over the teeth of the ratchet wheel 4 giving
it no movement. Since the driving disc rotates through the
second half, the top of the rocking arm now moves in the
counter clockwise direction and the straight side of the pawl
engages with the teeth of the ratchet wheel causing the wheel to
move in counter clockwise direction. As the driving disc is
engaged to the bull gear the table feed is given when the bull
gear or the driving disc rotates through half of the revolution,
i.e., during return stroke only. During the rotation of next half
no feed movement imparted. To reverse the direction of rotation
 of ratchet wheel and the feed, a knob 8 on the top of the pawl 3
after removing pin 7 is turned through 180 degrees.


 Figure 20.7 Automatic feed mechanism of a shaper
 The feed rate can be changed by shifting the radial position of
crank pin on the driving disc with respect to the centre. If the
throw of eccentricity is large, the rocking movement of the arm
will be more and the pawl will pass through three or four teeth
on the ratchet wheel at a time to provide greater feed rate.


 LESSON-21. WORK HOLDING DEVICES

 Work Holding Devices

 The top and sides of the table of a shaper, as shown in Figure
21.1, have T-slots for mounting the work. Depending on the
shape of the workpiece, any one of the following methods can
be applied to support work on the shaper table.

 Figure 21.1 Table of a shaper
 1. Clamped in a vice
 2. Clamped on the table
 3. Clamped to the angle plate
 4. Clamped on a V-block
 5. Held between shaper index centres
 Shaper vices: A vice is an easy method of holding and locating
workpieces having regular shape and relatively small in size.
Basically, it includes a base, screw, fixed and movable jaws.
The base has a projection (called tongue) which fits into the slot
of the machine table. Lugs are provided for perfectly securing
the vice to the table by T-bolts.
 The work is held between fixed and movable jaws by rotating
the screw. Where possible, the vice should be placed in such a
position on the table that the tool during cutting stroke may
exert direct pressure upon the jaws. A machine vice may be
classified under following headings.
 a) Plain vice,
 b) Swivel vice,
 c) Universal vice
 A plain vice is shown in Figure 21.2 (a). It is the simplest of all
the types. The vice may have a single screw or double screws
for moving and clamping the movable jaw. The double screws
add gripping strength and are preferred while taking deeper cuts
or handling heavier jobs.


 Figure 21.2 (a) Plain vice
 In a swivel base vice, as shown in Figure 21.2 (b), the base is
divided in degrees, and the body of the vice may be swiveled at
any desired angle in a horizontal plane. The swivel base
arrangement is useful in beveling the edges of workpiece.

Figure 21.2 (b) Swivel base vice
 A universal vice, as shown in Figure 21.2 (c), may be swiveled
like a swivel vice. In addition to that, the body may be inclined
in a vertical plane upto 90° from the horizontal. A universal vice
may be used to machine inclined surfaces.

 Figure 21.2 (c) Universal vice
 Parallels: Parallels, as shown in Figure 21.3, are square or
rectangular bars of steel or cast iron hardened and ground with
opposite sides parallel. When the job height is within the height
of the jaws of the vice, parallels are used to raise and seat the
workpiece above the vice jaws and parallel with the vice
bottom. They are available in various sizes to suit the
workpieces of different heights. They are always used in pairs.

 Figure 21.3 Parallels
 Hold downs: Hold downs (or grippers), as illustrated Figure
21.4, are used for holding thin pieces of work in a shaper vice.
These are also used for holding workpiece of smaller height than
the vice jaws where parallels with proper height are not
available. The hold down is a wedge shaped hardened piece
with its two working edges tapered at an angle of 5°. Hold
downs are positioned between two jaws of the vice and the
workpiece. When the screw is tightened the hold down owing to
its typical shape exerts downward pressure on the work to hold
it tight on the parallels or on the vice table.

Figure 21.4 Hold downs
 Clamping work on the table: When the workpiece can be held
in a vice it is mounted directly on the shaper table. For mounting
workpiece on the table, clamping bolts should not be tightened
excessively, so that they may produce distortion of the
workpiece. The various methods used to clamp different types
of workpiece on a shaper table are:
 1. Clamps and T-bolts.
 2. Stop pins.
 3. Stop pins and toe dogs.
 4. Strip and stop pins.
 Clamps and T-bolts: The use of clamps and T-bolts for holding
the workpiece is exhibited in Figure 21.5. The heads of T-bolts
are fitted in the T-slots of the table. The threaded portion of the
bolt should be long enough in order to hold work of various
heights. The clamps used are made from steel having hole or
slot at the centre for fitting the bolt. One end of the clamp rests
on the side of the workpiece while the other end rests on a
block. The block should be of the same height as the workpiece
 being clamped. The bolt should be positioned as close as
possible to the work and then the nut should be tightened. To
clamp a large workpiece on the table a series of clamps and T-
bolts are used all round the work.


 Figure 21.5 T-bolts and clamps
 Stop pins: If during cutting stroke the workpiece tends to be
pushed out of its position under the action of cutting force of the
tool. The stop pins as shown in Figure 21.6 are applied to
prevent the workpiece from coming out of position. As shown in
figure a stop pin is a one-leg screw clamp. The leg of the stop
pin is fitted in the hole on the table and the screw is tightened till
it forces against the work.

Figure 21.6 Stop pins and clamps
 Stop pins and toe dogs: Stop pins and toe dogs, as exhibited in
Figure 21.7, are used to hold thin workpiece on the table. A toe
dog is similar in shape to that of a centre punch or a cold chisel.
The head end of a toe dog is drilled slightly so that the end of
the stop pin screw may fit into it. Figure shows two types of toe
dogs. A large number of stop pins and toe dogs are placed all
round the workpiece. By tightening the stop pin screw the work
is pressed down to the table surface and gripped.

 Figure 21.7 Stop pins and toe dogs
 Strip and stop pins: Figure 21.8 exhibits the use of strip and
stop pins for holding the workpiece. The workpieces having
sufficient thickness is held on the table by strip and stop pins. A
strip is a long bar having a tongue for inserting it into the slot
and holes for fitting the T-bolts. The strip with bolts is inserted
in the T-slot of the table. The nuts are then tightened so that the
strip may rest on one side of the workpiece. The stop pin screws
are then lightened from the other side of the workpiece so that
the workpiece may be clamped between stop pins and strip.

 Figure 21.8 Strip and stop pins
 Angle plate: The use of an angle plate, as shown in Figure 21.9,
is made for holding "L" shaped workpiece. Angle plates are
made of cast iron and are machined on two sides to an angle of
exactly 90°. One flange of the angle plate is clamped to the table
by T-bolts while the other flange holds the workpiece by
clamps.

 Figure 21.9 Angle plate
 V-block:The use of a V-block is shown in Figure 21.10. V-
blocks are employed for holding round/cylindrical workpiece
such as shafts, axles. Long workpiece may be supported at its
two ends on two V-blocks and is clamped to the table by clamps
and T-bolts. The tool may be made to reciprocate between the
two clamps for cutting keyways or grooves. V-blocks are made
of cast iron or steel and are accurately machined.

 Figure 21.10 V-blocks
 Shaper centers: This is a special accessory used for cutting
equally spaced grooves or splines on the periphery of a
cylindrical work. In exceptional cases, it may be used for cutting
gear teeths. A shaper centre, as shown in Figure 21.11, is a pair
of a index or headstock and a tailstock. The workpiece is held
directly or by mounting on a mandrel between the two centres.
The worm gear mounted on the spindle headstock meshes with
the worm. A handle is connected to the worm shaft. The rotation
of the handle causes the worm gear to rotate and the motion is
transmitted to the work through a catch plate and carrier. After
cutting a slot or groove on the top of the work, it may be turned
to a predetermined amount by an index plate and index pin. The
index plate is mounted on the worm gear shaft. The index plate
has a series of holes around its circumference and is locked in
any desired position by engaging the index pin in the
corresponding hole. Index plates are provided with various
circles having different number of holes.

Figure 21.11 Shaper centres

 LESSON-22. SHAPER OPERATIONS, TOOLS AND

CUTTING PARAMETERS
 Shaper Operations
 A shaper is mostly used to machine flat surfaces on a workpiece.
Firstly, the work is properly clamped on the table by using a
vice or other holding device. Then the cutting tool is inserted in
the tool post and set with minimum overhang. The shaper table
is elevated till the gap between the tool nose and the workpiece
reaches in the range of 25 to 30 mm. Then stroke length and
position are adjusted. The stroke length should be 20 mm larger
than the length of surface to be machined. The position of
stroke is so adjusted that the cutting stroke starts 12 to 15 mm
before the beginning of the cut and over travels 5 to 8 mm at the
end of the cut. A suitable cutting speed is selected and feed is
adjusted. For Short strokes speed should be kept high while for
long strokes slow speed is recommended. Roughing as well as
 finishing operations are performed to complete the job. For
roughing operation slow speed with enhanced feed rate and
depth of cut is used. The operations which by a sharper can be
performed are:
- Machining horizontal surface.
- Machining vertical surface.
- Machining angular surface.
- Machining irregular surface.
- Cutting slots, grooves, & keyways.
- Machining splines or cutting gears.
- Machining horizontal surface: Machining horizontal
surface of a workpiece by a shaper is shown in Figure
22.1(a). The depth of cut is adjusted by rotating the handle
of down feed screw of the tool-head. The depth of cut is
adjusted by rotating the downfeed screw of the tool head
by hand, this movement is controlled with a micrometer
dial fitted to the downfeed screw. The depth of cut for
rough machining usually varies from 1.5 to 3 mm and for
finish machining it varies from 0.075 to 0.200 mm. Feed
movement is adjusted equal to about one-half the width of
the cutting edge of the tool so that each cut will overlap
the last cut giving a smooth surface finish.


 Figure 22.1 Machining of surfaces by shaper
- Machining vertical surface: Machining vertical surface
of a workpiece by a shaper is shown in Figure 22.1(b). A
 vertical cut is made while machining the end of the
workpiece, squaring up a block or cutting shoulder parallel
to the stroke. The workpiece is held in the vice or mounted
directly on the shaper table, and the surface to be
machined is carefully aligned parallel to the stroke of the
ram. A side cutting tool is mounted on the tool post as
shown in Figure. Then the position and length of stroke
are adjusted. The vertical slide is set exactly at zero
position vertically and the apron is swiveled in a direction
away from the surface being cut. This is necessary to
enable the tool to move upwards and away from the
machined surface during return stroke. This prevents the
side of the tool from dragging on the machined surface
during return stroke. The feed is given by rotating the
handle of the down feed screw by hand. The feed rate is
about 0.25 mm given during each return stroke. Rough
cutting as well as finish cutting are used to complete the
job.
- Machining angular surface: The machining an angular
surface of a workpiece by a shaper is shown in Figure
22.1(c). An angular cut can be made at any angle other
than a right angle to the horizontal or to the vertical plane.
The job is clamped to the table and the vertical slide of the
tool head is swiveled either towards left or towards right at
the required angle from the vertical position. Then the
apron is further swiveled away from the surface to be
machined. It provides the clearance to the tool during
return stroke. The downfeed is given by rotating the
handle of the down feed screw. Examples of machining
angular surfaces are; dovetail and V-grooves, etc. Angular
surface can also be machined in a universal shaper or by
using a universal vice without swiveling the tool head.
- Machining irregular surface: A shaper can also be used
to produce a contoured surface, i.e. a concave or convex
surface or a combination of any of the above surfaces. To
machine a small contoured surface a form tool of exact
shape as the surface to be machined is used. If the
 curvature of the surface to be machined is large, automatic
crossfeed in combination with manual downfeed is so set
that the tool will follow the path as essential to produce the
required contour. If the contour is not single curve, but has
too many ups and downs both the feeds are operated by
hand. For machining irregular surfaces a round nose tool is
used. if the depth of curve is small the apron may be set
vertical, but if the curve is quite sharp, the apron is
swiveled towards right or left away from the surface to be
machined. Figure 22.2 shows machining of concave
surface by using a round nose tool.


 Figure 22.2 Machining irregular surfaces
- Cutting slots and keyways: A shaper can be used to cut
grooves or slots on a workpiece and keyways on the shaft
or inside the boss of a gear or pulley. A square nose tool
similar to the parting tool is used for cutting slots or
keyways. Cutting of keyways on the shaft and inside the
boss on the shaper are shown in Figure 22.3 (a) and (b)
respectively. The key way on a shaft is cut by first drilling
a hole at the blind end of the keyway. The diameter of the
hole should be 0.5 to 0.8 mm larger than the width of the
keyway and the depth should be about 1.5 mm more than
the depth of the keyway. It is necessary to provide a
clearance to the tool at the end of the stroke. The length
and position of stroke is carefully adjusted so that the
stroke will terminate exactly within the clearance hole. For
cutting keyways the cutting speed is reduced. For cutting
internal keyways a special tool holder is used to hold
cutting tool, so that the tool post may not strike against the
work at the end of the stroke. Lifting of the tool is stopped
during return stroke by locking the clapper block in the
clapper box. Lubrication is necessary to prevent the wear
of cutting edge due to dragging of the cutting edge on the
work piece.

 Figure 22.3(a) Cutting keyways on the shaft

 Figure 22.3(b) Cutting keyway in a bore
- Machining splines or cutting gears: On a shaper gears or
splines can be cut by using a index or shaper centre as
shown in Figure 22.4. As already explained, a shaper
centre is a pair of an index head (or headstock) and a
tailstock, the workpiece is held directly or by mounting on
a mandrel between the two. The spline is cut similar to the
cutting of a keyway. When the first spline is completed the
work is rotated through a predetermined fraction of circle
by means of the index mechanism installed in headstock.
Similarly, gear teeth are cut on the periphery of a gear
blank, using a form tool of having shape of cutting edge
exactly same as the space between teeth. This method can
also be utilized to produce geometric shapes such as,
hexagonal, octagonal etc.

