FREQUENCY

MODULATION
Subtitle
Frequency Modulation
▪ Frequency modulation is a type of
modulation where the frequency of the
carrier signal varies as per amplitude
variations of the message signal.

▪ In frequency modulation, the frequency of

the carrier signal is varied whereas the
amplitude of the carrier signal remains
constant.

▪ The instantaneous changes in modulating

signal voltage are translated into frequency
changes of the carrier

▪ Beginning from zero modulating voltage,

frequency of carrier changes as per
sequence: fc, (fc + fd), fc, (fc – fd), and fc
Modulation Index of Frequency Modulation

▪ Frequency modulation index describes how the frequency of the carrier signal and amplitude
of message signal affects the frequency of the frequency modulated (FM) signal.

▪ Frequency modulation index is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation of the
carrier signal to the frequency of the message signal.

Where, Δf = Maximum frequency deviation of the carrier signal

fm = Frequency of the message signal

Frequency Modulation Frequency Spectrum

▪ When modulation index < 1, second & higher sidebands are small

▪ Number of effective sidebands depends upon amplitude & frequency of modulating signal.

▪ They are directly proportional to amplitude of modulating signal & inversely proportional to
frequency of modulating signal.
Maximum Limits in FM & Channel Bandwidth

▪ Maximum deviation from centre frequency : ±75KHz

▪ Also there should be guard band of 25KHz
▪ So bandwidth = 150 + 50 = 200 KHz

Note : this is the bandwidth of channel, not of FM signal.

Maximum Limits in FM & Deviation Ratio

▪ In AM maximum value of modulating frequency is 5KHz.

▪ In FM maximum value of modulating frequency is 15KHz.
▪ Frequency modulation deviation ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum carrier
frequency deviation to the highest message signal frequency.

= 75/15 = 5
Bandwidth of FM signal

▪ Bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal is given as:

BWfm = 2 (fm + ∆f) Do You remember bandwidth of AM ?

BWAM = 2 fm

Carson’s Rule :
The equation for calculating maximum bandwidth occupancy of FM signal is given by Carson's
rule.

BWFM max = 2 (fm max + ∆f max)

= 2 (15 + 75 )
= 180 KHz

Thus Bandwidth of channel = 200KHz

& Bandwidth of signal = 180KHz
FM Radio Spectrum Specifications

88MHz to 108MHz is allocated by

FCC for FM broadcasting
FM Services

➢ For FM broadcasting stations,

maximum frequency deviation
allowed is 75KHz.
➢For TV broadcasting, it is
25KHz.
Percentage Modulation in FM

▪ It is the ratio of the actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating signal to the
maximum allowable frequency deviation.

maximum allowed frequency For FM broadcasting is 75KHz & For TV broadcasting, it is 25KHz.
Percentage Modulation in FM

▪ It is the ratio of the actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating signal to the
maximum allowable frequency deviation.

maximum allowed frequency deviation For FM broadcasting is 75KHz & For TV broadcasting, it is
25KHz.
Revision
Determine the percentage modulation of an FM wave with frequency deviation of
15KHz for 1) FM broadcast 2) TV broadcast

1) FM broadcast : maximum allowed frequency deviation For FM broadcasting is

75KHz

= 20 %

2) TV broadcast : maximum allowed frequency deviation For TV broadcasting is

25KHz

= 60 %
Determine frequency deviation & carrier swing required to provide 80% modulation in
the FM broadcast. Repeat this for an FM signal serving as audio portion of TV
broadcast.

For FM Broadcast : maximum allowed frequency deviation For FM broadcasting is

75KHz
Here, % modulation = 80 %

We have

Solving further we get ∆f actual = 60.

Carrier swing = 2 (frequency deviation)
= 2 ∆f actual
= 2 (60) =120 KHz.
Determine frequency deviation & carrier swing required to provide 80% modulation in
the FM broadcast. Repeat this for an FM signal serving as audio portion of TV
broadcast.

For TV Broadcast : maximum allowed frequency deviation For FM broadcasting is

25KHz
Here, % modulation = 80 %

We have

Solving further we get ∆f actual = 20.

