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OCR A Level Biology Your notes

4.3 Classification & Evolution

Contents
4.3.1 Classification of Species
4.3.2 Binomial System
4.3.3 Classification of the Three Domains
4.3.4 Classification of the Five Kingdoms
4.3.5 Classification & Phylogeny
4.3.6 Evidence of Evolution
4.3.7 Types of Variation
4.3.8 Standard Deviation
4.3.9 Variation: t-test Method
4.3.10 Variation: t-test Worked Example
4.3.11 Spearman's Rank Correlation
4.3.12 Adaptation
4.3.13 Natural Selection
4.3.14 Evolution of Resistance
4.3.15 Consequences of Resistance

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4.3.1 Classification of Species

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Classification of Species
Taxonomy is the practice of biological classification
The biological classification system enables us to arrange species into groups based on their
evolutionary origins and relationships
In this hierarchical system there is no overlap between groups and each group is called a taxon (plural
taxa)
By grouping organisms into taxa it can make them easier to understand and remember
There are several different ranks or levels within the hierarchical classification system used in biology
Multiple smaller taxa can be put into one larger taxon

Hierarchical classification
The hierarchical classification system of organisms in biology is used to organise and group similar
organisms together so that they can be more easily understood
There are several taxonomic ranks that exist
All taxonomic ranks or 'taxa' make up a 'taxonomic hierarchy'
Species is the lowest taxonomic rank in the system
Similar species can be grouped in a genus (plural genera)
Similar genera can be grouped in a family
Similar families can be grouped into an order
Similar orders can be grouped into a class
Similar classes can be grouped into a phylum (plural phyla)
Similar phyla can be grouped into a kingdom
Similar kingdoms can be grouped into a domain
Domains are the highest taxonomic rank in the system
There are a few different rhymes that exist to help you remember the different ranks in the taxonomic
classification system. A couple of examples are given below but you could always make up your own!
The first letters of all the different ranks below the domains can be remembered as:
Kings Play Chess On Fancy Gold Squares
Kittens Pounce Clumsily On Furry Green Spiders
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

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The hierarchical classification system - The higher ranks contain more organisms with less similarity
between them. The lower ranks contain fewer organisms with more similarity between them.

Classification of an organism in the Eukarya domain

Eukarya is the domain of all eukaryotes, distinguishable from Bacteria and Archaea which are both
prokaryotic domains
Just like the other domains, Eukarya contains the taxonomic hierarchy of kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus and species

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The classification system is organised within the eukarya domain - Note there are missing groups at
each rank

A wolf is an example of an organism in the Eukarya domain

It can be classified further into its kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus and species
A wolf belongs to the following taxonomic groups:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Genus: Canis
Species: lupus

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The classification of a Wolf

The Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (a colourful flowering plant) is another example of an organism in the
eukarya domain
It belongs to the following taxonomic groups:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Hibiscus
Species: rosa-sinensis

A Classification Table

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Examiner Tip
The name of a species always consists of two words: the genus and species. This means when
provided with the Latin name of a species you are automatically provided with information about the
last two taxonomic ranks that the organism belongs to. Remember this when being asked to show or
explain the classification of an organism in the exam.

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4.3.2 Binomial System

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Binomial System
A species is a group of organisms that are able to reproduce to produce fertile offspring
Binomials are the scientific names given to individuals species
Binomials consist of the organism’s genus and species name in modern Latin
For example, the binomial for humans is Homo sapiens and the binomial for dogs is Canis familiaris
Binomials are extremely useful for scientists as they allow for species to be universally identified - the
binomial for a species is the same across the entire globe

Naming species
Species are often given common names, but these common names are often differ between
countries and do not always translate directly between different languages
In order to avoid confusion about what group of organisms scientists are talking about, all species are
given a two-part scientific name using the binomial system
This naming convention was developed and established by the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus in the
18th Century
The binomial name is always italicized in writing (or underlined if it is not possible to italicise)
For example:
The most commonly known yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae
It is common to abbreviate the genus name (e.g. S. cerevisiae)
Saccharomyces paradoxus is another species of that is a member of the same genus as
cerevisiae

Examiner Tip
The binomial for a species is always typed in italics or underlined when handwritten. The genus name
should have a capital letter but the species name should not.

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4.3.3 Classification of the Three Domains

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Classification of the Three Domains
Taxonomy is the practice of biological classification
It involves placing organisms into a series of categories or taxa
There are different ranks within the hierarchical classification system used in biology
The highest rank is the domain
There are three domains of life
Cell type has a major role in the classification of organisms into the three domains but do not confuse
cell types and domains
The two cell types are prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are easily distinguishable in that they lack a nucleus
Eukaryotic cells have compartmentalised structures, with at least their genetic material
segregated from the rest of the cell in a nucleus