 Figure 22.4 Gear cutting on shaper
 Shaper Tools
 The cutting tool used in shaper operations are similar to that of
the cutting tool used in operation lathe. The shaper tool also has
angles such as rake, clearance and other tool angles. But the
magnitude or range of these angles in a shaper tool differs from
a lathe tool. Shaper tools are much rigid and heavier to
withstand shocks experienced by the cutting tool at the
beginning of each cutting stroke. In a lathe tool the effective
magnitude of angles (such as rake angle and clearance angle)
may be altered by elevating or lowering the point of the tool in
relation to the axis of rotation (or centre) of the workpiece,
however in a shaper the effective tool angles cannot be altered
as the tool is always clamped perpendicular to the surface of the
 workpiece. If it is essential to change the tool angles it can only
be done by grinding the tool. As in the lathe during turning
operation a continuous feed is given to the tool and the cutting
edge traces a helical path so sufficient side clearance angle is
provided. But in a shaper tool no feed is given during the cutting
stroke only intermittent feed is given during return stroke, a very
small clearance angle can provide ample relief to the side
cutting edge. In a shaper tool the magnitude of side clearance
angle is only 2° to 3° and the front clearance angle is 4° for
machining cast iron and steel. Small clearance angles add
strength to the cutting edge of tool. As the shaper tool during
machining horizontal surface removes metal mostly by its side
cutting edge. Therefore, side rake angle of 10° is generally used
with little or no front rake angle. The side rake angle to be
provided on a shaper tool is dependent upon; the kind of metal
being cut, the hardness of the tool material, type of cut (rough or
finish), and other factors. In a shaper, right hand or left hand
tool may be use. The left hand tool is more common because it
permits the operator to observe the cut better than the right hand
tool. For ordinary work high speed steel is the most common
material for shaper tool but for shock resistant cemented carbide
tipped tool is used where harder material is to be machined.
Similar to lathe mild steel tool holders are also used in shaper to
hold the tool bits. Some of the most common cutting tools are:
- A left hand roughing tool for machining plane surfaces.
- A left hand finishing tool for machining plane surfaces.
- A left hand side facing tool for vertical shaping and for
shaping sharp comer (roughing).
- A left hand side facing tool (finishing)
- A left hand dovetail cutting tool (roughing)
- A left hand dovetail cutting tool (finishing)
- A parting or slotting tool.
 Cutting Parameters
 In shaper operation cutting parameters are Cutting Speed, Feed
and Depth of cut and are explained below:
 Cutting speed: The cutting speed is the rate at which the metal
is removed by the cutting tool and is stated as metre per minute.
 In a shaper operation the cutting action is performed only during
the forward or cutting stroke. The cutting speed in a shaper is
calculated by dividing the length of the cutting stroke by time
taken during the cutting stroke.
 In practice, to determine the cutting speed, it is difficult to note
down the exactly time taken during the forward or cutting
stroke. The ratio between the return stroke time to cutting stroke
time and the number of double strokes per minute or r.p.m. of
the bull wheel should be known. The cutting speed may be
obtained from the equation.


 The cutting speed so calculated is the average cutting speed as it
has been assumed that the cutting stroke is completed at a
uniform speed. But, in reality, in a crank driven shaper cutting
speed and return speed is not uniform.
 Feed: Feed (s) is the relative movement of the tool or work in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of reciprocation of the
ram per double stroke (forward and reverse stroke) and is
expressed in mm. The feed is always given during the return
stroke when the tool is not cutting the metal. The selection of
feed is dependent upon the kind of metal, type of job, etc.
 Depth of cut: Depth of cut (t) is the thickness of metal that is
removed in one cut. It is the perpendicular distance measured
between machined surface and un-machined surface of the
workpiece.
 Machining Time
 If the length of cutting stroke, breadth of the job, feed and
cutting speed are known, the time required to complete the job
may be calculated as under:
 Let,
 L = the length of the stroke in mm.
 B = the breadth of the work in mm.
 s = the feed expressed in mm/double stroke.
 m = the ratio return time to cutting time.
 v = the cutting speed in m/min.
 Then from equation (7.3),
 Example 22.1: In a shaper work the length of stroke is 300 mm,
number of cutting strokes per minute is 40 and the ratio of return
time to cutting time is 1: 2. Find the cutting speed.
 Solution:
 Example 22.2: Find the time required for taking a complete cut
on a plate 600 900 mm, if the cutting speed is 9 m/min. The
return time to cutting time ratio is 1:4 and the feed is 3 mm. The
clearance at each end is 75 mm.
 Solution: In a shaper a stroke length of more than 900 mm is
not ordinarily available so the work is placed on the table to take
a cut of 600 mm plus the clearances.
 Total length of stroke = 600 + 75 + 75 = 750 mm.
 Table 22.1 Average value of cutting speed, v (m/min) and
feed, s (mm).
 Mat  High  High  Cemented
 eria carbon speed carbide
l  steel tool  steel tool  tip tool

  v  s  v  s  v  s

 0.
1
 1  2 2
 Cas 5
.  1 .  3
t  9 -
5 8 0 0
iron 0.
0 0
5
0

 0.
1
 Mil  1  1 2
d  1 .  2 .  4 5
stee 2 2 4 5 5 -
l 5 0 0.
5
0

 0.
2
 1  1 5
 Bra  3 .  4 .  6 0
ss 0 0 8 2 0 -
0 5 0.
3
5

 LESSON-23. TYPES AND SIZE OF DRILLING

MACHINE
 The drilling machine is one of the simplest and most important
machine tool used in a workshop. It is usually used to produce
holes in a solid object. The hole is produced by the rotating edge
of a cutting tool known as the drill. The process of making a
hole is called Drilling. In drilling operation, work is clamped to
the table and the cutting tool is fed into it. It can also perform
operations other than drilling.
 Types of Drilling Machines
 Drilling machines are manufactured in various types and sizes;
each one is designed to handle a class of work or specific job.
The different types of drilling machines are:
 Portable drilling machine;
 Hand (Manually) operated drill,
 Electric operated drill.
- Sensitive drilling machine;
 Bench mounting,
 Flour mounting.
- Upright drilling machine;
 Round column section,
 Box column section.
- Radial drilling machine:
 Plain radial drilling machine,
 Semi-universal radial drilling machine,
 Universal radial drilling machine.
- Gang drilling machine.
- Multiple-spindle drilling machine.
- Deep-hole drilling machine;
 Vertical,
 Horizontal.
- Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) drilling machine.
 Portable Drilling Machine: This is a compact and
small sized-drilling machine. It is used for drilling
small size holes in any position, which is not possible
with conventional drilling machine. These machines,
as shown in Figure 1(a), can also be operated by
hand power called “Hand drill”. The handle of the
 hand drill is held in the left hand while the right hand
turns the crank, which in turn causes drill to rotate.
But most of portable drilling machines, as shown in
Figure 1(b), are driven by electric power called
“Electric drill”. The motor is usually of universal
type which may be driven by both A.C. and D.C. The
maximum size of the drill that it can accommodate is
not more than 18 mm. The machine runs at high
speed as smaller size drills are only used. Some of
the portable machines are pneumatic power driven.


 Figure 23 .1 (a) Hand operated drill


 Figure 23 .1 (b) Electric operated drill
 Sensitive Drilling Machine: A sensitive drilling
machine, as shown in Figure 23.2, is a small sized
machine developed for drilling small holes in small
jobs. It is an assembly of a base, a vertical column, a
horizontal table, a vertical spindle and a head
supporting the motor and the drive and feed
mechanism for the spindle. The power is transmitted
from motor shaft to the spindle by the means of V-
belt drive. The feed movement to the spindle is given
 by hand through a handle, rack and pinion
arrangement. Hand feed allows the operator to feel
the progress of the drill into the work. It is called
sensitive drilling machine because that the operator
can senses the cutting action at any instant of
operation. The base of the machine is mounted on a
bench.


 Figure 23.2 Sensitive Drilling Machine
 Upright Drilling Machine: The upright drilling
machine is, similar to a sensitive drilling machine,
designed for handling medium sized workpieces. In
construction the machine is larger and heavier than a
sensitive drill and is installed with power feed
mechanism. In this machine a large number of
spindle speeds and feeds may be obtained for drilling
 different types of work. The feed clutch installed is
automatically controlled so that the spindle will be
disengaged as it reaches its upper and lower limit of
travel. These are of two types:
- Round column section (pillar drilling machine).
- Box column section.
 Round column section (pillar drilling machine): This drilling
machine, as shown in Figure 23.3, composed of a round column
that stands vertical on the base, an arm and a round table
assembly; and a drill head assembly. The workpiece can be
properly positioned under the spindle by three adjustments of
the arm and the table assembly. The arm and the table may be
moved up and down along the column for accommodating
workpieces of different heights. The table is rotated about its
own centre independent of the position of the arm for locating
workpieces under the spindle. The arm, along with table, may be
swung 90° clockwise and 90° counterclockwise from its mean
position around the column and may be clamped at any
appropriate position. Also, heavy and odd-size jobs may be
clamped/mounted directly on the base of the machine and
drilled after the arm is swung out of the way. The maximum size
of holes that the machine can drill is 50 mm.

 Figure 23.3 Pillar Drilling Machine
 Box column section upright drilling machine: This type of
upright drilling machine column section is a square box with
guideways on the front face along which a square table slides up
and down in the front of machine column. The heavy square box
column gives the machine strength and rigidity. The table is
elevated or lowered by an elevating screw that gives additional
support to the table. These Special features permit the machine
to work with heavier jobs, and holes larger than 50 mm in
diameter can be drilled on it.
- Radial Drilling Machine: The radial drilling machine is
used for drilling hole in large sized heavy work which
cannot be handled on other drilling machines. The
machine, as shown in Figure 23.4, comprises a heavy,
round, vertical column mounted on a large and heavy base.
The column supports a radial arm which can be moved up
and down and can be swung to any position over the work.
The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and
feeding the drill spindle is mounted on the radial arm. The
drill head can be moved on the guide-ways and clamped at
any desired radially position. The above three movements
collectively allow the drill to be located at any desired
point on a large workpiece for drilling the hole. When
several holes are drilled on a large workpiece, the position
of the arm and the drill head is altered so that the drill
spindle may be moved from one position to the other after
drilling the hole without shifting the work. This versatility
of the machine allows it to work on large workpieces. The
work may be mounted on the table. The following types of
radial drilling machines are available:

 Figure 23.4 Radial Drilling Machine
 Plain radial drilling machine: In a plain radial drilling
machine the only above described three movements are
provided i.e. the vertical adjustment of the arm, horizontal
movement of the drill head along the arm, and circular
movement of the arm in horizontal plane about the vertical
column.
 Semi-universal radial drilling machine: In this type of drilling
machine, in addition to the above explained three movements,
the drill head can be tilted about a horizontal axis perpendicular
to the arm. This fourth movement of the drill head permits
drilling hole at an angle to the horizontal plane.
 Universal radial drilling machine: In this type of drilling
machine, in addition to the above stated four movements, the
arm holding the drill head can be tilted on a horizontal axis.
 These five movements make the machine universal and permit it
to drill at any angle.
- Gang Drilling Machine: if more than two single spindle
column drilling machines are placed side by side on a
common base or worktable, the arrangement is named as
the gang drilling, as shown in Figure 23.5, and set up is
called gang drilling machine. In some cases the drill
spindles are permanently spaced on the work table, and in
others the position of the columns may be varied so that
the space between the spindles may be adjusted. The speed
and feed of the each spindle is controlled independently.
This machine is specially adapted for production work.


 Figure 23.5 Gang Drilling Machine
- Multi-spindle Drilling Machine: The purpose of this
drilling machine is to drill several holes in a work piece
all together and to repeat the same pattern of holes for a
 volume of identical pieces in a mass production. These
machines have several spindles driven by a single motor
and all the spindles holding drills are fed into the work
simultaneous1y. Feeding motion is usually achieved by
elevating the work table. But in some cases, the feeding
motion may also be achieved by lowering the drill heads.
The spindles are so assembled that their centre distance
may be altered in any position as required by various jobs
within the capacity of the drill head. Therefore, the drill
spindles are coupled to the main drive by universal joints.
This machine is shown in Figure 23.6.


 Figure 23.6 Multi-spindle Drilling Machine
- Deep-hole Drilling Machine: For drilling deep holes, as
in rifle barrels, crank shafts, long shafts, etc., special
machines and drills are needed. These machines are
operated at high speed and low feed. Arrangements are
 made to pump sufficient quantity of lubricant to the cutting
points for cooling and the removal of chips. As the jobs
are long, therefore, these are usually supported at several
points to prevent any deflection. The work is usually
rotated while the drill is fed into the work. This helps in
feeding the drill in a straight path. In some machines for
accurate location of drill both the work and the drill are
rotated. The machine may be horizontal or vertical type.
Some machines are equipped with step feed, in which the
drill is withdrawn automatically each time when it
penetrates into the work to a depth equal to its diameter.
This permits the chip to clear out from the work.
- Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) Drilling
Machine: This type of drilling machine is used for
precision work. Computer program is used to operate the
machine. In this machine the table is positioned so as to
locate the work accurately under the drill. In these
machines tool changing is automatic. These machines have
the flexibility in operations.
 The Size and Specification of a Drilling Machine
 The size of a drilling machine varies with the type of machine
being considered.
 A portable drilling machine is specified by the maximum
diameter of the drill that it can hold and operate.
 Other drilling machines can also specified by the maximum
diameter of drill that the machine can operate, size of table,
maximum spindle travel, numbers of spindle speeds and feeds
available. To specify the machine completely supplementary
details such as the Morse taper number of the drill spindle,
power input, floor space required, net weight of the machine,
etc. are all needed. In case of sensitive or upright drilling
machines in addition to above particulars the diameter of the
largest piece that can be centered under the spindle is specified.
Thus in the case of a 500 mm size upright drilling machine, the
spindle placed at a distance is slightly greater than 250 mm from
the front face of the column.
 In case of radial drilling machine in addition to the above
particulars the diameter of the column, length of the arm,
maximum drilling radius, minimum drilling radius, etc. should
also be stated to specify the machine fully.

 LESSON-24. PARTS OF UPRIGHT DRILLING AND

RADIAL DRILLING MACHINES
 Parts of Upright Drilling Machine
 The various parts of an upright drilling machine, as shown in
Figure 24.1, are as follows:


 Figure 24.1 Parts of Upright Drilling Machine.
 - Base,
- Column,
- Table,
- Head,
- Spindle assembly,
- Spindle drive mechanism, and
- Feed mechanism.
 Base: The base of the machine is made of cast iron on which the
other parts are erected. If the machine is belt driven the
countershaft, on which a fast, a loose pulley and cone pulley are
fitted, is mounted on the bearings fixed to the base of the
machine. The top of the base is provided with T-slots so that
large work pieces and work holding devices may be clamped
and bolted to it.
 Column: The column is a vertical member erected on the base
which mounts the table and table arm assembly and the head
assembly containing the spindle driving and feed mechanism.
The column may be made of cast iron with square box or of
round section. Square box section column is a more rigid than
round section. In round section column type machines the
vertical movement of the arm and the table is caused by the rack
attached to the column and pinion mounted within the arm
which is rotated by the table elevating handle. In box column
type, the front face of the column has guideways on which the
table can slide up and down for vertical adjustment.
 Table: The table is mounted on one end of the arm and the other
end of the arm surrounds the column. The table may be round or
rectangular in shape with T-slots for clamping the work holding
devices or work directly on its top face. The table of a pillar
drilling machine having three adjustments; vertical
compensating for height, radial about the column centre and
circular about its own axis provide facility for positioning work
below the spindle. After the required adjustments have been
made then the table and the arm are clamped in position.
 Head: As already explained the drill head is mounted on the top
of the column. It houses the spindle driving mechanism together
with speed and feed change arrangement. In some of the
 machines in addition to the table height adjustment the drill head
may be moved up or down to accommodate work of different
heights. In lighter machines, the driving motor is installed at the
rear end of the head, it helps in counterbalancing the weight of
the drill spindle.
 Spindle and drill head assembly: The spindle, as shown in
Figure 24.2, is a long vertical shaft which holds the drill at its
lower end. The spindle receives motion from the top shaft
through a set of bevel gears. A long key-way is cut on the upper
part of spindle and the bevel gear is fitted to it by a sliding key.
This keeps the spindle to be engaged with the top shaft
irrespective of its position when the spindle is raised or lowered
to feed the drill into the work. The spindle is housed within a
non-rotating sleeve, known as quill, using a pair of thrust
bearings. Rack teeth are cut on the outer surface of the sleeve.
The feed to the drill is given by the up/down movement of the
sleeve which is caused by the rotation of pinion meshing with
the rack of sleeve. The downward movement of the spindle is
given by rotating the pinion which causes the quill to move
downward exerting pressure on the spindle through a thrust
bearing and washer. The spindle is moved upward by the
upward pressure exerted by the quill acting against a nut
attached to the spindle through the thrust bearing. The lower end
of the spindle has a Morse tapered hole for inserting taper shank
drill. A slot is cut at the end of the taper hole for holding the
tang of the drill to impart it a positive drive. A drift or key is
pushed through the slot for removing the drill. For holding drills
of smaller size, a Morse taper socket or a drill chuck with taper
shank is inserted in the taper hole of the spindle.