Carrier swing = 2 (frequency deviation)
= 2 ∆f actual
= 2 (20) =40 KHz.
Equation of FM Wave
If we consider modulating signal is: em = Em sin(wmt) Do you remember equation of AM wave?
em = Em sin(wmt)
Carrier signal is: ec = A sin (wct)
ec = Ec sin (wct)
The output equation of FM wave is given as: eam = (Ec + em)sinwct
eam = (Ec + Em sinwmt)sinwct
e = A sin (wct + mf sinwmt)

As the above equation contains sine of sine function, this can be solved by using bessel function
as:

e = A { [ J0 mf sin wct] It is seen from the equation that the FM wave

consists of a carrier and infinite number of pair of
+ J1 mf [sin(wc – wm)t – sin(wc + wm)t ] sidebands. Each preceded by bessel coefficient J.
+ J2 mf [sin(wc – 2wm)t + sin(wc + 2wm)t ]

+ J3 mf [sin(wc – 3wm)t – sin(wc + 3wm)t ]

+ J4 mf [sin(wc – 4wm)t + sin(wc + 4wm)t ] + …...}

Equation of FM Wave

Bessel Coefficients & mf:

The amplitude of different
frequency component depends
upon modulation index (mf)
Equation of FM Wave
e = A { [ J0 mf sin wct] + J1 mf [sin(wc – wm)t – sin(wc + wm)t ] + J2 mf [sin(wc – 2wm)t + sin(wc +
2wm)t ]

+ J3 mf [sin(wc – 3wm)t – sin(wc + 3wm)t ] + J4 mf [sin(wc – 4wm)t + sin(wc + 4wm)t ] + …...}

Observations from bessel function:
➢ In AM only three frequencies i.e. carrier & two sidebands are present. However FM
has carrier & infinite number of sidebands in the output. The sidebands are
seperated from the carrier by fm, 2fm, 3fm……..etc. The frequency seperation
between successive sidebands is the modulation frequency fm.
Effect of Variation of
mf on FM Spectrum
FM: Combined Frequency &
Time Domain
A carrier wave of amplitude 5V and frequency 90 MHz is frequency modulated by a
sinusoidal voltage of amplitude 5V and frequency 15KHz. The frequency deviation constant is
1KHz/V. find the value of modulation index . Sketch the spectrum of modulated FM wave.
The values of bessel constant are Jo = 0.96, J1 = 0.18, J2 = 0.02

Here the frequency deviation constant is 1KHz/V

So the frequency deviation for 5V will be: Fd = 1KHz/V * 5V = 5KHz

Modulation index : mf = fd/fm = 5/15 = 0.33

Now the values of bessel constant are Jo = 0.96, J1 = 0.18, J2 = 0.02

So amplitude of carrier = J0 * 5 = 0.96 * 5 = 4.8V

amplitude of first side band = J1 * 5 = 0.18 * 5 = 0.9V

amplitude of second side band = J2 * 5 = 0.02 * 5 = 0.1V
FM Generation

▪ In direct method or parameter variation method, the baseband or modulating signal directly
modulates the carrier.

▪ The indirect method utilizes concept of phase modulation.

The Direct Method or Parameter Variation Method
▪ For direct FM generation, voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used.
▪ The frequency of this oscillator is changed by changing the reactive components
involved in the tuned circuit. If L or C of a tuned circuit of an oscillator is changed
in accordance with the amplitude of modulating signal then FM can be obtained
across the tuned circuit as shown in figure.
▪ There are a number of devices whose reactance can be varied by the application of
voltage. These include FET and BJT, varactor diode etc. If such a device is placed
across the tank circuit of the L-C oscillator, then FM will be produced
FM generation using FET reactance modulator
Assumptions:
▪ Neglecting gate current, let the current
through C and R be I1,
▪ At the carrier frequency, the reactance
of C is much larger than R
FM generation using FET reactance modulator
▪ Since the equivalent capacitance depends
upon gm, which in turn, is dependent on
bias voltage of FET, Ceq can be varied
by varying bias voltage (modulating
signal).
▪ Thus by varying the modulating voltage,
the operating point of FET i.e. gm is
varied and hence equivalent capacitance
changes.
▪ By selecting values of R and C, Ceq can
be initially adjusted to the desired value,
in unmodulated conditions.
 Not mentioned in the syllabus of ADC
Varactor Diode Modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency Modulator

Limitations of Direct Method of FM Generation

1. In this method, it is very difficult to get high order stability in carrier frequency
because in this method the basic oscillator is not a stable oscillator, as it is
controlled by the modulating signal.
2. Generally in this method we get distorted FM, due to non-linearity of the varactor
diode
Indirect Method of FM generation (Phase Modulation)
▪ If we take vectors of carrier & audio signal (AM wave)
and combine them with 90˚ phase shift then we get the
waveform of phase modulation.