The three domains of life

Although it was well known that most forms of life could be divided into prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
advances in the studies of molecular biology, biochemistry and cell structure in the latter part of the
20th century showed that the prokaryotes are not one uniform group
Based on molecular analyses of RNA genes in particular, and by looking at features such as ribosomal
RNA (rRNA), aspects of protein synthesis and the structure of cell membranes and flagella, scientists
realised that using cell type to classify organisms was insufficient and that prokaryotes could be
divided into two separate groups (domains)
The three domains are:
Bacteria (prokaryotes)
Archaea (prokaryotes)
Eukarya (eukaryotes)

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The taxonomic classification system with the three domains

Archaea
Organisms within this domain are sometimes referred to as the extremophile prokaryotes, as archaea
were first discovered living in extreme environments (although not all archaea do)
Archael cells have no nucleus (and so are prokaryotic)
They were initially classified as bacteria until several unique properties were discovered that separated
them from known bacteria, including:
Unique lipids being found in the membranes of their cells
No peptidoglycan in their cell walls
Ribosomal structure (particularly that of the small subunit) are more similar to the eukaryotic
ribosome than that of the bacteria
Archaea have a similar size range as bacteria (and in many ways metabolism is similar between the two
groups)
DNA transcription is more similar to that of eukaryotes
Example: Halobacterium salinarum is a species of the archaea domain that can be found in
environments with high salt concentrations like the Dead Sea

Bacteria
These are organisms that have prokaryotic cells which contain no nucleus
They vary in size over a wide range: the smallest are bigger than the largest known-viruses and the
largest are smaller than the smallest known single-celled eukaryotes
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Bacterial cells divide by binary fission

Example: Staphylococcus pneumoniae is a species of bacteria that causes pneumonia
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Eukarya
Organisms that have eukaryotic cells with nuclei and membrane-bound organelles are placed in this
domain
They vary massively in size from single-celled organisms that are only several micrometres across, to
large multicellular organisms many-metres in size, such as blue whales
Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis
Eukaryotes can reproduce sexually or asexually
Example: Canis lupus, also known as wolves

Key differences between archaea & bacteria

Initially, all organisms within the Archaea domain were classified as Bacteria
Then several unique features possessed by Archaea were discovered that separated them from both
Bacteria and Eukarya
The main differences between Archaea and Bacteria are seen in:
Membrane lipids
Ribosomal RNA
Cell wall composition

Membrane lipids
The membrane lipids found in the cells of Archaea organisms are completely unique
They are not found in any bacterial or eukaryotic cells
The membrane lipids of Archaea consist of branched hydrocarbon chains bonded to glycerol by ether
linkages
The membrane lipids of Bacteria consist of unbranched hydrocarbon chains bonded to glycerol by
ester linkages

Ribosomal RNA
Both Archaea and Bacteria possess 70S ribosomes
The 70S ribosomes in Archaea possess a smaller subunit that is more similar to the subunit found in
Eukaryotic ribosomes than subunits in Bacterial ribosomes
The base sequences of ribosomal RNA in Archaea show more similarity to the rRNA of Eukarya than
Bacteria
The primary structure of ribosome proteins in Archaea show more similarity to the ribosome
proteins in Eukarya than Bacteria

Composition of cell walls

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Organisms from the Bacteria domain have cells that always possess cell walls with peptidoglycan
Organisms from the Archaea domain also have cells that always possess cell walls, however these do
not contain peptidoglycan Your notes

Characteristics & features of the three domains table

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4.3.4 Classification of the Five Kingdoms

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Classification of the Five Kingdoms
Before the three domains of life (Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya) were introduced and then widely
accepted as the highest rank in the classification of life on Earth, most people thought there to be five
kingdoms at the top of the classification hierarchy
These five kingdoms include:
Prokaryota
Protoctista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

Prokaryota
This kingdom includes bacteria and blue-green bacteria
The main features of all organisms within Prokaryota include:
Most are unicellular (some can be found as filaments of cells or groupings of similar cells known as
colonies)
Their cells have cell walls (not made of cellulose) and cytoplasm but no nucleus or mitochondria
They vary in size over a wide range: the smallest are bigger than the largest known viruses and the
largest are smaller than the smallest known single-celled eukaryotes
Their cells divide by binary fission
Blue-green bacteria and some bacteria are autotrophic (they are photosynthetic)
Many bacteria are heterotrophic (feeding by decomposing living or dead organic materials)

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A typical bacterial cell

The other kingdoms can all be classified within the domain Eukarya, which can be divided into the
following four kingdoms:
Protoctista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Organisms from each of these four kingdoms have distinct characteristics and features, but share
similarities in that they have cells with membrane-bound nuclei separating genetic material from the
cytoplasm, and compartmentalisation within their cells as a result of the presence of other organelles

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The four kingdoms within the Eukarya domain: protoctista, fungi, plantae and animalia

Kingdom Protoctista
All Protoctista are eukaryotic, and this broad group of cellular life encompasses all eukaryotic cells
that do not belong to the other three eukaryotic kingdoms
Members of this kingdom show great diversity in all aspects of life including structure, life cycle,
feeding and trophic levels and well as modes of locomotion
Protoctists can exist as single-celled organisms or as a group of similar cells
A group of Protoctista known as protozoa possess cells similar to animal cells
Their cells have no cell wall
Another group of Protoctista known as algae possess cells similar to plant cells
Their cells have cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts

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Two examples of protoctist cells

Kingdom Fungi
All fungi are eukaryotic cells
The cells of fungi:
Possess non-cellulose cell walls (often made of the polysaccharide chitin)
Don’t have cilia
Fungi are heterotrophs:
They use organic compounds made by other organisms as their source of energy and molecules
for metabolism
They obtain this energy and carbon by digesting dead/decaying matter extracellularly or from
being parasites on living organisms
Fungi reproduce using spores that disperse onto the ground nearby
Fungi have a simple body form:
They can be unicellular (like the common baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Some consist of long threads called hyphae that grow from the main fungus body and form a
network of filaments called the mycelium
Larger fungi possess fruiting bodies that release large numbers of spores (this is how many fungi
reproduce)
The mould found on bread is actually a fungus: Rhizopus nigricans

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A typical fungal cell

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The structure of a fungus with its hyphae, mycelium and fruiting bodies

Kingdom Plantae
Plants are multicellular eukaryotic organisms
Plant cells:
All have cell walls composed of cellulose
Possess large (and usually permanent) vacuoles that provide structural support
Are able to differentiate into specialized cells to form tissues and organs
Possess chloroplasts that enable photosynthesis (not all plant cells have chloroplasts)
Can sometimes have flagella
They are autotrophs
This means they can synthesize their organic compounds and molecules for energy use and
building biomass from inorganic compounds
Plants have complex body forms
They have branching systems above and below the ground

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A typical plant cell

Kingdom Animalia
Animals are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms
Animal cells:
Are able to differentiate into many different specialised cell types that can form tissues and
organs
Have small temporary vacuoles (for example, lysosomes)
Have no cell walls
Sometimes have cilia
They are heterotrophs and have a wide range of feeding mechanisms
Communication within their complex body forms takes place through a nervous system and chemical
signalling

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A typical animal cell

Five Kingdoms Comparison Table

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4.3.5 Classification & Phylogeny

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Classification & phylogeny
In the past scientists classified organisms on the basis of shared visible features
Today scientists aim to classify organisms on the basis of phylogeny
Phylogeny can be defined as:
The evolutionary history of organisms
Classifying organisms according to their phylogeny means that species that share a more recent
common ancestor are classified together, while species with a more distant common ancestor are
classified in separate groups
Phylogenetic classification often means that historical organism groups need to be changed
E.g. grouping organisms on the basis of shared characteristics may result in birds and bats being
classified together, but we know that these two organisms are not close evolutionary relatives
Advances in DNA, RNA and protein sequencing have allowed scientists to classify organisms
according to their phylogeny more accurately than using visible characteristics
Molecular analysis allows scientists to build phylogenetic tree diagrams that show the relationships
between organisms
Using molecular evidence in classification
Three types of sequence data are used to investigate evolutionary relationships
DNA
mRNA
Amino acids (of a protein)
Sequencing technology can determine the order of DNA bases, mRNA bases and amino acids within an
organism's genome
This technology is especially useful for comparison with an extinct species (using ancient DNA) or when
distinguishing between species that are very physically similar
Scientists will choose specific proteins or sections of the genome for comparison between
organisms
Looking at multiple proteins or multiple regions of the genome will allow for a more accurate
estimate of evolutionary relatedness
Note the protein used needs to be present in a wide range of organisms and show sufficient
variation between species
Cytochrome c is often used as it is an integral protein to respiration (in the electron transport
chain) which is used by all eukaryotic organisms
For all types of sequence data it can be said that the more similar the sequences, the more closely
related the species are
Two groups of organisms with very similar sequences will have separated into separate species more
recently than two groups with less similarity in their sequences
Species that have been separated for longer have had a greater amount of time to accumulate
mutations and changes to their DNA,mRNA and amino acid sequences

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Sequence analysis and comparison can be used to create phylogenetic trees that show the
evolutionary relationships between species
Your notes

Example of a phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between primate species. The tree is based on
the DNA sequence of the gene that codes for cytochrome c.

DNA Analysis and Comparison

DNA is extracted from the nuclei of cells taken from an organism
DNA can be extracted from blood or skin samples from living organisms or from fossils
The extracted DNA is processed, analysed and the base sequence is obtained
The base sequence is compared to that of other organisms to determine evolutionary relationships
The more similarities there are in the DNA base sequence, the more closely related (in that the less
distant the species separation) members of different species are
In 2005, the chimpanzee genome was sequenced, and when compared to the human genome it was
discovered that humans and chimpanzees share almost 99% of their DNA sequences, making them our
closest living relatives

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In 2012, the sequencing of the bonobo genome also revealed that humans and bonobos share
98% of their genome (with slight differences to the differences seen in chimpanzees)
Your notes

The DNA base sequences of two closely related species being compared - Species Y is the ancestor of
Species X

Examiner Tip
You may be wondering why you would use amino acids when you could look at DNA or mRNA. This is
because it is often easier to find and isolate proteins from cells and as a result protein sequencing was
the method traditionally [Link] some cases, however, amino acid sequences may be exactly the
same between different species even if there are differences in the corresponding DNA sequences.
This is because genes for the same protein may have slightly different base sequences in different
species due to differences in their introns which are not translated into differences in the protein
molecules. In addition, the genetic code is a degenerate code, meaning that more than one codon
may code for the same amino [Link] a result, DNA sequencing has largely replaced protein
sequencing in taxonomy and the creation of phylogenetic trees.