 Figure 24.2 Drill spindle assembly
 Kinematics of upright drilling machine: The drive mechanism
of upright drilling machine is shown in Figure 24.3.

 Figure 24.3 Kinematics of Upright Drilling Machine.
 It serves two purposes; the first one is to provide rotary motion
to the drill spindle and the second one to provide vertical
movement to the drill spindle.
 Spindle drive mechanism: The spindle drive system of a
drilling machine includes the provision for obtaining multiple
speeds of the drill spindle like lathe to perform various
operations. To achieve multiple speeds of the drill spindle any
one of the followings method may be used:
- Step cone pulley drive.
- Step cone pulley drive with back gears.
- Gearing.
 Step cone pulley drive: Step cone pulley driving mechanism
for a spindle is shown in Fig. 24.3. The motion from an
overhead line shaft is passed on to the countershaft mounted on
the bearings fixed to the base of the machine. The foot operated
pedal is used to start or stop the countershaft by shifting the belt
from loose pulley to fast pulley or vice versa. The step cone
pulley mounted on the over head line shaft receives power from
the countershaft step cone pulley through the belt. The drill
 spindle receives power from the overhead line shaft through a
pair of bevel gears. The speed of the spindle may be varied by
shifting the belt on different steps of the cone pulley. The
number of spindle speeds available is dependent upon the
number of steps on the cone pulley.
 Step cone pulley drive with back gear: In order to increase
range of spindle speeds in the drilling machine, back gears are
installed in addition to the step cone pulley. The back gears are
inserted on the over line head shaft as shown in Figure 24.4.


 Figure 24.4 Back gears of Drilling
 Gear G1 and the cone pulley are attached together on the hollow
shaft and they rotate freely on the overhead shaft. The clutch is
keyed to the over head shaft and the clutch may be shifted
towards the right to be engaged with gear G1. Gear G4 is keyed
to the over head shaft. Back gears G2 and G3 are keyed to a
sleeve in the mid of which a groove is turned to receive a 'C'
shaped shifter attached to the clutch lever. This lever has a
 similar connection with the jaw clutch and is pivoted on the
frame below the gears.
 Working of back gears is shown in Figure 24.5. When the back
gears are engaged, gears G2 and G3 are in mesh with the gears
G1 and G4 respectively. The motion is transmitted through
gears G1, G2, G3, and G4 to the overhead shaft. The overhead
shaft transmits motion to the drill spindle through a pair of bevel
gears. The speed with back gears engaged is obtained as
follows:


 Figure 24.5 Working of Back gears
 When the clutch lever is shifted towards the left, it will cause
gears G2 and G3 to be disengaged with gears G1 and G4 and
 will cause the jaw clutch to be engaged with the gear G1. The
motion is now transmitted from the cone pulley to the gear G1
and from gear G1 to the overhead shaft through the jaw clutch.
The drill spindle now receives motion directly from the cone
pulley and the speed of the spindle is equal to the speed of the
cone pulley.
 Thus with four step cone pulleys, 4 speeds are achieved with
back gears ‘engaged’ and 4 speeds with back gears ‘disengaged’
making in total 8 spindle speeds. Increase
 By ‘disengaging' back gears the spindle speed increases and the
machine can be used for drilling smaller diameter holes. For
drilling larger diameter holes or for tapping, the spindle speed is
reduced by engaging the back gears.
 Spindle drive by gearing: Individual motors are used in heavy
duty drilling machines to drive spindle as well as for other
movements. In these machines power from motor shaft to the
drill spindle is transmitted by gears. The multi-speeds are
obtained by sliding gear or sliding clutch mechanism or by the
combination of the above two mechanisms.
 Feed mechanism: In a drilling machine, feed depends upon the
vertical movement of the drill into the workpiece. The feed
movement of the drill can be provided by hand or power. The
following two methods can be used to apply hand feed:
- Quick traverse hand feed
- Sensitive hand feed
 The quick traverse hand feed is employed to carry the drill
rapidly to the location of hole or for moving back the drill when
the operation is over. The sensitive hand feed is used for trial cut
and for drilling small holes.
 Automatic feed is appropriate while drilling larger diameter
holes because the pressure required for cutting is sufficiently
large. The automatic feed mechanism is illustrated Figure 24.3.
The automatic feed motion is taken from the overhead shaft
through the worm and worm wheel to a six speed feed box. The
feed rate is changed by the lever operating a sliding key
mechanism. In the feed box, cone gears mounted on the worm
wheel shaft are constantly in mesh with another cone gears
 mounted on the driven shaft. Gears on the driven shaft are all
keyed to the shaft and rotate with it. Gears on the worm wheel
shaft are all free to rotate, but may be keyed to the shaft by a
sliding key only by one gear at a time. When the sliding key is
in the first gear, it causes the gear to rotate with the shaft and the
motion is transmitted to the driven shaft through the
corresponding gear keyed to the shaft. Other gears on the worm
shaft revolve freely with their mating gears on the driven shaft.
Thus six different speeds of driven shaft are obtained by sliding
the key to engage with six different gears on the worm wheel
shaft. The motion of the driven shaft is transmitted through, a
pair of bevel gears, clutches and worm and worm wheel to the
shaft which fitted with a pinion meshing with rack on the quill.
The rotation of the pinion causes the quill to move up and down
giving spindle feed.
 When the sensitive hand feed is applied, the clutch 14 is
disengaged. The sensitive feed hand wheel 11 is attached to the
rear end of the worm shaft. Rotation of the hand wheel 11 will
cause the worm and worm gear to rotate and a slow but sensitive
feed is obtained.
 Quick hand feed is obtained by rotating the handle 10 and
disengaging the clutch 14 and engaging the clutch 12 mounted.
Complete turn of the handle will cause the pinion to rotate
through one revolution giving quick hand feed movement to the
spindle.
 Parts of Radial Drilling Machine
 The various parts of a radial drilling machine are shown in
Figure 24.6 and are as follows:

 Figure 24.6 Parts of Radial Drilling Machine
- Base
- Column
- Radial arm
- Drill head
- Spindle speed and feed mechanism
 Base: The base of a radial drilling machine is a large rectangular
casting. It is accurately machined on its top surface to erect the
column on its one end and to position the work table at the other
end. T-slots are provided on the top of base for clamping work
and it is used as a table. In some machines two or more bases
are provided. When drilling is done on a job supported on any
one of the bases, another job may be set up on the other for a
continuous production.
 Column: The column is a cylindrical casting that stands
vertically at one end of the base. It carries the radial arm which
may slide up or down along the cylinder. An electric motor is
installed at the top of the column which is used to rotate a screw
passing through a nut attached to the arm meant for vertical
adjustment of the arm.
 Radial arm: The radial arm mounted on the column extends
horizontally over the base. It is a huge casting with its front
vertical face accurately machined to furnish guide ways on
which the drill head slides for radial movement. The arm can be
revolved round the column. In some machines this movement is
caused by a separate motor.
 Drill head: The drill head slides on the guide ways of radial arm
for adjusting the position of drill spindle with respect to the
work. It encloses all the mechanism for driving the drill at
multiple speeds and at different feed rate. After the spindle has
been properly positioned the drill head is clamped on the radial
arm.
 Spindle drive and feed mechanism: For driving the spindle of
a radial drilling machine two methods are used. In some light
radial drilling machines, as shown in Figure 24.6, a motor is
fitted directly at the top of the drill head and multiple speeds and
the feed of the spindle can be obtained through a gear train
installed in the drill head. In big and heavy radial drilling
machines, a constant speed motor is installed at the extreme end
of the radial arm which partially balances the weight of the
overhanging arm. The motion of the motor is transmitted
through a horizontally mounted spindle along the length of the
arm, to the drill head through pair of bevel gears (Similar to
over head shaft in Upright column type drilling machine). The
speed of the spindle can be changed through gear train installed
in the drill head. Different feeds of the spindle can also be
obtained by another gear train within the drill head.
 LESSON-25. WORK AND TOOL HOLDING DEVICES
 Work Holding Devices
 To perform any operation in a drilling machine it is very
necessary to secure the work tightly on the table. It must be kept
 in mind that the work should never be held by hand, as the drill
while revolving exerts much of torque on the workpiece and
causes it to start revolving also may cause injuries to the
operator. The most commonly used work holding devices in a
drilling machine are:
- Clamps and T-bolt
- Drill press vice
- Step block
- V-block
- Angle plate
- Drill jigs
- Clamps and T-bolts: Clamps and T-bolts, is the most
common methods of holding the large workpiece directly
on the drilling machine table. T-bolts are fitted into the T-
slots provided on the top surface of drilling machine
tables. A hole or slot is cut at the centre of the clamp to
allow the T-bolt to pass through it. For proper clamping
the work the clamps are kept horizontal on the work
surface using a clamping block and then the nut is
tightened. The T-bolt must remain as close to the work as
possible. The diameter of T-bolts usually ranges from 15
to 20 mm. Some common types of clamps are:
 Plain clamp: The plain clamps or straps made of mild steel flats
are 12 to 20 mm thick and 45 to 70 mm wide, have a central
hole or slot through which a T-bolt is made to pass. The use of
the plain clamp is demonstrated Figure 25.1. This is a general
purpose clamp.

 Figure 25.1 Plain clamp
 U-clamp: For easy and immediate positioning and removal of
the workpiece after operation is over U-clamps are very
appropriate. As the clamp is open from one edge it is replaced
without removing the nut. The use of U-clamps is exhibited in
Figure 25.2.


 Figure 25.2 U-clamp
 Goose neck clamp: These are used for clamping work of
adequate height with T-bolts of smaller length. These clamps
hold the work firmly due to the typical shape. These clamps are
usually manufactured by forging and are sufficiently strong. The
use of goose neck clamps is demonstrated in Figure 25.3.

 Figure 25.3 Goose neck clamp
 Finger clamp: The use of finger clamps is shown in Figure
25.4. These are similar to goose neck clamps, but height is less
and have a round or flat extension which may be fitted in the
hole of the workpiece for clamping.


 Figure 25.4 Finger clamp
 Adjustable step clamp: This clamp is a modification of plain
clamp which has provision for a screw at its one end which is
used to level the clamp, while its other end rests against the
work. The work may be rapidly positioned without using any
 packaging block. The use of the adjustable step clamps is shown
in Figure 25.5.


 Figure 25.5 Adjustable step clamp
- Drill press vice: For holding small but regular shaped
workpiece the most common device is the drill press vice,
which is clamped on the table of drilling machine in
appropriate position. The workpiece is clamped between
the fixed and movable jaw of the vice. For holding
geometrical shapes such as cylindrical or hexagonal bars
extra slip jaws are used with the vice. When clamping the
workpiece in a vice, parallel blocks are placed below the
work so that the drill may completely pass through the
work without damaging the vice table. The drill press vice
may be plain as shown in Figure 25.6 or universal type as
shown in Figure 25.7. In a universal vice the base may be
swiveled at any angle about the vertical axis and it may be
tilted in a vertical plane to drill hole in a work at different
angles. Two lugs are provided at the base of the vice for
clamping it securely on the work table.

 Figure 25.6 Plain vice


 Figure 25.7 Universal vice
 - Step blocks: The step blocks are used in combination with
clamps and T-bolts for clamping the workpiece directly on
the table. The step block provides support for the other end
of the clamp. The various steps of the step block are used
for leveling the clamp while clamping workpieces of
different heights. The step blocks are made of mild steel.
Figure 25.1 shows the use of step block.
- V-blocks: To hold long cylindrical components for
drilling cross holes V-blocks are used. They are accurately
machined cast iron or steel blocks. To support the
workpiece two or three V-blocks are used in combination
with clamps, as shown in Figure 25.8, or by strap and T-
bolts.


 Figure 25.8 V-block
- Angle plates: The angle plates are usually made of cast
iron or steel with two surfaces machined at right angles to
each other. The flanges of angle plate are provided with
 holes and slots for clamping the work on one of its surface
whereas the other flange resting on the table is clamped by
T-bolts to it. Angle plates are used when it is necessary to
drill a hole parallel to another surface. The use of an angle
plate is shown in Figure 25.9.


 Figure 25.9 An angle plate
- Drill jigs: The drill jigs are used for locating and gripping
the work appropriately secure, and guide the drill in
desired location properly. The workpiece can be clamped
and unclamped quickly. Jigs are specially used for mass
production. Holes may be drilled at the same relative
positions on each of the identical workpieces without
marking the work individually. The use of dill jig is shown
in Figure 25.10.

 Figure 25.10 Drill jig
 Tool Holding Devices
 The end of the spindle of a drill press is normally provided with
a hole having Morse taper and a slot at the upper end of the
hole. The Morse taper has self holding property for taper shank
cutting tools. The taper shank cutting tools are directly fitted by
forcing them into the taper hole of spindle. The tool is gripped
and rotated with the spindle by friction between the tapered
surfaces; but to ensure a positive drive the tang or tongue of the
tool fits into a slot at the end of the taper hole. The drill can be
detached by pressing a tapered wedge known as the drift into the
slotted hole of the spindle. Fig. 25.11 shows a drill directly fitted
into the spindle and a drift or key to remove the drill from
spindle.

 Figure 25.11 Drill directly fitted in the drill spindle
 The Morse taper No. of a spindle depends upon the size of
machine. Morse taper is an international standard, its elements
were originally created in inch units and the smallest taper is
designated as No. 0 and largest as No.7. However, spindle in
small sized drilling machines is provided with Morse taper No.
1 and in large sized with Morse taper No. 4 or No.5.
 For holding those tools which cannot be directly fitted into the
spindle the following devices are used:
- Sleeve.
- Socket.
- Chucks.
- Tapping attachment.
- Floating attachment
- Sleeve: As described above the Morse taper of a machine
spindle depends on size of machine and accommodates
only one size of shank. If the taper shank of the tool to be
accommodated is less than the taper hole in the spindle,
standard Morse taper sleeves are used. The number of
sleeves used depends upon the difference of size of spindle
hole and shank diameter of the tool to be held. Sometimes,
only one sleeve is sufficient, as shown in Figure 25.12., in
some cases more sleeves may be used. The outer (largest)
sleeve fits in the hole of drill spindle and the smaller
sleeve holds the shank of the tools. The tang of each sleeve
fits into the slot of the larger sleeve. The tang of the tool
fits into a slot of smallest sleeve. The sleeve with the tool
may be removed by forcing a drift within the slot of the
spindle. The tool may be separated from the sleeve by the
similar process starting from largest sleeve. Different sizes
of tool shanks may be held in the spindle by using
different sizes of sleeve.