Phase
Phase
Lag Lead

Fig. Principle of Armstrong Method for FM generation

Indirect Method of FM generation (Phase Modulation)
▪ Note: This method of produces desired phase & frequency modulation only when the
resulting carrier has maximum phase shift of 30˚ or less.
▪ Hence usually the phase modulation is carried out at lower carrier frequency
generated by crystal oscillator say 200KHz.
▪Lets consider FM generated at lower
frequency of 200KHz & deviation of
25Hz.
▪Lets assume the FM station has to
transmit FM at 90MHz ± 75KHz .
▪This can be done using chain of
doublers & tipplers in following
sequence : 2,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,2
FM Generation using Armstrong Method
Armstrong Method (alternate diagram)
Phase Modulator & associated diagrams
Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis
▪ In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the
higher modulating frequencies.
▪ This effect can be reduced by increasing the
amplitude of modulating signal at higher
modulating frequencies.
▪ The artificial boosting of higher modulating
frequencies is called as pre-emphasis.
▪ At the receiver, the amplitudes of these signals
are appropriately and proportionately decreased.
This is known as De-emphasis.
Pre-emphasis
De-emphasis
Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis
FM Receiver: Complete Schematic
Requirements of RF Amplifier

▪ The bandwidth of tuned circuits connected to input & output must be 150 KHz
▪ The bandwidth of RF amplifier itself must be 88 MHz to 108 MHz
▪ Noise Figure should be less
▪ Grounded gate FET amplifier matches input impedance of receiver to antenna load
Practical RF Amplifier
MOSFET Based RF Amplifier
The Oscillator
The IF Amplifier

▪ It should provide a gain of 70 dB

▪ Bandwidth = 150 KHz
The Practical IF Amplifier
The Front End
Purpose & Principle of Limiter
▪ FM voltage must be kept constant so input to FM Demodulator is constant voltage
and hence demodulated output signal em(t) will be distortionless
▪ The limiter removes from the FM signal all amplitude variations that may be caused
incidentally by power supply fluctuations, man-made static and natural static
▪ The limiter is a FET amplifier tuned at fixed frequency of 10.7 MHz and bandwidth of
150 KHz
▪ The two limiting actions are:
(a) Gate leakage bias
(b) Early drain saturation
The Limiter Circuit
The Gate Limiting Action

▪ If input changes, then Vgs

changes, hence gm changes
and the gain is adjusted so as
to keep output voltage
constant as per following
relations 2IDSS  VGS 
gm = 1 − V 
Vp  P 

RD gm
AV =
1 + gmRs
The Early Drain Saturation

▪ RD and VDD are deliberately selected low

so as to facilitate drain saturation early
▪ The operating point on ID-VDS response
is kept just below the saturation level
▪ The moment the input voltage rises, the
FET is immediately driven into
saturation, ID remains constant and
hence output voltage dosen’t change
FM Demodulation
▪ The em(t) signal is hidden in form of carrier frequency changes of efm(t)
▪ The FM demodulator bypasses the high frequency carrier and extracts the
em(t)
FM Demodulation Methods:
(a) Single Slope Detector
(b) Double Slope Detector
(c) Foster Seeley Phase Shift Discriminator
(d) Ratio Detector
(e) Quadrature Detector
(f) Phase Lock Loop FM Detector
Single Slope Detector: Principle
Single Slope FM Detector: Comments
▪ The slope of the LC tuned circuit
characteristics is non-linear hence
em(t) is highly distorted
▪ This detector is not used in FM
receivers
Balanced Slope Detector
Balanced Slope Detector: Working
Foster-Seeley Phase Shift Discriminator
▪ As input frequency changes, angle Δθ between V12 and V1
changes, hence Vao and Vbo change. This will change Va’o & Vb’o
and therefore Vo = Va’o – Vb’o will change
▪ Both primary & secondary LC circuits are tuned at 10.7 MHz
which is fi
▪ Has best linear ‘S’ curve
▪ Used in wideband FM receivers
▪ fin cycles as fi , fi + fd , fi, fi – fd , fi
Foster-Seeley: Principle
Foster-Seeley: Working
Ratio Detector

▪ Diode D2 is reversed
▪ Resistors R, R and capacitor C are added
▪ Output is taken in a different way
▪ Provides AGC
▪ Provides limiting action so that FM voltage at its input
remains constant
▪ Used in TV receivers and narrow band FM radio receivers
Ratio Detector: Schematic
Ratio Detector: Working
References

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