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4.3.6 Evidence of Evolution

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Evidence of Evolution
Regarding evolution, it is important to distinguish between two key ideas:
Firstly, the term 'evolution' can refer to the general theory of evolution. This refers to the way in
which species have changed over time and continue to change
Secondly, the term 'evolution' may be used as a shorthand way of referring to the theory of
evolution by natural selection (i.e. the specific process by which evolution occurs)
Although the general idea of evolution was acknowledged at the time, two biologists, named Charles
Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, contributed greatly to developing the specific theory of evolution
by natural selection
Wallace spent many years travelling in South America and South-East Asia and collecting
specimens from these places
Darwin took part in a voyage around the world and collected specimens and information about
many species
These experiences and the notes and samples they collected along the way led to both men
publishing a joint scientific paper proposing their theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858

Darwin's observations
Darwin made several key observations that helped him to develop the theory of evolution by natural
selection, including:
All organisms produce more offspring than could ever actually survive (i.e. not all offspring survive)
Populations of organisms do fluctuate (change over time) but not significantly (i.e. their numbers
usually stay fairly constant)
Populations of the same species of organisms show variation in characteristics between
individuals (known as intraspecific variation)
Offspring inherit characteristics from their parents
The theory of evolution by natural selection is now widely accepted
Two key sources of evidence for this theory include:
Fossil evidence
Molecular evidence (our understanding of genetics has made clear the mechanism by which
natural selection can occur and it has been shown that characteristics are passed on to offspring
in genes)

Fossil evidence for the theory of evolution by natural selection

Fossils are preserved remains of organisms or other features left by organisms, such as footprints,
burrows and faeces

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We can tell from fossils that environments (and the organisms living in these environments) have
changed significantly over millions of years
Fossils, as well as the rocks they are found in, can be dated, allowing us to accurately put fossil Your notes
organisms into a sequence from oldest to youngest (i.e to see how the organisms changed
through evolutionary time)
Fossils also allow us to show similarities between extinct species (i.e. how related they are) and
even between now-extinct, ancestral species and present-day species
All this has provided evidence for the gradual change from simple life forms, such as Archaea and
Bacteria, to complex Eukaryotic life forms and the evolutionary relationships between organisms

Molecular evidence for the theory of evolution by natural selection

DNA found in the nucleus of cells can be sequenced and used to provide evidence of evolutionary
relationships between species and how the genetic code of species has changed as they have
evolved
The differences between the nucleotide sequences in the analogous genes of different species can
provide a lot of information:
The more similar the sequence the more closely related the species are
Two groups of organisms with very similar DNA will have separated into separate species more
recently than two groups with less similarity in their DNA sequences
As a result, DNA sequence analysis and comparison can be used to create phylogenetic trees that
show the evolutionary relationships between species

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4.3.7 Types of Variation

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Types of Variation
The term variation refers to the differences between living organisms
Variation can be:
between different species or within a single species
continuous or discontinuous
caused be genetic and/or environmental factors

Interspecific vs intraspecific variation

Interspecific variation
Interspecific variation is that which exists between individuals of different species
Interspecific variation can be useful for classifying organisms into species groups
Different species may show clear phenotypic variation that can help differentiate them
Some species have such similar phenotypes that they can be very difficult to distinguish, meaning
that genetic variation must be used for classification
Intraspecific variation
Intraspecific variation is that which exists between individuals of the same species
These differences are smaller than those found between individuals of different species
Variation within a species allows natural selection to occur

Discontinuous vs continuous variation

Discontinuous variation
Discontinuous variation refers to differences that fall into discrete and distinguishable categories with
no intermediates
E.g. there are four possible ABO blood groups in humans; a person can only have one of them
Discontinuous variation can be represented using a bar chart with bars that are clearly distinct from
each other

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Blood type is an example of discontinuous varation

Continuous variation
Continuous variation refers to differences that show a range of values and can fall anywhere between
two extremes
E.g. body mass and height are measured on a continuous scale
Continuous variation can be represented on a histogram with bars that touch each other, and will often
show a characteristic bell-shaped curve

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Height is an example of continuous variation

Causes of variation
Variation can be caused by genetic factors, environmental factors or a combination of the two
Causes of discontinuous variation
This type of variation occurs solely due to genetic factors
The environment has no direct effect
Phenotype = genotype
At the genetic level:
Different genes have different effects on the phenotype
Different alleles at a single gene locus have a large effect on the phenotype
Remember diploid organisms will inherit two alleles of each gene, these alleles can be the same or
different
A good example of this is the F8 gene that codes for the blood-clotting protein Factor VIII
The different alleles at the F8 gene locus dictate whether or not normal Factor VIII is produced and
whether the individual has the condition haemophilia