 Figure 25.12 Drill sleeve
- Socket: While the tapered shank of tool is larger in size
than the spindle taper of drill machine, the sockets are used
to accommodate the tool shank. A socket consists of a
solid shank attached to the end of a cylindrical body. The
taper shank of the socket matches to the taper of the drill
spindle and fits into it. The body of the socket has a
tapered hole larger than the drill spindle taper into which
the taper shank of any tool may be held. To provide
positive drive to the tool the tang of the socket fits into the
slot of the spindle and the tang of the tool fits into the slot
of the socket. Drill socket is shown in Figure 25.13.

 Figure 25.13 Drill socket
- Three-jaw self-centering chuck or drill chuck: The
smaller diameter drills upto 12.5 mm are made with
straight shanks. To accommodate such drills three-jaw
self-centering chucks or drill chucks are used. A sleeve or
socket can only hold one size of tool shank, but a chuck
can hold various sizes of drill shanks within a certain limit.
Drill chucks have tapered shanks which are fitted into the
drilling machine spindle directly or by using a taper
sleeve. A self-centering drill chuck is shown in Figure
25.14. The key by engaging bevel teeth rotates the sleeve
as well as the ring nut attached to the sleeve in a fixed
position. The ring nut further moves the three jaws that
slide in slots cut 120° apart in the chuck body. The sleeve
rotation causes all the three jaws close or open by same
 amount from the centre holding or releasing shank of the
drill.


 Figure 25.14 Drill chuck
- Holders: When multiple operations are performed on one
component in a same machine at one setting to tool
changing is necessary. To achieve quick change of cutting
tools holders are used. Holders also permits self alignment
of the tools to follow the previously drilled hole such as in
case of reaming, tapping etc., as they provide the flexible
connection between the drill spindle and the cutting tool.
They also prevent the cutting tool from damage, since they
work on the principle of releasing the cutting tool when it
is overloaded due to jam in the hole.
 Holders used with drilling machines are;
 Quick change holders used mostly for drilling operations.
 Floating holders used for tapping, reaming, etc.
 Figure 25.15 shows a) quick change drill holder and b) floating
holder.


 Figure 25.15 Drill Holders


 LESSON-26. DRILLING MACHINE OPERATIONS AND

TOOLS USED
 Drilling Machine Operations
 The drilling machine was mainly developed to produce holes in
a solid object by the rotating edge of a cutting tool known as the
drill. Drilling machine can also perform operations other than
drilling. The various operations performed in a drilling machine
are:
- Drilling
- Reaming
- Boring
 - Counterboring
- Countersinking
- Spot facing
- Tapping
- Lapping
- Grinding
- Trepanning
 Drilling: The removal of metal to produce a round hole by
means of a rotating edge of a cutting tool called the drill. Before
starting to drill a hole its centre is located on the workpiece and
then using a centre punch and hammer an indent is mark at the
centre. At this marked centre the drill point is pressed to produce
the required hole. Drilling operation illustrated in Figure 26.1.


 Figure 26.1 Drilling
 Reaming: The hole made by using a drill is not of same size as
the size of drill, it is always larger than the drill size. Hence to
drill a hole of accurate size the drill used is slightly undersize.
To finish this previously drilled hole to bring to exact size the
operation used is called reaming. The reaming process is shown
in Figure 26.2. The tool used for reaming is known as the
reamer which has multiple cutting edges. Reamer cannot
originate or correct the location of hole. It simply follows the
 path which has been previously drilled. The reamer removes a
very small amount of metal, i.e. around 0.375 mm and for
accurate work this should not exceed 0.125 mm. The spindle
speed is reduced half the drilling speed and automatic feed is
used. Reaming operation is applicable to small diameter holes.


 Figure 26.2 Reaming
 Boring: The large holes for which suitable sized drill/reamers
are not available the operation used to correct such holes is
called boring. The boring is used to bring the hole to the
required size, to finish accurately, to correct out of roundness, to
correct the location as the boring tool follows an independent
path with respect to the hole. Boring is also used to machine the
internal surface of a hole already produced in casting. Boring, as
shown in Figure 26.3 is performed in a drilling machine.

 Figure 26.3 Boring
 In boring an adjustable cutting tool with only one cutting edge is
used. The cutting tool is held in a boring bar which is inserted
into the spindle. In boring operation small cuts are used, so
requires several passes of the cutting tool. It is a slow process
than reaming. In precision machines, the accuracy is as high as
+ 0.00125 mm
 Counterboring: If the cylindrical heads of bolts, studs and pins
are above the surface of the component they disturb it function,
so it becomes necessary to accommodate heads below the
surface of component. For this purpose the entrance to the hole
is enlarged to a depth equal to the height of head. The operation
of enlarging the entrance end of a hole cylindrically to some
depth is called counterboring and the tool used is called
counterbore. The counterbores are made with straight or tapered
shank to fit in the drill spindle. The cutting edges may have
straight or spiral teeth. The tool is guided by a pilot that extends
beyond the end of the cutting edges. The pilot fits into the small
diameter hole maintains the alignment of the tool. These pilots
 may be interchanged for enlarging different size of holes.
Counterboring can give an accuracy of about +0.050 mm. The
cutting speed for counterboring is less than that of drilling
operation. The enlarged hole, as shown in Figure 26.4, forms a
square shoulder with the original hole.


 Figure 26.4 Counterboring
 Countersinking: If the head of the bolts, studs and pins is
conical in shape to compensate such elements countersinking
operation is done. Contersinking, as shown in Figure 26.5, is the
operation of making a cone-shaped enlargement at entrance end
of the hole to provide a recess for a flat head screw or
countersunk rivet fitted into the hole. The tool used for
countersinking is called a countersink. Standard countersinks
have 60°, 82° or 90° included angle and the cutting edges of the
tool are formed at the conical surface. The cutting speed in
countersinking is less than that of drilling.

 Figure 26.5 Countersinking
 Spot facing: For proper seating of a nut or the head of a screw
the surface around a hole is machined smooth and squared. A
special spot facing or counterbore tool is used for this operation.
The operation is called Spot facing as shown in Figure 26.6.


 Figure 26.6 Spot facing
 Tapping: Tapping, as shown in Figure 26.7, is a operation of
cutting threads inside a hole and the tool used is called a tap. A
 tap can be considered as a bolt with accurately cut threads on it
with three or more grooves cut along the length. The threads at
grooves act as cutting edges which are hardened and ground.
When the tap is rotated into the hole it cuts internal threads by
cutting metal. The internal threads will fit into external threads
of the same size.


 Figure 26.7 Tapping
 Lapping: Sometimes, the mating components work in the
environment where two surfaces must make leak proof contact,
i.e. valves and valve seats of an I.C. engine, components fuel
pump and atomizer of a diesel engine. Lapping operation is used
for sizing and finishing for small diameter hole. In lapping a
very small amount of material is removed and the tool used is
called ‘lap’. The components are hardened before lapping
operation. Many kinds of lapping tools are used, but the copper
head lapping tools are normally used. The lapping tool fits in the
hole and is moved up and down while it revolves. This operation
is used to make fluid tight fittings in moving parts.
 Grinding: Grinding operation is performed in a drilling
machine to accurately finish a hardened hole. The grinding
wheel is mounted on the drill spindle, in addition to rotation it
moves up and down. A suitable grinding wheel may be selected
for grinding operation. Grinding may also be done to correct out
of roundness of the hole. The accuracy in grinding operation is
quite high about +0.0025 mm.
 Trepanning: When large holes are produced by removing metal
along the circumference by a cutting tool the operation is called
‘Trepanning’. By the use of this operation small quantity of
material goes waste in the form of chips and much of the
material is saved. The tool can be operated at higher speeds as
the variation in diameter of the tool is limited by the narrow
cutting edge. The tool used for trepanning is shown in Figure
26.8. This is one of the efficient methods of producing a large
hole.


 Figure 26.8 Trepanning
 Drilling Machine Tools
 Drill: A drill is a cutting tool used to create or enlarge a hole in
solid material. It is provided with flutes for the escape of chips
produced during drilling operation. The commonly used types of
drill are:
- Flat or spade drill
- Straight fluted drill
- Two-lip twist drill
 Parallel shank (short series or "Jobbers") twist drill
 Parallel shank (stub series) twist drill
 Parallel shank (long series) twist drill
 Taper shank twist drill
 - Taper shank core drill (Three or four fluted)
- Oil tube drill
- Centre drill
 Flat or spade drill: When a twist drill of the required sized is
not available a flat/spade drill is used. It is made from a round
piece of tool steel whose one end is forged to shape and ground
to size, then hardened and tempered. The cutting angle ranges
from 90° to 120° and the clearance or relief angle at the cutting
edge is 3° to 8°. The shortcoming of this type of drill is that each
time the drill is ground the diameter is reduced. Figure 26.9
shows a flat drill.


 Figure 26.9 Flat or spade drill.
 Straight flute drill: If the flutes or grooves on a drill are
parallel to the drill axis, then it is called a straight fluted drill.
This type of drill causes inconvenient in normal practice as the
chips do not come out from the hole automatically. It is mainly
used in drilling soft materials such as brass, copper etc. If twist
drill is used for drilling in brass, it tends to advance faster than
the rate of feed and the drill digs into the metal. A straight fluted
drill is used to conquer above difficulty. It is also used when
drilling in sheet metal, as it does not tend to lift the sheet as does
the twist drill. Figure 26.10 shows a straight fluted drill.


 Figure 26.10 Straight fluted drill
 Twist drills: The twist drills, as shown in Figure 26.11, have
two spiral flutes or grooves that run lengthwise around the body
of the drill. In a twist drill cutting action is done by end edge.
Twist drills are classified according to the type of the shank,
length of the flute and overall length of the drill. The twist drills
are generally made with straight shanks for sizes below 12.5
mm diameter, as they can be held in a drill chuck easily and
firmly, and those of bigger size are made with taper shanks
having Morse tapers. It is the most common type of cutting tool
used in drilling machine.


 Figure 26.11 Parallel shank twist drill
 Parallel shank twist drill: These drills have a shank of same
diameter as the diameter of cutting end. Parallel shank twist drill
is shown in Figure 26.11, and classified as:
 Short series twist drill
 Stub series twist drill
 Long series twist drill
 Short series (jobbers) twist drill: These are available in
diameter of range from 0.2 to 16 mm.
 Stub series twist drill: The flute length of this drill is a less as
compared to short series. The diameter of the drill ranges from
0.5 to 40 mm.
 Long series twist drill: The flute length is large. The diameter
varies from 1.5 to 26 mm.
 Taper shank twist drill: The drill has taper shank and tang, as
shown in Figure 26.12, for holding and driving the drill. The
shank for these drills conforms to Morse tapers. The diameter
ranges from 3 to 100 mm.


 Figure 26.12 Taper shank twist drill
 Taper shank core drill: These drills are made with three or
four flutes. These drills are used to enlarge punched or drilled
holes and cored holes in castings. These drills cannot create a
hole in solid material since the cutting edges do not extend to
the centre of the drill. The metal is cut by a chamfered edge at
the end of each flute. The holes produced by cored drills have
better finished than those cut by ordinary two fluted drills. A
taper shank core drill having three flutes is shown in Figure
26.13.


 Figure 26.13 Taper shank core drill (Three fluted)
 Oil-hole drill: In drilling deep holes by normal drill the high
heat generation in the cutting zone is due to the improper supply
of cutting fluid. So to reduce heat generation the drills, as shown
in Figure 26.14, are made with oil holes from the shank run
lengthwise spirally through the body to carry coolant directly to
the cutting faces. During the operation the cutting fluid or oil is
forced through the holes to the cutting zone to remove the chips,
cool the cutting edge and lubricate the machined surface.


 Figure 26.14 Oil tube drill
 Centre drills: When initiating to drill a hole, a drill can deflect
somewhat easily owing to walking action of the chisel point and
hole is dislocated. Consequently, to ensure that a hole is started
accurately, a centre drill, as shown in Figure 26.15 is used prior
to a regular chisel point twist drill. The centre drills have a
heavy and short body.


 Figure 26.15 Centre drill
 Note: Any drill is readily checked for size by trying in the
holes of a drill gauge.

 LESSON-27. TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE

 Twist Drill Nomenclature
 The twist drill nomenclature, different parts and their function is
explained below.
 Twist drill elements: Twist drill elements, as shown in Figure
27.1, are defined as follows:

 Figure 27.1 Twist drill nomenclature
 Axis: The longitudinal centre line of the drill.
 Body: That portion of the drill extending from its extreme point
to the commencement of the neck, if present, otherwise
extending to the commencement of the shank.
 Body clearance: The portion of the body surface reduced in
diameter to provide diametral clearance.
 Chisel edge (Dead centre): The edge formed by the
intersection of the flanks is called chisel edge (dead centre). The
chisel edge acts as a flat drill and cuts its own hole in the
workpiece. A large of axial thrust is required to cut a hole by the
chisel edge. In some drills chisel edge is made spiral instead of a
straight one. This reduces the axial thrust and provides the
proper location of hole. Chance of production of over sized
diameter holes is also reduced.
 Chisel edge corner: The corner formed by the intersection of a
lip and the chisel edge.
 Face: The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on
which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
 Flank: That surface on a drill point which extends behind the
lip to the following flute.
 Flutes: The groove in the body of the drill which provides lip.
The functions of the flutes are:
- To form the cutting edges on the point.
- To allow the chips to escape.
- To cause the chips to curl.
- To permit the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
 Heel: The edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface
and the body clearance.
 Lands: The cylindrically ground surface on the leading edges of
the drill flutes. The width of the land is measured at right angles
to the flute helix. The drill is full size only across the lands at
the point end, Land keeps the drill aligned.
 Lip (cutting edge): The edge formed by the intersections of the
flank and face. The requirements of the drill lips are:
- Both lips should be at the same angle of inclination with
the drill axis, 59° for general work.
- Both lips should be of equal length.
- Both lips should be provided with the correct clearance.
 Neck: The diametrically undercut portion between the body and
the shank of the drill. Diameter and other particulars of the drill
are engraved at the neck.
 Outer corner: The corner formed by the intersection of the
flank and face.
 Point: The sharpened end of the drill, consisting of all that part
of the drill which is shaped to produce lips, faces, flanks and
chisel edge.
 Right hand cutting drill: A drill which cuts when rotating in
counter-clockwise direction viewed on the point end of the drill.
 Shank: That part of the drill by which it is held and driven. The
most common types of shank are the taper shank and the straight
shank. The taper shank provides means of centering and holding
the drill by friction in the tapered end of the spindle.
 Tang: The flattened end of the taper shank intended to fit into a
drift slot in the spindle, socket or drill holder. The tang ensures
positive drive of the drill from the drill spindle.
 Web: The central portion of the drill situated between the roots
of the flutes and extending from the point toward the shank; the
point end of the web or core forms the chisel edge.
 Linear dimensions: The following are the linear dimensions of
the drill.
 Back taper (longitudinal clearance): It is the reduction in
diameter of the drill from the point towards the shank. This
permits all parts of the drill behind the point to clear and not rub
against the sides of the hole being drilled. The taper, varies from
1/4000 for small diameter drills to 1/ 700 for larger diameters.
 Body clearance diameter: The diameter over the surface of the
drill body which is situated behind the lands.
 Depth of body clearance: The amount of radial reduction on
each side to provide body clearance.
 Diameter: The measurement across the cylindrical lands at the
outer corners of the drill.
 Flute length: The axial length from the extreme end of the point
to the termination of the flute at the shank end of the body.
 Lead of helix: The distance measured parallel to the drill axis
between the corresponding points on the leading edge of the
flute in one complete turn of the flute.
 Lip length: The least distance between the outer corner and the
chisel edge corner of the lip.
 Overall length: The length over the extreme ends of the point
and the shank of the drill.
 Web (core) taper: The increase in the web or core thickness
from the point of the drill to the shank end of the flute. This
increased thickness gives additional rigidity to the drill and
reduce the cutting pressure at the point end.
 Web thickness: The minimum dimension of the web or core
measured at the point end of the drill. Considerable power is
required to force this portion through the work, and web
thinning is employed to reduce the web thickness.
 Twist Drill Angles: The angles which are ground on a twist
drill for efficient removal of metal are shown in Figure 27.2.

 Figure 27.2 Twist drill angles
 Chisel edge angle: The obtuse angle included between the
chisel edge and the lip as viewed from the end of the drill. The
usual value of this angle varies from 120° to 135°.
 Helix angle or rake angle: The helix or rake angle is the angle
formed by the leading edge of the land with a plane having the
axis of the drill. If the flute is straight, parallel to the drill axis
then there would be no rake; if the flute is right handed then it is
positive rake; and if it is left handed then the rake is negative.
The usual value of rake angle is 30°, although it may vary up to
45° for different materials. Smaller the rake angle, greater will
be the torque required to drive the drill at a given feed.
 Point angle: This is the angle included between the two lips
projected upon a plane parallel to the drill axis and parallel to
the two cutting lips. The usual point angle is 118°, but for harder
steel alloys, the angle increases.
 Lip clearance angle: The angle formed by the flank and a plane
at right angles to the drill axis. The angle is normally measured
at the periphery of the drill. Lip clearance is the relief that is
 ground to the cutting edges in order to allow the drill to enter the
metal without interference. The lip clearance angle should
increase towards the centre of the drill than at the
circumference. This is due to the fact that different points on the
drill cutting edge follow different helical paths. Any point on the
cutting edge at the circumference moves through a smaller
helical angle than a point on the cutting edge near the centre.
This happens to be such due to the lead of the helix being same
in each case and hence the clearance angle given to the drill
cutting edge should increase towards the centre. The clearance
angle is 12° in most cases. The clearance angle should be kept
small to add rigidity and strength to the cutting edge.
 Tap Drill size: The size of the tap being the outside diameter of
its threads, it is evident that the drilled hole must be smaller than
the tap by twice the depth of the thread. The amount to be
subtracted from the tap diameter depends on the shape of the
thread, e.g. B.S.W., B.S.F., Indian Standard Thread (IS) etc. Tap
drill size may thus be derived from the following formula:
 D = T - 2d
 Where
 D is the diameter of tap drill size, T diameter of tap or bolt to be
used and d depth of thread.
 For example:
 In a tap or bolt of Indian Standard Specification, if
 outside diameter T = 10 mm
 pitch of the thread p = 1.5 mm
 depth of the thread d = 0.61 P (Aporox.)
 then, tap drill D = 10 - 2 x 0.61x 1.5 = 10-1.83 = 8.17 mm
 Nearest drill size = 8.20 mm
 Tap drill size can also be worked out when applying the
following "rule of thumb", which is reasonably accurate for
most cases.
 Tap drill size = Outside diameter x 0.8
 For example: Tap drill size = 10 x 0.8
 Nearest drill size = 8.0 mm = 8 mm
 For commercial purposes a tapped thread need not be full depth
thread. Tapping a thread by 75% of its full depth gives a
satisfactory result.
 LESSON-28. CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING
MACHINES
 28.1 What is Milling?
 Milling, as shown in Figure 28.1, is a machining process in
which the chips are cut off by the rotating milling cutter. The
cutting edges have a shape of wedge and are arranged on the
periphery of a cylinder. This forms the milling cutter a
multipoint tool. The cutter is held on a spindle or arbor. Owing
to multi cutting edges and high rotating speed of the cutter metal
removable rate is rapid. Thus the jobs are machined at a faster
rate than with single point tools and the surface finish is also
better.


 Figure 28.1 Milling Process
 To form the chip thickness the work piece is feed in straight
lined movement against the cutter. During the operation each
cutting edge takes part in cutting only during a fraction of cutter
revolution. During the remaining fraction it runs idle and cool
off. Therefore, the stress is not as heavy as with turning tool, the
cutting edge of which is in constant contact with the job.
 Milling machine can perform a large variety of operations which
no single machine can perform. By using different types of
milling cutters a wide variety of flat and formed surfaces and
also helical grooves etc can be produced. In the milling machine
many cutters are mounted on the arbor and so arranged that
allow several surfaces to be machined at the same time, thus
increasing the metal removal rate. The indexing head installed
on the machine makes it suitable for so many functions. Owing
to its use exact rotation of job is possible.
 Commonly used milling machines are mechanically controlled,
but now-a-days these are available as Numerical Controlled
(NC) and Computer-Numerical-Controlled (CNC).
 28.2 Classification of Milling Machines
 There are mainly two types of milling machines, i.e. the column
and knee type the bed type and machines. The bed type milling
machines has a vertical adjustment of the spindle where as the
column and knee type has a vertical adjustment of the work
table. Both types are made in several sizes from the simple mills
to the complex machines. Each has particular field, in which it
performs best. Many are special, single purpose machines which
can do only one job or may even be designed to do one
operation on one work-piece. The bed type milling machines
with its solid worktable base are more rigid than column and
knee type, but they are not easily and quickly adjustable as the
column and knee type machines.
 According to their applications milling machines can be
classified into the following categories:
 General purpose milling machines, and
 Single purpose or Special purpose milling machines.
 28.2.1 General purpose milling machines: These milling
machines are extremely versatile and employed for machining a
 wide variety of parts and a range of operations. These are used
for single piece or small lot production. These milling machines
include:
 [Link]. Column and knee type milling machines:
 Hand milling machine.
 Plain or horizontal milling machine.
 Vertical milling machine.
 Universal milling machine.
 Omniversal milling machine.
 [Link]. Manufacturing milling Machine:
 Fixed bed travelling column type milling machines.
 Planer type milling machine (Plano-miller).
 28.2.2. Single purpose (or Special purpose milling machine):
These milling machines are designed for machining components
or workpieces of single type, i.e. the workpieces may change in
size and dimension but they require same machining operations.
Of course different milling cutters are used. These are used in
mass and large batch production. These milling machines
include:
- Tracer controlled or duplicating milling machine.
- Keyway millers or keyway milling machines.
- Drum-type milling machine.
- Rotary table milling machine.
- Circular milling machines.
- Thread milling machines.
- Planetary milling machine.
 Column and knee type milling machine: The
milling machines are mostly of this type. In these
machines spindle head is fixed and the provision for
adjustment of worktable height is incorporated. The
saddle on which the work table rests is supported on
the knee which is moved vertical on guides in front
of column. The knee is clamped on the guide in any
desired height. The work table can be given three
motions i.e.
 Longitudinal (back and forth) by movement of table,
 Cross (in and out) by movement of saddle, and
 Vertical (up and down) by movement of knee.
 Column and knee type milling machine is available in the
following types:
 a) Hand milling machine: The hand milling machine, as
shown in Figure 28.2, called ‘hand miller’ is simplest of all
types of milling machine. In hand miller the movement to the
table is given by hand. Its table is rigidly held at 90 degrees to
the spindle axis. The milling cutter is mounted directly on the
horizontal spindle. The rotary motion to the spindle from the
motor is provided by means of belt and pulley arrangement. The
machine is relatively smaller in size than that of other types of
milling machines. It can be mounted on a bench. It is suitable
for light as well as simple milling operations such as machining
slots, straight grooves and keyways etc. It can be used for direct
indexing operations such as cutting straight grooves on reamers
etc.

 Figure 28.2 Hand miller
 b) Plain milling machine: The plain milling machine, as
shown in Figure 28.3, is also called horizontal spindle milling
machine. These milling machines are much more rigid and
robust than hand millers. In these machines the rotational speed
of the cutter is controlled to suit the work through belt drives or
gear drives or the combination of both. In these machines the
milling cutter is mounted on the arbour. The arbor is supported
at the one end by the spindle nose and other end by arbor
support attached to overarm which is held in the guide ways at
the top of the column. These machines oblige heavy workpieces
than the hand millers. Its table is rigidly held at 90 degrees to
the spindle axis. The milling machine table may be fed by hand
or power against a rotating cutter mounted on a horizontal arbor.

 Figure 28.3 Plain Milling Machine
 Universal milling machine: Universal milling machine, as
shown in Figure 28.4, is the most versatile of all the milling
machines. It is a plain milling machine with incorporated table
movements by mounting it on a circular swiveling base having
degree graduations. The table can be swiveled about a vertical
axis upto 45 degrees on either side of the normal position (i.e.
90 degrees to spindle axis). The table can set an angle other than
right angles to the spindle. Thus in addition to three movements
as incorporated in a plain milling machine in a universal milling
machine, the table may have a fourth movement when it is fed at
an angle to the milling cutter. The capacity of a universal
 milling machine is considerably increased by the use of special
attachments such as dividing head or index head, vertical
milling attachment, rotary attachment, slotting attachment, etc.
The machine can produce spur, spiral, bevel gears, twist drills,
reamers, milling cutters, etc. besides doing all conventional
milling operations. It may also be employed with advantage for
any and every type of operations that can be performed on a
shaper or on a drill press. A universal machine is, therefore,
essentially a tool room machine designed to produce a very
accurate work.


 Figure 28.4 Universal Milling Machine
 Omniversal milling machine: This machine is shown in Figure
28.5. In this machine, the table besides having all the
movements of a universal milling machine, can be tilted in a
vertical plane by providing a, swivel arrangement at the knee.
Also the entire knee assembly is mounted in such a way that it
may be fed in a longitudinal direction horizontally. The
additional swiveling arrangement of the table enables it to
machine taper spiral grooves in reamers, bevel gears, etc. It is
basically a tool room and experimental shop machine.


 Figure 28.5 Omniversal Milling Machine (Brown & Sharpe)
 Vertical milling machine: A vertical milling machine, shown
in figure 28.6, can be distinguished from a horizontal milling
machine by the position of its spindle, which is vertical or
perpendicular to the work table. The machine may be of plain or
universal type and has all the movements of the table for proper
 setting and feeding the work. The spindle head, which is
clamped to the vertical column, may be swiveled at an angle,
permitting the milling cutter mounted on the spindle to work on
angular surfaces. In some machines, the spindle can also be
adjusted up or down relative to the work. The machine is
adapted for machining grooves, slots, and flat surfaces.
Generally end mills and face milling cutters are the used.

 Figure 28.6
Vertical Milling Machine
 Manufacturing milling machines: These milling
machines are comparatively large in size, heavy, and
rigid and differ totally from column and knee type
milling machines in construction of its table
mounting. These milling machines are of two types:
 Fixed bed travelling column type milling machine
 Planer type milling machine (or plano-miller)
 Fixed bed travelling column type milling machine: In this
type of milling machine, as shown in Figure 28.7, the table is
fixed and column(s) is/are travelling on the rails. The cutter
mounted on the spindle head may be moved vertically on the
column, and the spindle may be adjusted horizontally to provide
cross adjustment.


 Figure 28.7 Fixed bed travelling column type milling machine
 The name a) simplex, b) duplex, and c) triplex indicates that
the machine is provided with single, double and triple spindle
heads respectively. In a duplex machine, the spindle heads are
arranged one on each side of the table. In triplex type the third
spindle is mounted on a cross rail. The usual feature of these
machines is the automatic cycle of operation that is repeated in a
regular sequence. The operation cycle includes the following:
start, rapid approach, slow feed for cutting, rapid traverse to the
next workpiece, quick return and stop. This automatic control of
 the machine enables it to be used with advantage in repetitive
type of work.
 Planer type milling machine (or plano-miller): This milling
machine resembles a planer. In this type of milling machine, as
shown in Figure 28.8, table is travelling directly on the ways of
fixed bed. The table movement is restricted to reciprocation at
right angles to the spindle axis with no provision for cross or
vertical adjustment. It has a cross rail, supported by rigid
uprights, capable of being raised or lowered that carries the
spindle heads, and the saddles.