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Causes of continuous variation

This type of variation is caused by an interaction between genetics and the environment Your notes
Phenotype = genotype + environment
At the genetic level:
Different alleles at a single locus have a small effect on the phenotype
Different genes can have the same effect on the phenotype and these add together to have an
additive effect
If a large number of genes have a combined effect on the phenotype they are known as polygenes
Environmental factors
In some cases, phenotypic variation is explained by environmental factors alone
For example, clones of plants with exactly the same genetic information (DNA) will grow to
different heights when grown in different environmental conditions
Different environments around the globe experience very different conditions in terms of the:
Length of sunlight hours (which may be seasonal)
Supply of nutrients (food)
Availability of water
Temperature range
Oxygen levels
Changes in the factors above can affect how organisms grow and develop
For example, plants with a tall genotype growing in an environment that is depleted in minerals,
sunlight and water will not be able to grow to their full potential size determined by genetics
Variation in phenotype caused solely by environmental pressures or factors cannot be inherited by an
organism’s offspring
Only alterations to the genetic component of gametes will ever be inherited
Other examples of environmental variation include:
An accident may lead to scarring on the body
Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain
Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a certain language with a certain accent

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4.3.8 Standard Deviation

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Standard Deviation
Mean
A mean value is what is usually meant when the term “average” is used in biology
Mean = sum of all measurements ÷ number of measurements
Problems with the mean occur when there are one or two unusually high (or low) values in the data
(outliers) which can make the mean too high (or too low) to reflect any patterns in the data
The mean is sometimes referred to as X̄ in calculations

Standard Deviation
The mean is a more informative statistic when it is provided alongside the standard deviation
Standard deviation measures the spread of data around the mean value
It is very useful when comparing consistency between different data sets
The mean must be calculated before working out the standard deviation

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Worked example
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15 rats were timed how long it took them to reach the end of a maze puzzle. Their times, in seconds, are
given below. Find the mean time.
12, 10, 15, 14, 17,
11, 12, 13, 9, 21,
14, 20, 19, 16, 23

Step 1: Calculate the mean

12 + 10 + 15 + 14 + 17 + 11 + 12 + 13 + 9 + 21 + 14 + 20 + 19 + 16 + 23 = 226
226 ÷ 15 = 15.067
Step 2: Round to 3 significant figures
Mean (X̄ ) = 15.1 seconds

Worked example
The ear lengths of a population of rabbits were [Link] lengths (mm): 62, 60, 59, 61, 60, 58, 59,
60, 57, 56, 59, 58, 60, 59, 57Calculate the mean and standard deviation.

Step 1: Calculate the mean

Mean = 885 ÷ 15 = 59 mm
Step 2: Find the difference between each value and the mean
Subtract the mean from each value to find the difference
Example: 62 - 59 = 3
Step 3: Square each difference
Square the difference for each value
Example: 32 = 9
Step 4: Total the differences

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Step 5: Divide the total by (n-1) to get value A

36 ÷ (15 - 1) = 36 ÷ 14 = 2.571
Step 6: Get the square root of value A

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Your notes

Standard Deviation = 1.60

Examiner Tip
Constructing a table like the one above can help you to keep track of all your calculations during the
exam!

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4.3.9 Variation: t-test Method

Your notes
Variation: t-test Method
A statistical test called the t-test can be used to compare the means of two sets of data and
determine whether they are significantly different or not
The formula for the t-test will be provided in the exam, but formulae for how to calculate the
number of degrees of freedom is not provided in the exam and must be learnt
The sets of data must follow a rough normal distribution, be continuous and the standard deviations
should be approximately equal
The standard deviation (s) must be calculated for each data set before the t-test can be carried out
A null hypothesis should also be given
This is a statement of what we would expect if there is no significant difference between two
means, and that any differences seen are due to chance
If there is a statistically significant difference between the means of two sets of data, then the
observation is not down to chance and the null hypothesis can be rejected

Calculating the standard deviation

Using the t-test to compare two means

The steps below outline the general steps in a t test; for a worked example see the next page
Null hypothesis: there is no statistically significant difference between the means of sample 1 and
sample 2

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Step 1: Calculate the mean for each data set:

Your notes

Step 2: Calculate the standard deviation for each set of data, s1 = standard deviation of sample 1 and
s2 = standard deviation of sample 2

Step 3: Square the standard deviation and divide by n (the number of observations) in each sample, for
both samples:

Step 4: Add the values from step 3 together and take the square root:

Step 5: Divide the difference between the two means (see step 1) with the value calculated in step 4 to
get the t value:

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Step 6: Calculate the degrees of freedom (v) for the whole data set (remember the formulae for this
will not be given in the exam):
Your notes

v = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1)
Step 7: Look at a table that relates t values to the probability that the differences between data sets is
due to chance to find where the t value for the degrees of freedom (v) calculated lies