 Figure 28.8 Planer type milling machine (or Plano-miller)
 There may be a number of independent spindles heads carrying
cutters on the rail as well as two heads on the uprights which
enables the adjustment of spindle heads in vertical and in
transverse directions. This arrangement of independently driving
 multiple cutter spindles enables number of work surfaces to be
machined simultaneously, thereby obtaining great reduction in
production time. The essential difference between a planer and a
plano-miller lies in the table movement. In a planer, the table
moves to give the cutting speed, but in a plano-milling machine
the table movement gives the feed. Hence the table movement in
a plano-milling machine is much slower than that of a planing
machine. The use of the machine is limited to production work
only.
 Special Milling Machines
 Rotary Table Milling Machine. It is an improved version of
the vertical milling machine. It equipped with two vertical
spindles, each holding a facing mill cutter. Components are
roughed at one station and finish milled as they pass the second
station. The operation is continuous and there is sufficient time
for the operator to load and unload the components from the
machine during the milling operation. The machine is fast in
operation however its use is limited to flat surfaces only.
 Drum Milling Machine. These machines are used for
production work only. This type of machine has a drum which
rotates on a horizontal axis. Generally, both roughing and
finishing face mill type cutters similar to those of a rotary-table
miller are employed. In operation, the drum-fixture rotates
slowly, carrying the work against the rotating cutters. Usually
there are four cutter spindles. The operation is continuous, since
machined parts are removed and new ones loaded on the
machine after the work has completed its cycle. Cylinder heads
of automobile and small shafts are machined on this machine.
 Profile Milling Machine. In look, it resembles with the vertical
spindle milling machine. It has up to four cutter spindles for
mounting small diameter shank type end mill cutters. Its motion
is controlled, either by hand or automatically, by the path of a
stylus or tracer which has the same diameter and shape as the
cutter. In this machine the cutter moves in on horizontal plane
only or the operation is performed in two dimensions only.
 Duplicating Milling Machine. It is the improved version of
profile milling machine in which in addition to the two
 movements a vertical movement of spindle is incorporated.
Therefore it is called by the name of duplicator, Keller machine,
die sinker or automatic tracer controlled miller. The template
used in this machine must be copy in three dimensions of the
component be produced. Typical work performed includes the
making of forging dies, steel moulds for glass, plastic and
certain metals, auto-body dies, ship propellers and air-craft
connecting rods.
 Planetary Milling Machine. In this machine the work remains
stationary while the revolving cutter(s) move to the place of
work in a planetary path. This machine is mostly adapted to
parts which are heavy, difficult, and delicate to hold. It is also
suitable for parts that will be too unbalanced if rotated. The
cutter may be a plain, form or thread cutter and may work on
either the inside or the outside of the work or inside and outside
simultaneously. These machines are available in either
horizontal or vertical spindle models and may be tooled for
magazine loading.
 Other applications of this machine are cutting of internal and
external threads on all kinds of tapered surfaces, bearing
surfaces, rear axle end holes, air plane crank cases, shell and
bomb ends.
 LESSON-29. PARTS OF COLUMN AND KNEE TYPE
MILLING MACHINE
 Parts of a column and knee type milling machine
 The principal parts of the column and knee type milling machine
are shown in Figure 29.1 and explained below:

 Figure 29.1 Principal parts of the column and knee type milling
machine
 Base: It is a grey iron casting machined accurately on its top and
bottom surface and act as foundation all other parts are erected
on it. Sometimes it also serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
 Column: It is stands vertically on base and acts as a main
supporting member. The motor along with the other driving
mechanisms are installed in it. The front is machined surface
called the column face. It supports and guides the knee during
its vertical movement.
 Knee: The knee slides up and down along the column face and
projects from the column. It is partially supported by an
elevating screw which adjusts its height. It supports the saddle
and table.
 Saddle: The saddle is mounted on the guide ways on the top of
the knee and is adjustable crosswise. The table is mounted on it.
It is provided with graduations for accurate movement. It can be
moved by hand and automatic feed.
 Table: The table is mounted on the guide ways provided on the
top of the saddle and travels longitudinally in a horizontal plane.
It supports the work-piece, fixture and all other equipments.
 Over-arm: The over-arm is mounted on the guide ways at the
top of the column. It can be adjusted in and out manually to the
position of maximum support for the arbor and then clamped.
 Spindle: The spindle gets its power from the motor through
belts, gears and a clutch and transmits it to an arbor or stub
arbor. The spindle of the machine is hollow, with a Morse taper
hole at its nose end. Arbor is inserted in the taper hole and is
held by a long bolt which screws into the tapered shank and is
fastened at the back of the machine. The cutters are mounted on
the arbour. Cutters with taper shank are mounted directly in the
spindle nose.
 Arbor: The arbor is an accurately machined shaft for holding
and driving the arbor-type cutter. It is tapered at one end to fit
the spindle nose and has two slots to fit the nose keys for
locating and driving it. Cutters are mounted on the horizontal
arbor that is rigidly supported by the over-arm, spindle and the
braces.
 Front brace: It is an extra support which is fitted between the
knee and the overhanging arm to ensure further rigidity to the
arbour and the knee. The front brace is included for the
adjustment of the height of the knee relative to the overhanging
arms.
 Mechanical, electrical or hydraulic devices are used for the
quick change of spindle speeds and power feeds for the job.
 Specifications of Milling Machines
 The milling machine can be specified as detailed below, or by
the manufacturer's number:
 Sr.  Description
 Specification
 No.
  Spindle Position
 1.
(Horizontal/verti 
cal or
swivelling):
 Spindle Motor 
 2.
Power (kW):
 Spindle speed 
 3.
range (rpm):
 No. Of spindle 
 4.
speeds:
 Spindle taper 
 5.
type:
 Maximum
 6.
distance from 
spindle axis to
table top face:
 Minimum
 7.
distance from 
spindle axis to
table top face:
 Distance
between inner
 8. face of table to 
vertical column
guideways:
 Overall
 9.
dimension of 
table (length x
width):
 Overall
 10. Clamping area 
(mm x mm):
 Permissible load 
 11.
on table (kg):
 Longitudinal 
 12.
traverse of table
 (mm):
 Vertical traverse 
 13.
of table (mm):
 Cross traverse 
 14.
of table (mm):
 15.  No. of feeds: 

 Rapid
Longitudinal
traverse rate
(mm/minute):
 Rapid Cross
 16. traverse rate 
(mm/minute):
 c) Rapid
Vertical traverse
rate
(mm/minute):
 Longitudinal
feed rates
(mm/minute):
 Cross feed rates 
 17.
(mm/minute):
 c) Vertical feed
rates
(mm/minute):
 Floor space 
 18.
required:
 19.  Net weight (kg): 

 A prospective buyer must go into the detail as explained above

to see if the machine meets his requirements.
 Milling Machine Attachments
 For the purpose of increase the range, flexibility, output or
accuracy of operation of a milling machine some attachments
are use. The attachments are standard or special auxiliary
 devices to be fastened to or joined with one or more components
of the milling machine.
 These attachments are of following types:
- Attachments used to hold and provide motion to the
cutting tool,
- Attachments used to hold and provide require movement
to the workpiece.
 Vertical-milling attachment. This attachment, as shown in
Figure 29.2 (a), is used on horizontal universal milling machines
to act as vertical milling machine. This is a right-angle bevel
gear box having gear set in ratio of 1:1 and the axis of the
vertical spindle could also be swivelled by 45°, thus allowing
the machining of bevelled and slanted surfaces. With the use of
this attachment, all operations of vertical milling can be carried
out on horizontal milling machine. The Vertical milling
attachment mounted on the Universal Milling Machine is shown
in Figure 29.2 b.


 Figure 29.2 (a) Vertical milling attachment


 Figure 29.2(b) Vertical milling attachment mounted on the
Universal Milling Machine.
 Slotting attachment. The slotting attachment, as shown in
Figure 29.3, is mounted on the column face and converts rotary
motion into reciprocating motion. The normal range of
attachment is 0-10 cm with an adjustment for 360° swivel. With
the use of this attachment, square holes, keyways, slots and
certain grooves are cut on the milling machine which a rotary
tool can't cut.

 Figure 29.3 Slotting attachment
 High-speed-milling attachment. With the help of this
attachment the speed of the spindle can be increased by four to
six times so that the operation with small cutters could be
carried out efficiently. The attachment is mounted on the
column and can be swivelled at any angle.
 Circular milling attachment. As shown in Figure 29.4, it is a
rotary table provided with T-slots. Its circumference is divided
into degrees and may be hand-indexed for spacing or locating
slots, grooves, or holes. For the purpose of milling a circular arc
or groove on the job, an arrangement can be used to make it
power-operated to provide continuous motion. Index plates can
also be fitted to this attachment for obtaining exact rotation of
the job by any fraction of a circle. With the help of this
attachment, many profiles can be produced, such as straight or
curved slots, grooves, cams and rounded ends on work-pieces.

 Figure 29.4 Circular milling attachment
 Universal dividing Head (Index head). This is a work holding
device which is mounted on the table. It is very essential for a
milling machine. It is used for cutting gear teeth, slots or
grooves on the periphery of the work. With its help, the job can
be rotated by exact degrees and by various methods of indexing
(direct, simple or compound), nearly any number of exact slots
or teeth can be cut. The indexing may be done by hand or
automatically. This device is very useful for milling work-pieces
such as twist-drill flutes, helical gears, spiral milling cutters and
many other pieces having a helix or similar geometric form.

 Figure 29.5 Universal Dividing Head (Index Head)
 Vice. This is also a very essential attachment and is bolted to the
top of the table. It can be fastened to the table in any position by
using the T-bolt on the ears at the end of the vice. It is generally
used as dead centre to support the Job. There are three types of
vices used with machine tools and are shown below in Figure
29.6.


 Figure 29.6(a) Plain vice

 Figure 29.6(b) Swivel base vice

 Figure 29.6(c) Universal vice
 Plain vice
 Swivel base vice
 Tool-maker universal vice
 The plain vice can be set to the table either parallel or
perpendicular to the machine spindle.
 The swivel base vice is used for holding work to be cut at an
angle in horizontal plane.
 The base of tool-makers universal vice can be swiveled in a
horizontal plane and can also be elevated from the plane of the
table at an angle of 0 to 90°, thus making it possible to adjust the
job in any way. Compound angled surfaces can also be milled
with this vice. However, the size of the work that can be held by
this vice is limited.
 LESSON-30. ELEMENTS OF MILLING CUTTER AND
THEIR TYPES
 Milling Cutter
 The cutting tool used in milling machines is called milling
cutter. It is a cylinder, having equally spaced teeth, rotates about
its own axis, and engages the workpiece intermittently. A
variety of cutters is available depending upon the type and
location of teeth, method of mounting the cutters etc. The teeth
of the milling cutters can be straight or parallel to the axis of
rotation, or at an angle known as helix angle. They may be on
the cylindrical surface or the flat surface (one side or both
sides). Further the helix may be right or left-handed. The cutter
may be of the solid type with teeth and body on one piece or of
the inserted type, the body being of low carbon steel and the
teeth of any kind of tool steel.
 The cutters may have a shank integral with the cutter for
insertion in the taper hole in the machine spindle (shank-type) or
these may have a centre hole and keyway for mounting directly
on the machine arbor, (arbor type). The other types of cutter (i.e.
shell end mill) have a hole in the centre and a recess in its
cutting face so that it can be mounted on a stub or arbor.
 Elements of a Plain Milling Cutter
 A plain milling cutter with nomenclature and various angles is
shown in Figure 30.1(a) and (b).

 Figure 30.1(a) Elements of Plain Milling Cutter
 Cutter body. This is the main part of the
cutter, teeth are integral with it, and sometimes
the teeth are attached by brazing or held
mechan-ically with it. It has either a hole for
mounting on an arbor or a solid shank for
inserting in the spindle hole or collet.
 Periphery. It is the locus of the cutting edge of
the cutter and is an imaginary cylindrical
surface enveloping the tips of the cutting teeth.
It determines the outside diameter of the cutter.
 Root diameter. The diameter of the circle
passing through the bottom of the fillet.
 Gash: It is the chip space or flute between the
back of one teeth and face of the next teeth.
 Tooth face: This is the surface upon which the
chip is formed when the cutter is cutting. It
may be either flat or curved.
  Back of tooth: The back or flank of the tooth is
created by the gullet and relief angle
(secondary clearance). It may be flat, or curved
surface.
 Fillet: The curved surface at the bottom of gash
which joins the face of the one teeth to the back
of the tooth immediately ahead.
 Cutting edge. Cutting edge of a milling cutter
is the only portion that touches the work. It is
the intersection of the tooth face and the tooth
flank or back surface. The cutting edge is
generally a line which may be straight, helical
or some complex profile.
 Land. This is the narrow surface back of the
cutting edge resulting from providing a
clearance angle. It never touches the work and
is less than 1.5 mm in width.
 Angles of plain milling cutter:
 Like a single point cutting tool, the milling cutter is also
provided with rake, clearance and other angles to remove metal
and machine metal efficiently. Angles of a plain milling cutter
are shown in Figure 30.1 b.

 Figure 30.1(b) Angles of Plain Milling Cutter
- Lip angle. The inclined angle between the land and face of
the tooth.
2. Clearance (or relief) angle. Clearance (or relief) angle
is necessary to prevent the back of the tooth from rubbing
against the work. It is always positive and should not be
small so as to weaken the cutting edge of the tooth. There
are two types of clearance angles on a milling cutter;
primary clearance and secondary clearance angle.
 Primary clearance angle. This is the angle between a line
through the surface of the land and a tangent to the periphery at
the cutting edge. For most of the cutters over 75 mm in
diameter, the clearance angle is 3° to 5°. Though small diameter
cutters requires large clearance angle. Clearance angle also
depend on the type of work materials e.g. for cast iron, 4° to 7°
is required; but soft materials like aluminium, brass and
magnesium are cut efficiently with clearance angles of 10° to
12°.
 Secondary clearance angle. This is the angle formed by the
secondary land (clearance surface) of a tooth and the tangent to
the outside diameter at the cutting edge. It is usually 3° greater
than the clearance angle (primary clearance). It is not necessary
for all cutters to have secondary clearance angle.
- Rake angle. The angle measured in the diametrical plane
between the face of the tooth and the radial line passing
through the cutting edge. It may be positive, negative or
zero. If the face of a milling cutter lies along a radius of
the cutter, it is said to have zero rake angle. If the face of
cutter lies along a line on either side of the radius, it has a
positive or negative rake. If this line lies on the same side
of the radius as tooth, it is a positive rake. If it lies on the
opposite side of the radius of tooth, it is a negative rake.
 Types of Milling Cutters
 The milling cutters are available in large variety that makes the
milling machine versatile. The milling cutters are generally
classified according to their shape.
 But in some cases they may be classified as follows:-
 According to way of mounting, the cutters can be classified as:
- arbor type (hole in centre of cutter);
- shank type (shank integral with the cutter body); and
- phase type (cutter held on the end of short arbor).
 According to the method of grinding the teeth, the cutters can be
classified as:
- profile cutters; and
- formed cutters.
 Cutter materials: The cutters can be made of the high carbon
steel, high speed steel, satellite and sintered carbide tips. High
carbon steel cutters have limited use as they dull quickly if high
cutting speeds and feeds are used. Most of the cutters are made
of various grades of high speed steel, as they maintain a keen
cutting edge at high temperatures and thus can work at high
speeds. Cast non-ferrous metals like satellite rexalloy and
carbide tipped cutters have maximum heat resistance and are,
therefore, especially adapted to heavy cuts and high cutting
 speeds. They exhibit longer life, have high yield of production
and do not need extra power for the machine.
 Classification of milling cutters according to their shapes.
 According to the shape the milling cutters are classified as
follows:
 Plain milling cutter.
 Side milling cutter.
 End mill cutter.
 Metal slitting saw cutter.
 Angle milling cutter.
 Tee slot cutters.
 Fly cutters.
 Inserted teeth milling cutters.
 Form milling cutters.
 Plain milling cutter: The plain milling cutter is used
to mill flat surfaces parallel to the axis of rotation.
The cutter teeth have a 12½° rake angle. These
cutters have straight or helical teeth cut on the
periphery of a disc or a cylindrical surface. The
cutters having face width less than 16 mm have
straight teeth and larger face cutters have left-hand
helical teeth. The left-hand helical teeth cause the
axial thrust on the arbor which tends to keep the keep
the spindle tight in its bearings. Coarse-teeth cutters
are capable of removing a considerable quantity of
metal in a given time without overloading the cutter
or machine. The wide spaces between the teeth
permit the cutting edges to be well backed up, which
is not always possible with closely spaced teeth.
Therefore, the cutters are well adapted to handle
deep and rapid cuts without danger of failure.
 Very wide plain milling cutters have nicked (grooved) teeth.
The nicks (grooves) are uniformly distributed on the entire
periphery of the cutter. The object of nicks is to break up the
chips and enable the cutter to take coarse feed.
 The plain milling cutters are of following types:-
 Light duty
 Heavy duty
 Helical
 Light-duty plain cutters having helix angle of less than 25° are
best suited for moderate cuts in malleable iron, steel, and cast
iron. The light duty plain milling cutter is shown in Figure
30.2(a).


 Figure 30.2 (a) Light duty plain milling cutter
 Heavy-duty plain milling cutters having a steep helix angle from
25° to 45° with a large rake, coarse teeth, and deep flutes is used
for heavy duty work. The heavy duty plain milling cutter is
shown in Figure 30.2(b).

 Figure 30.2 (b) Heavy duty plain milling cutter
 Helical plain milling cutters having helix angle from 45° to 60°
with further coarse pitch are used machine soft steel or brass.
The helical plain milling cutter is shown in Figure 30.2(c).

 Figure 30.2 (c) Helical plain milling cutter
 Side milling cutter. These cutters are similar to
plain milling cutter but in addition they have teeth on
one or both sides of the cutter. If teeth are on both
sides, as shown in Figure 30.3, the cutter is called
plain side milling cutter. If the teeth are on one side
the cutter, as shown in Figure 30.4, the cutters are
termed as half side milling cutters. If teeth are on
left(right) hand face the cutter is called half side
left(right) hand milling cutters. These cutters may
have straight, spiral or staggered teeth. Plain milling
cutters are recommended for side milling, for
slotting, and for straddle milling work. Half side
milling cutter and are used for heavy duty straddle
mill work.

 Figure 30.3 Plain side milling cutter

 Figure 30.4 Half side milling cutter
 Staggered teeth side milling cutters, as shown in Figure 30.5,
are designed for deep slotting and for heavy duty side milling.
The alternative cutting action of staggered teeth eliminates side
thrust, removes large amount of metal without destructive
vibration and chatter, permits deep cuts, and gives a good
surface finish. Owing to free cutting action increased speed and
feed is possible.

 Figure 30.5 Staggered teeth side cutter
 Interlocking side cutters, as shown in Figure 30.6, are useful
where a slot width must be held to extremely accurate limits.
These cutters can be separated by spacing collars of the required
thickness to obtain the correct width of face.

 Figure 30.6 Inter-locking side cutters
 End mill cutters: An end mill, by strict definition, is
a milling cutter that has cutting teeth only on its end.
However, in addition to the end teeth, end mills may
have teeth along the periphery or cylindrical surface.
Similar to twist drill end mill cutters also have flutes
for the easy flow of chips. The flutes on the cutter
may be either straight or helical.
 End mill cutters are usually held from the shanks, because they
have cutting teeth on the end. They have either a straight shank,
as shown in Figure 30.7, or a taper shank as shown in Figure
30.8, to fit various collets and adapters.

 Figure 30.7 Straight shank end mill cutter


 Figure 30.8 Taper shank end mill cutter
 End mill cutters, as shown in Figure 30.7, may be made for
either right-hand or left-hand rotation. The helix (right-hand or
left-hand) may be in either the same or opposite direction as the
cutter rotation. When the helix and cutter rotation are the same
(either right-hand or left-hand), the teeth have positive rake
angle. For some specific purposes, end mill cutters are available
with the cutter rotation and their helix opposite – for example,
left-hand cutter rotation with right-hand helix. Generally, end
mill cutters with both right-hand helix and right-hand cutter
rotation are preferred.
 Several types of cutting ends for end mills are produced. These
are used to mill flat, horizontal, vertical, bevel, chamfer and
slant surfaces and to cut slot, keyways and in recess work such
as die making etc.
 Large cutters (shell end mill), as shown in Figure 30.9, have the
cutter part separate and are held to a stub arbor owing to the
high cost of the high speed steel. This construction results in a
considerable saving in material cost.


 Figure 30.9 Shell end mill cutter
 Metal-slitting saw cutters: These cutters, as shown
in Figure 30.10, resemble a plain or side cutter
except that these are made very thin. These are used
for cutting off and slotting operations and are
somewhat similar to the circular saw blades. Plain
cutters of this type are relieved by grinding the sides
to afford clearance for the cutter. Generally there are
three types of saw cutters.

 Figure 30.10 Metal slitting
 Plain metal-slitting cutters. These are used for fine slitting
operation and have teeth of saw-tooth form with both sides
slightly concave to provide clearance while cutting.
 Staggered-teeth metal slitting cutters: These are similar to the
staggered teeth side milling cutters and have their teeth
staggered at the periphery with alternating helix.
 Side teeth slitting cutters. These are suitable for cutting off
wider material or for making a deep slot.
 Angle milling cutters: These cutters are designed to
mill at an angle to the axis of rotation. They are used
for milling surfaces at various angles to the axis of
rotation, and are often used in making other milling
cutters.
 

 Figure 30.11 Angle milling cutters

 Angle cutters are made for right-hand rotation, and for left-hand
rotation. Single angle milling cutters, as shown in Figure
30.11(a), are used to mill ratchet wheel teeth, flutes on milling
cutters, or to mill dovetails. The common single angle cutters
vary from 40° to 80°. Double angle cutters, as shown in Figure
30.11(b), are available with included angles of 45°, 60°, or 90°.
 Single angle cutters have one side perpendicular to the axis of
rotation, and the other side at, usually, 45° or 60° – only one
side cuts at an angle other than 90° to the rotation axis. A double
angle cutter is constructed in such a manner that two angles cut
at an angle other than 90° to the rotation axis.
 T-slot milling cutters: T-slot milling cutter, as
shown in Figure 30.12, is a special form of end mill
cutter for making T-slots. These are used for mill the
 wide bottom of a T-slot after the narrow portion has
been milled with a side mill or an end mill cutter.
These are available in special sizes for standard T-
slots. These resemble plain or side milling cutters
which have an integral straight or tapered shaft for
driving. Straight or staggered teeth are cut on the
periphery and both sides. Figure 30.13 shows a dove-
tail slot milling cutter.


 Figure 30.12 T-slot milling cutter

 Figure 30.13 Dove-tail slot milling cutter
 Fly cutters: The fly cutter, as shown in figure 30.14,
is a simplest form of the cutters and is mainly used in
experiments. Basically, the fly cutter is a cylinder
with provision for mounting one or more tool bits or
simple point cutters on the face or periphery. This is
particularly suitable for high speed operation and for
quick operation by giving more feed per tooth on
metals like magnesium and aluminium.


 Figure 30.14 Fly cutter
 Inserted tooth milling cutters: The use of this type
of cutter allows fabrication of the main body of the
cutter from machine steel which is less expensive
relatively and tough. The teeth are formed of alloy
tool steel, and are attached to the body mechanically
with set screws or brazed in places. The teeth
position can be adjusted for wear. This is very
suitable for expensive cutter material like carbide.
 Form milling cutters: These cutters, as shown in
Figure 30.15, have specific irregular profiles on the
cutting edges in order to generate an irregular outline
of the work. The cutters are used for producing
convex, concave surfaces and rounding the corners,
i.e. filleting the sharp corners. These cutters are also
designed for cutting gear teeth, for cutting threads
(external and internal).

 Figure 30.15 Form milling cutter
 According to the method of sharpening employed, these could
be classified as profile-ground or face-ground. Shaped profile
cutters, are sharpened by grinding a small land back of the
cutting edge. As the contour is to be exactly reproduced each
time the sharpening is done, therefore, its application is limited
to simple outlines. Form cutters are sharpened on the face of
the tooth, thus preserving the original profile. These are,
therefore, very suitable for complicated shapes as they can be
sharpened again and again easily until the teeth are too slender
to be used. These cutters are generally of the solid type and the
clearance back of the cutting edge is produced by a form of
master tool in a cam-relieving machine, giving all teeth the
contour of the master tool.
 LESSON-31 MILLING OPERATIONS
 Fundamentals of Milling Operation
 Generally, the milling cutter is cylindrical in shape. If the
cutting is performed by the teeth on its outside periphery, as
shown in Figure 31.1, the operation is termed as peripheral
milling. During this process the axis of the cutter is parallel to
the surface being machined. If the cutting is performed by the
teeth on its end face or end, as shown in Figure 31.2, then the
operation is termed as end or face milling. During this operation
the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being
machined.


 Figure 31.1 Peripheral Milling

 Figure 31.2 Face or end Milling
 Comparison of peripheral milling with face (or end) milling
 During peripheral milling, the milling machine is intermittently
stressed by the wedge shaped chips. It is difficult to prevent a
slight beat of the cutter. In this operation the cutting force is not
uniform throughout the cut by each tooth, this develops shock
and vibrations in driving mechanism of machine. This, however,
contributes to the fact that on the milled surfaced, at each
rotation of the cutter, a milling mark is produced. The quality of
surface generated and the shape of chip formed is dependent
upon the rotation of the cutter relative to the direction of feed
movement of the work. During face milling, each tooth cuts off
 an equally thick chip. Therefore, the milling machine is evenly
stressed.
 In case of end milling, the cutting capacity is 15-20% higher
than that of peripheral milling. A minor beat of the face mill is
of no consequence to the flatness of the surface. The machined
surfaces have, therefore, a better grade of smoothness. Wherever
possible, plane surfaces should be machined by face (or end)
milling.
 Conventional milling (or Upmilling) and Climb milling (or
Downmilling)
 Peripheral milling operation on the basis of relative rotation of
cutter and feed movement of work can be classified as:
 Conventional milling (or Upmilling), and
 Climb milling (or Downmilling).
 Conventional milling (or Upmilling): The called conventional
(or up) milling the cutter is rotated against the feed movement of
the workpiece. The conventional (or up) milling operation is
shown in Figure 31.3 (a). The chip thickness in conventional
milling is the minimum at the start of the cut and it reaches to
the maximum at the end of cut, owing to this the cutting force
also increases from zero to the maximum value per tooth
movement. The cutting force is directed upwards and this tends
to lift the work from the milling table. In conventional milling
difficulty is experienced in pouring coolant just on the cutting
edge front where the chip cutting starts. The surface machined
by conventional milling is not smooth. The conventional milling
operation being safer is commonly used.

 Figure 31.3 Upmilling and Downmilling
 Climb milling (or Downmilling): The climb (or down) milling
the cutter is rotated in the direction of feed movement of the
workpiece. The Climb (or Down) milling is shown in Figure
31.3(b). In climb milling the chip thickness is the maximum
when the tooth starts its cut and it reduces to the minimum at the
end, owing to this the cutting force is maximum at the start of
cut and decreases to minimum value per tooth movement. The
cutter tooth starts removing metal immediately on reaching the
work surface, without sliding, as it can apply a sufficient bite on
the work. In climb/down milling, the fixture design becomes
easier as the direction of the cutting force is such that it tends to
seat (press) the work firmly in the work holding devices. The
chips are also disposed off easily and do not interfere with the
cutting. The coolants can be poured directly at the cutting zone
where the cutting force is greatest. This results in improved
surface finish.
 The down milling operation having so many advantages cannot
be used on old machines due to the backlash error that may be
present between the feed screw of the table and the nut. The
backlash error causes the work to be pulled below the cutter
when the cut begins and leaves the work free when the cut is
terminated. The same action is repeated as soon as the next tooth
engages the work. This results in vibration to be set up in the
workpiece and damages the work surface considerably. The
 down milling should only be performed on rigid machines
provided with backlash eliminator.
 Milling Operations
- Slab milling: Slab milling is a type of peripheral milling.
The length of the cutter is larger than the width of the
surface to be machined, so that the cutter overhangs the
work on both sides. Plain mill cutters are used for this
operation. The slab milling operation is shown in Figure
31. 4.


 Figure 31.4 Slab milling
- Face milling: It is the operation of production of flat
surfaces perpendicular to the axis of rotation on milling
cutter. The diameter of the cutter is larger than the width
of the surface to be machined, so that the cutter overhangs
the work on both sides. The face milling cutter is used to
 perform this operation. The face milling operation is
shown in Figure 31.5.


 Figure 31.5 Face milling
- Side milling: In this operation the milling cutter rotating
on horizontal axis machines vertical sides of the work
piece. The cutter used for this operation is called side mill
cutter. Side milling operation is shown in Figure 31.6.

 Figure 31.6 Side milling
- Straddle milling: It is a milling operation similar to side
milling operation. In this operation a pair of side milling
cutters is used for machining two parallel vertical surfaces
of a workpiece simultaneously. Figure 31.7 shows the
straddle milling operation.

 Figure 31.7 Straddle milling
- Slot milling (or slotting): It is a type of side milling. The
width of the cutter is less than the width of the workpiece.
By this operation a slot is created in the work. Side mill
cutter is used for this operation. The slab milling operation
is shown in Figure 31.8. Keyways and grooves are
produced by this operation.

 Figure 31.8 Slot milling
- Saw milling: The saw milling is the operation of cutting
narrow slots or grooves on a workpiece. The cutter used
for this operation is called saw mill cutter. The saw milling
can also be used for complete parting-off operation.
During this operation the cutter and the work are set in a
manner so that the cutter is directly placed over one of the
T-slots of table. The operation is shown in Figure 31.9.

 Figure 31.9 Saw milling
- Angular milling: It is the operation to produce inclined
flat surfaces, which are neither parallel nor perpendicular
to the axis of rotation of milling cutter. For this operation
angular mill cutter is used. Figure 31.10 shows the angular
milling operation.

 Figure 31.10 Angular milling
- Gang milling: It is the operation of machining several
surfaces (i.e. horizontal, vertical & angular)
simultaneously by feeding workpiece against a number of
cutters having same or different diameters mounted on the
arbor of the machine. This method reduces machining
time. The gang milling operation is shown in Figure 31.11.

 Figure 31.11 Gang milling
- End milling: The end milling, as shown in Figure 31.12,
is the operation in which cutter diameter is less than the
width of work. So that a narrow flat surface that may be
vertical, horizontal or at an angle to the table surface may
be produced. The cutter used for this operation is called
end mill cutter. The examples of end milling are
production of slots, grooves, or keyways, gear teeth cutting
by using end mill cutter. A vertical machine or horizontal
machine with vertical attachment is used for this purpose.

 Figure 31.12 End milling
- Form milling: The form milling is the operation of
production of irregular contours by using form milling
cutters. The irregular contours may be convex, concave or
any other shape. The form milling operation is shown in
Figure 31.13.

 Figure 31.13 Form milling
- Helical milling: The helical milling, as shown in Figure
31.14, is the operation of cutting grooves or flutes around
the periphery of a cylindrical or conical workpiece. It is
performed by swivelling the table to the required helix
angle and then by rotating and feeding the work against
rotating milling cutter. The production of helical gears,
cutting helical grooves or flutes on a twist drill or a reamer
is the example of helical milling.