T values table

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Your notes

Step 8: The greater the t value calculated (for any degree of freedom), the lower the probability of
chance causing any significant difference between the two sample means
Identify where the t value calculated lies with respect to the confidence levels provided
If the t value is greater than the critical value (obtained from the table at a probability level of 0.05)
then any difference between the means of the two data sets is said to be statistically significant
There is a less than 5 % probability that any difference is due to chance
The null hypothesis can be rejected

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If the t value is less than the critical value (obtained from the table at a probability level of 0.05)
then there is no significant difference between the means of the two data sets
The probability that any difference is due to chance is higher than 5 % Your notes
The null hypothesis is accepted
Using the table above, if a value of t was calculated to be 2.38 at 5 degrees of freedom, then it lies
between the critical values of 2.02 and 2.57, so the probability that chance produced any difference
between the two means is between 5 and 10 %; this is a higher than 5 % probability that the difference
is due to chance, so the null hypothesis would be accepted and it would be said that there is no
significant difference between the data sets

Examiner Tip
If you need to calculate the t value you will be given the formula in the exam. Generally questions on the
t-test require you to:
Know why a t-test is being used to analyse the data
State the null hypothesis
Know how the degrees of freedom are calculated
State the conclusion (are the differences between the two means significant or not)
You must be careful when giving conclusions to statistical tests; be sure to state that the difference
between data sets is significant, not just that the data is significant.

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4.3.10 Variation: t-test Worked Example

Your notes
Variation: t-test worked example
The t test method can be used to determine whether the means of two data sets are significantly
different

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Worked example
Your notes
The ear lengths of two populations of rabbits were measured.
Ear lengths of population A (mm):
62, 60, 59, 61, 60, 58, 59, 60, 57, 56, 59, 58, 60, 59, 57
Ear lengths of population B (mm):
58, 59, 57, 59, 59, 57, 55, 60, 57, 58, 59, 58, 57, 58, 59
Use the t-test to determine whether there is a significant difference in ear length between the two
populations.
Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the ear lengths of the rabbits in
populations A and B
Sample sizes:
Population A: n1 = 15
Population B: n2 = 15
Step 1: calculate the mean for each data set:
Mean for population A x̅1 = 885 ÷ 15 = 59 mm
Mean for population B x̅2 = 870 ÷ 15 = 58 mm
Step 2: calculate the standard deviation (s) for each data set

Calculate ∑(x - x̄ )2
Population A Population B

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Difference between Difference between

Difference between Difference between
value and mean value and mean
value and mean
squared
value and mean
squared
Your notes
(x - x̄ ) (x - x̄ )
(x - x̄ )2 (x - x̄ )2
62 - 59 = 3 9 58 - 58 = 0 0
60 - 59 = 1 1 59 - 58 = 1 1
59 - 59 = 0 0 57 - 58 = -1 1
61 - 59 = 2 4 59 - 58 = 1 1
60 - 59 = 1 1 59 - 58 = 1 1
58 - 59 = -1 1 57 - 58 = -1 1
59 - 59 = 0 0 55 - 58 = -3 9
60 - 59 = 1 1 60 - 58 = 2 4
57 - 59 = -2 4 57 - 58 = -1 1
56 - 59 = -3 9 58 - 58 = 0 0
59 - 59 = 0 0 59 - 58 = 1 1
58 - 59 = -1 1 58 - 58 = 0 0
60 - 59 = 1 1 57 - 58 = -1 1
59 - 59 = 0 0 58 - 58 = 0 0
57 - 59 = -2 4 59 - 58 = 1 1
Total ∑(x - x̄ )2 36 Total ∑(x - x̄ )2 22

∑ (x − ⎯⎯x) 2
Calculate
n−1
Population A (n1 = 15) Population B (n2 = 15)
n1 - 1 = 14 n2 - 1 = 14
∑(x - x̄ )2 = 36 ∑(x - x̄ )2 = 22

so 36 ÷ 14 = 2.57 so 22 ÷ 14 = 1.57

2. 57 = 1. 60 1. 57 = 1. 25

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∑ (x − ⎯⎯x) 2 ∑ (x − ⎯⎯x) 2
s1 = = 1. 60 s2 = = 1. 25 Your notes
n− 1 n− 1
Steps 3-5: use the standard deviations to complete the t test

Population A Population B

Mean (x̄ ) 59 58

Standard deviation (s) 1.60 1.25

Sample size (n) 15 15

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Your notes

Step 6: calculate the degrees of freedom (v) for the data:

v = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1)
= 14 + 14
= 28
Step 7: determine where the t value lies in relation to values in a critical values table

Degrees of freedom Value of t

28 1.70 2.05 2.76 3.67

Probability that chance would have

0.1 0.05 0.01 0.001
produced this value of t

The t value is 1.90, which falls between 1.70 and 2.05 in the critical values table
In biology we are looking for a less than 5 % probability that any difference between data sets is
due to chance, so we are concerned with whether our t valuer is higher or lower than 2.05
Step 8: draw a conclusion
A conclusion should contain:
A reference to the t value, the critical value, the degrees of freedom and the probability level
Whether or not there is a significant difference between the means of the two data sets
Whether the null hypothesis is accepted or rejected
The t value of 1.90 is less than the critical value of 2.05 at 28 df and a probability level of 0.05

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There is no significant difference between the data sets and we can accept the null hypothesis. Any
difference between the mean ear lengths of population A and population B is due to chance.
Your notes

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4.3.11 Spearman's Rank Correlation

Your notes
Spearman's Rank Correlation
Spearman’s rank correlation determines whether there is correlation between variables that don’t
show a normal distribution
Method:
Step 1: Create a scatter graph and identify possible linear correlation
Step 2: State a null hypothesis
Step 3: Use the following equation to work out Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient r

Where:
rs = spearman’s rank coefficient
D = difference in rank
n = number of samples
Step 4: Refer to a table that relates critical values of rs to levels of probability
If the value calculated for Spearman’s rank is greater than the critical value for the number of samples in
the data ( n ) at the 0.05 probability level (p), then the null hypothesis can be rejected, meaning there is
a correlation between two variables

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Worked example
Your notes
A student conducted an experiment using quadrats to measure the abundance of different plant
species in a neglected allotment. They wanted to see if there was correlation between the abundance
of species C and D. When they looked at their data and plotted a scatter graph they saw some
[Link] the possible correlation using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient.

Scatter graph showing the correlation between the abundance of species C and species D

As the data was not normally distributed they decided to use Spearman’s rank correlation
coefficient.
Null hypothesis: there is no correlation between the abundance of species A and species B.
n = 10 as there are 10 quadrat samples

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Your notes

Step 1: Rank each set of data (rank 1 being the smallest data figure)
Step 2: Find the difference in rank between the two species, D
Step 3: Square the difference in rank, D2 (= 6)
Step 4: Substitute the appropriate numbers into the equation (remember n = 10)

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Your notes

Step 5: Refer to a table that relates values of rs to probability. Look for the 0.05 probability level
with n = 10

As Rs = 0.964, it is greater than the critical value of 0.65. The null hypothesis can be rejected, there
is a genuine positive correlation between the abundance of species A and B

Examiner Tip
You will be provided with the formula for Spearman’s rank correlation in the exam. You need to be able
to carry out the calculation to test for correlation, as you could be asked to do this in the exam. You
should understand when it is appropriate to use the different statistical tests that crop up in this topic,
and the conditions in which each is [Link] does not always mean causation. Just because
there is a correlation between the abundance of species A and species B it does not mean that the
presence of species A causes the presence of species B.

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4.3.12 Adaptation
Your notes
Types of adaptations
The term adaptation can be defined as:
A characteristics that aids an organism's survival in its environment
Adaptations can be:
anatomical
Physical features of an organism
E.g. the white fur of a polar bear provides camouflage in the snow so it has less chance of
being detected by prey
physiological
Biological processes within an organism
E.g. mosquitos produce chemicals that stoa host's blood from clotting when they bite so that
they can feed more easily
behavioural
The way an organism behaves
E.g. reptiles bask in the sun to absorb heat
Types of adaptations table

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Your notes

Convergent evolution
Organisms from different taxonomic groups may show similar adaptations even though they do not
share a recent common ancestor
Shared adaptations between unrelated organisms arise due to convergent evolution
Convergent evolution occurs by natural selection as follows:
two species live in different parts of the world with similar environments
the species deal with the same selection pressures
the same characteristics are advantageous in the two environments, so individuals with these
characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce
over time the advantageous characteristics become widespread in both populations

Examiner Tip
You may be asked to identify whether an adaptation is anatomical, physiological or behavioural so
make sure you have a good grasp of the differences between them. Learning an example for each can
sometimes help you, as you then have them for comparison in an exam.

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4.3.13 Natural Selection

Your notes
Effects of Natural Selection
Genetic variation
Organisms of the same species have very similar genomes, but two individuals (even twins) will have
differences between their DNA base sequences
These differences in DNA base sequences between individual organisms within a species population
are called genetic variation
Genetic variation is transferred from one generation to the next and results in genetic diversity within a
species

Effects of genetic variation

There needs to be some level of genetic diversity within a population for natural selection to occur
Differences in the alleles possessed by individuals within a population result in differences in
phenotypes
Some phenotypes may be advantageous, disadvantageous or neutral, compared to other
phenotypes
Selection pressures increase the chance of individuals with a specific (more advantageous)
phenotype surviving and reproducing over others
The individuals with the favoured phenotypes are described as having a higher fitness
The fitness of an organism is defined as its ability to survive and pass on its alleles to offspring
Organisms with higher fitness possess adaptations that make them better suited to their
environment
A population with a large gene pool or high genetic diversity has a strong ability to adapt to change
If a population has a small gene pool or very low genetic diversity then they are much less able to adapt
to changes in the environment and so can become vulnerable to extinction
Cheetahs are an example of a species with a small gene pool
They experienced a very large decline in numbers approximately 10,000 years ago
This left small, fragmented populations of individuals remaining
There was no mixing between populations and large amounts of inbreeding occurred
This is problematic for conservation as low genetic variation means the species are less likely to be
able to respond (survive) in the event of any environmental changes