 Figure 31.14 Helical milling
- Gear cutting: The gear cutting operation is performed in a
milling machine by using a form relieved cutter. The cutter
may be cylindrical type or end mill type. The cutter profile
corresponds exactly with the tooth space of the gear.
Equally spaced gear teeth are cut in a gear blank by
holding the work on a universal dividing head (UDH) and
then index it. The gear cutting operation is shown in
Figure 31.15.

 Figure 31.15 Gear cutting
- Profile milling: The profile milling, as shown in Figure
31.16, is the operation of reproduction of an outline of
template of complex shape on a workpiece. The template
is called master piece. Different cutters may be used for
profile milling. An end mill cutter is most widely used in
profile milling operation.


 Figure 31.16 Profile milling
- Thread milling: The thread milling, as shown in Figure
31.17, is the operation of cutting threads by using a single
or multi thread milling cutter. This operation is performed
in special thread milling machines. This operation requires
three driving motions in the machine; one rotary motion
for the cutter, second rotary movement for the work and
the third for the longitudinal movement of the work.
 Figure 31.17 Thread milling


 Figure 31.17 Thread milling

 LESSON-32. INDEXING HEADS AND METHODS

 Indexing heads
 Indexing is the procedure of dividing the periphery of
cylindrical or disc type workpiece into any number of equal
divisions. Several indexing operations are used in milling such
as producing hexagonal and square headed bolts, cutting splines
on the shaft, gear cutting. For performing these operations an
attachment known as dividing head is used with the milling
machine.
 The dividing heads are of following three types:
 Plain indexing head,
 Universal dividing head and
 Optical dividing head.
 - Plain indexing head: The plain indexing head, as shown
in Figure 32.1, consists of a cylindrical spindle housed in a
sleeve like index head body. The base of body is bolted to
the machine table. The index crank is connected to the tail-
end of the spindle directly, so that the crank and the
spindle may rotate as one unit. An interchangeable index
plate is fixed on the tail end the spindle, which has slots
equal the divisions required on the workpiece. After each
displacement, the index plate is locked in its position by a
pawl. The work is held in a three jaw self-centring chuck
mounted at the nose end of the spindle, or may be
supported between the two centres directly or by mounting
on the mandrel. The live center is fitted at the nose of the
spindle and the dead center is held by the tailstock. The
tail stock is a separate assembly bolted to the machine
table after aligning its spindle axis with the dividing head
spindle. This type of dividing head is used when the
number of divisions to be indexed is less.


 Figure 32.1 Plain indexing head.
- Universal dividing head: The universal dividing head,
shown in figure. 32.2, is the most commonly used
attachment with milling machines. The kinematics of a
universal dividing head is shown in Figure 32.3. The
important parts of a universal dividing head are the work
spindle, worm and worm gear, index plate, sector arm and
 change gears which are used in case of differential index
method. The spindle carrying the worm wheel meshes with
the worm, the worm through a pair of pinions (with ratio
1:1) is driven by a crank attached at its outer end of
shaft/pin.


 Figure 32.2 Universal Dividing Head


 Figure 32.3 Kinematics of Universal dividing Head
 Note: In some small sized Universal Dividing
Heads the crank is attached directly to the outer
end of the worm shaft. In this type of heads the
pinions are absent.
 The worm wheel has 40 teeth and the worm is single threaded.
Thus 40 turns of crank will cause one complete revolution of the
spindle or one turn of the crank will cause the spindle to be
rotated by 1/40 of a revolution or 360/40 = 9 degrees. In order to
turn the crank a fraction of a revolution, an index plate is used.
Index plate is a circular disc having a different number of
equally spaced holes arranged in concentric circles. The index
plate is screwed on a sleeve, which is loosely mounted on the
shaft. Normally the index plate kept stationary by a lock pin.
The index pin works inside the spring loaded plunger. This
plunger can slide radially along a desired hole-circle on the
index plate.
 The spindle is provided with a taper hole at the nose for
accommodating a live centre. The nose is threaded on the
outside for mounting a chuck or a faceplate. The work may be
supported between the two centres or on a chuck.
 A universal dividing head has the following features; a) it can be
used to set the work in vertical, horizontal or inclined positions,
relative to the table surface; b) it can be used to impart a
periodic rotary motion to the work for indexing through a given
angle; c) it can be used to impart a continuous rotary motion to
the work for milling helical grooves if it is connected with the
table feed screw through a train of gearing.
- Optical dividing head: This is used for precise angular
indexing during machining and for inspection of the
accuracy of various angular surfaces.
 The mechanism comprises a worm gear, which is keyed to the
spindle and may be rotated by a worm. A circular glass scale
graduated in 1° division is rigidly mounted on the worm wheel.
Any movement of the spindle done by rotating the worm is read
off by means of a microscope fitted on the dividing head body.
The reading on the circular glass scale is projected through
prisms on the screen of the microscope eyepiece. The eyepiece
has a scale having 60 divisions and each division is equivalent
to one minute movement of the circular scale. Thus with this
arrangement, a precise indexing movement can be made.
 Indexing methods
 There are several methods of indexing. The choice of any
method depends upon the number of divisions to be done and
the type of dividing head used. The various methods of indexing
are:
 Direct or rapid indexing
 Plain or simple indexing
 Compound indexing
 Differential indexing
 Angular indexing
 Direct Indexing: Direct indexing method is
employed when the divisions to be done are less in
number. This method is usually used to cut grooves
on taps and reamers, etc. In production workshops
this operation is generally performed by using plain
indexing head. But in tool rooms where plain
indexing head are not available or the jobs to be
produced are rare then the use of universal dividing
head is made. While using universal dividing head
first of all the worm and worm-wheel are
disengaged, so that the spindle may be given
independent rotation. The required number of
divisions on the work is obtained by means of the
front/rapid index plate usually fitted to the front end
of the spindle nose. The plate has twenty-four
equally spaced holes, into anyone of which a spring
loaded pin is pushed to lock the spindle. While
indexing, the pin is first taken out and then the
spindle is rotated manually, and after the required
rotation it is again locked by the pin. When the plate
is turned through the required fraction of a
revolution, the dividing head spindle and the work
are also turned through the same fraction of the
revolution. With a rapid index plate having 24 holes
it is possible to divide the work into equal divisions
of 2,3,4,6,8,12 and 24 parts, which are all factors of
24.
 Rule for direct  Example 1: A hexagonal
 indexing: To find the head of a bolt is to be
movement for indexing, produced by direct indexing
divide the number of method. If the index plate
holes in the direct index has 24 holes. Calculate the
plate by the number of movement for required
divisions required on indexing.
the work. In the case,  No. of holes to be moved =
24
when the direct index /6 = 4
plate has 24 holes, the  After machining one side of
formula for indexing is the bolt head the index plate
given below: will have to be moved by 4
 No. of holes to be holes for 5 times to machine
moved = 24/N the remaining sides of the
 Where, N = divisions bolt head.
required on the work.

 Plain or Simple Indexing: The plain or simple

indexing is most appropriate for numbers of
divisions beyond the range of direct indexing. For
this indexing method the universal dividing head is
utilized, that involves the use of index crank, index
plate, worm and worm wheel as shown in Figure
32.4. It is more accurate than direct indexing owing
to the use of universal dividing head. The worm is
single threaded and worm wheel has 40 teeth,
therefore, 40 turns of the crank can complete one
revolution of the spindle and work i.e. one turn of the
crank will cause the worm wheel (work spindle) to
make 1/40th of revolution.

 Figure 32.4 Plain or Simple Indexing
 Index plates of different circles of holes are used to make the
indexing possible to fractions of a turn to cover practically all
numbers.
 The Brown and Sharp  The Cincinnati and Parkinson
manufacturing dividing head uses a larger diameter
company has patented index plate than the Brown and
the index plates with Sharp. The different series of holes
following circles of are provided on each side of the
holes: plate. The numbers of holes in each
 Plate No.1 -- 15, 16, side of the plate are as follows:
17, 18, 19, 20  First side of plate:
 Plate No.2 -- 21, 23,  24,25,28,30,34,37,38,39,41,42,43
27, 29, 31, 33  Second side of plate:
 Plate No.3 -- 37, 39,  46,47,49,51,53,54,57,58,59,62,66
41, 43, 47, 49
 Also these plates have
been accepted as
standard index plates
 by the Indian machine
tool manufacturers.
 All divisions upto 50
can be made using
these index plates by
simple indexing.

 Rule for simple indexing:  Example 2: Set the

To find the index crank dividing head to mill 30
movement, divide 40 by teeth on a spur wheel
the number of divisions blank.
required on the work.  Index crank movement =
 Index crank movement = 40
/30
 =1+1/3 = 1+(1/3) x (7/7) =
40
/N … (2)
 Where, N = number of 1+7/21
divisions required  Thus for indexing, the
index crank will have to be
rotated one revolution plus
7 holes in 21 hole-circle of
the index plate.

 Compound Indexing:This method of indexing is

used when the number of divisions to be done is
beyond the range of simple indexing. It is achieved
by the two movements of the index crank in two
different hole-circles of the index plate. Hence, this
indexing involves in two steps:
- By turning the crank through a required number of spaces
in one of the hole-circle of the index plate as plain
indexing and then the crank pin is engaged with the plate.
- By releasing the rear lock pin, then turning the index plate
and the crank both in the same or reverse direction, thus
 adding or subtracting further movement to that obtained in
the first stage, and then the rear lock pin is engaged.
 Where,
 N = the number of divisions required.
 N1 = the hole circle used by the crank pin.
 N2 = the hole circle used by the lock pin.
 n1 = the hole spaces moved by the crank pin in N1 hole circle.
 n2 = the hole spaces moved by the plate and the crank pin in
N2 hole circle.
 The effective indexing movement will be the summation of the
two movements. The method of finding the index crank
movement being a complicated one is seldom used nowadays.
 Procedure for determining the index circles:
 Procedure I:
- Factorize the number of divisions required
- Factorize the standard number 40 (i.e. 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 5)
- Select any two hole-circles on same side of plate.
- Subtract the number of holes of selected circles, and
factorize the difference.
- Factorize the number of holes of circles chosen
- Place the factors of the divisions required and the factors
of the difference above a horizontal line
- Place the factors of 40 and hole-circles chosen below the
horizontal line.
- Cancel the common factors above and below the line. If all
the factors above the line can be cancelled by those placed
below, then the two circles chosen can be used for
indexing. If the factors above the line cannot be
completely cancelled then repeat the process.
- The factors which will remain un-cancelled below the line
should be multiplied to obtain the spaces in the hole-circle
to be moved by the two indexing movements.
  Compound index 69 divisions

 1.  69 = 23 x 3
  2.  40 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 5

 3.  Select index circle 23 and 33

 4.  Difference = 33 – 23 =10 = 5 x 2

 5.  23 = 23 x 1, and 33 = 3 x 11

 6. 
 7. 
 8.  , as we get one in numerator, circle
selected are correct

 9. 

 Thus for indexing 69 division, the index crank should be moved

by 21 holes in 23 hole circle in forward direction and then the
plate and the crank together is moved by 11 holes in 33 hole
circle in the backward direction.
 Procedure II: For compound indexing a number, which cannot
be factorized, and for many other numbers, the actual index
movement of the work is given several times greater than the
actual spacing required, and finally the required divisions are
obtained on the work.
- Differential indexing: This indexing is somewhat similar
to compound indexing. The indexing method is called
differential because the required division is obtained by a
combination of two movements:
- The movement of the index crank similar to the simple
indexing.
- The simultaneous movement of the index plate, when the
crank is turned.
 The rotation or differential motion of the index plate may take
place in the same direction as the crank or opposite to it as may
be required. The result is that the actual movement of the crank
at every indexing is automatically increased or decreased giving
 the required index movement of the spindle. For this reason, the
differential indexing may be considered as an automatic method
of performing compound indexing. Kinematics of differential
indexing are shown in Figure 32.5.


 Figure 32.5 Differential indexing method
 Indexing heads for differential indexing are generally equipped
with change gears as follows: 24, 24, 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64,
72, 86, 100. With these change gears and three sets of standard
index plates (Brown & Sharp), it is possible to index any
number from 1 to 382. Special gears having 46, 47, 52, 58, 68,
70, 76, and 84 teeth may also be used for numbers from 383 to
1008 divisions. The differential method of indexing is employed
when the problem cannot be worked by plain indexing.
 Procedure for differential indexing: The following are the
different rules for determining gear ratio, indexing movement of
the crank and the number of idlers required.
 1.  Gear ratio = ... (4)
  where,
 A = the selected number which can be indexed by
plain indexing and the number is approximately equal
to N.
 N = the required number of divisions to be indexed.

 2.  In the gearing ratio so calculated, the numerators of

the fraction indicate the driving gears on the index
head spindle and the denominators indicate the driven
gears on the index plate.

 3.  Index crank movement = …(5) where A is

the selected number
 The index crank will have to be moved by an amount
given in the formula (5) for N number of times for
complete division of the work.

 4.  The index crank and the index plate should move in

the same direction or opposite to each other
depending on the type of gearing ratio and the
selected number A chosen.
 If (A - N) is positive the index plate must rotate in the
same direction as the crank and if (A - N) is negative
the index plate must rotate in a direction opposite to
that of the crank.
 To achieve these conditions, the number of idle gears
used depends upon the following factors :
 If the gear train is simple and (A -N) is positive, only
one idle gear is used.
 If the gear train is simple and (A -N) is negative, two
idle gears are used.
 If the gear train is compound and (A -N) is positive,
no idle gear is used.
 d) If the gear train is compound and (A -N) is
negative, only one idle gear is used.
 Example 4: Index 83 divisions.
 First of all, find out whether the number can be indexed by plain
indexing or not.
 Index crank movement in pain indexing =
 Since, there is no 83 hole circle, the number cannot be indexed
by plain indexing. Therefore, it is a case of differential indexing.
 Using the formula (4), assume A = 86, a number almost equal to
83 and can be indexed by plain indexing.
 1 Gear ratio = = =
 Therefore, Drivers = 72, 40
 and Driven = 24, 86
 Index crank movement =
 For complete indexing, the index crank will have to be moved
by 20 holes in 43 hole circle for 83 times.
- As (A -N) is positive and the gearing ratio is compound,
no idle gear is required.
- Angular indexing: The method is similar to the plain
indexing with the difference that in this process indexing
of the periphery of a work is specified by the angle and not
by the number of divisions. When the index crank is
rotated by 40 revolutions, the spindle rotates through one
complete revolution or by 360°. Therefore, one complete
turn of the crank will cause the spindle and the work to
rotate through 360/40 = 9°. To find the index crank
movement, divide the angle by 9 if it is expressed in
degrees, by 540 if it expressed in minutes, and by 32,400 if
it is expressed in seconds. The formula for indexing is
given below.
 Example: Calculate the index crank movement to index an
angle 15° 40'
 Solution: 15° 40' = (15 x 60) + 40 = 940'
 Index crank movement = The index crank should be moved 1
complete turns and 20 holes of 27 hole-circle.