Environmental factors
Environmental factors affect the chance of survival of an organism - they act as a selection pressure

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Every individual within a species population has the potential to reproduce and have offspring which
contribute to population growth
If all the offspring of every individual survived to adulthood and reproduced, the population would Your notes
experience exponential growth
This type of growth only happens when there are no environmental factors or population checks
acting on the population (for example, when there are plentiful resources and no disease)
One well known but rare example of exponential growth in a population is the introduction of 24
European rabbits into Australia in the 1800s. The rabbits had an abundance of resources, little or no
competition and no natural predators. This meant the population increased rapidly and they
became a major pest
In reality, there are several environmental factors that prevent every individual in a population
making it to adulthood and reproducing

Exponential growth in a population of rabbits that have no environmental checks

Natural selection
The main processes resulting in natural selection are as follows:
Random mutation can produce new alleles of a gene
Many mutations are harmful or neutral but, under certain environmental conditions, the new alleles
may benefit their possessor, leading to an increased chance of survival and increased
reproductive success
The advantageous allele is passed onto the next generation
As a result, over several generations, the new allele will increase in frequency in the population

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Example of natural selection in rabbits

Variation in fur colour exists within rabbit populations Your notes
At a single gene locus, normal brown fur is produced by a dominant allele whereas white fur is
produced by a recessive allele in a homozygous individual
Rabbits have natural predators like foxes which act as a selection pressure
Rabbits with a white coat do not camouflage as well as rabbits with brown fur, meaning predators are
more likely to see white rabbits when hunting
As a result, rabbits with white fur are less likely to survive than rabbits with brown fur
Therefore, the rabbits with brown fur have a selection advantage, so they are more likely to survive to
reproductive age and be able to pass on their alleles to their offspring
Over many generations, the frequency of alleles for brown fur will increase and the frequency of
alleles for white fur will decrease

Selective pressures acting on a rabbit population for one generation. Predation by foxes causes the
frequency of brown fur alleles in rabbits to increase and the frequency of white fur alleles in rabbits to
decrease.

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Exams often ask questions about how the process of natural selection occurs for a certain species.
The principles of natural selection described above are always the same! You just need to edit the
details to make them specific to the question:
Within a species, there is always variation and chance mutation
Some individuals will develop a phenotype (characteristic) that gives them a survival advantage
and this allows them to:
live longer
breed more
be more likely to pass their genes on
Repeated over generations, the ‘mutated’ phenotype will become the norm
If genetic differences accumulate and the population is isolated then a new species may evolve
Remember, it is the concept you have to understand, not a specific example. You will be expected to
use unfamiliar information to explain how selection produces changes within a population of a species
and interpret data relating to the effect of selection in producing change within populations.

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4.3.14 Evolution of Resistance

Your notes
Evolution of Resistance
Antibiotics
When humans experience a pathogenic bacterial infection they are often prescribed drugs known as
antibiotics by a healthcare professional
Antibiotics are chemical substances that inhibit or kill bacterial cells with little or no harm to human
tissue
Antibiotics are derived from naturally occurring substances that are harmful to prokaryotic cells
(structurally or physiologically) but usually do not affect eukaryotic cells
The aim of antibiotic use is to aid the body’s immune system in fighting a bacterial infection
Penicillin is a well-known example; it was the first antibiotic to be discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander
Fleming

Drug resistance in microorganisms

Within a bacterial population, there is variation caused by mutations (as occurs in populations of all
species)
A chance mutation might cause some bacteria to become resistant to an antibiotic (eg. penicillin)
When the population is treated with this antibiotic, the resistant bacteria do not die
For example, a mutation may change an existing gene within the bacterial genome, causing it to
give rise to a nucleotide sequence that codes for a slightly different protein that is not affected by
the antibiotic being used
This means the resistant bacteria can continue to reproduce with less competition from the non-
resistant bacteria, which are now dead
Therefore the genes for antibiotic resistance are passed on with a much greater frequency to the next
generation
As bacteria only have one copy of each gene, a mutant gene will have an immediate effect on any
bacterium possessing it
Over time, the whole population of bacteria becomes antibiotic-resistant because the antibiotic-
resistant bacteria are best suited to their environment
This is an example of evolution by natural selection
Some pathogenic bacteria have become resistant to penicillin as they have acquired genes that code
for the production of the enzyme β-lactamase (also known as penicillinase), which breaks down
penicillin

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Your notes

Bacteria evolve rapidly as they reproduce quickly and acquire random mutations – some of which
confer resistance

How bacteria inherit antibiotic resistance

There are two ways in which a bacterium inherits resistance to an antibiotic:

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Vertical transmission
Horizontal transmission
In vertical transmission: Your notes
Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission (the DNA of the bacterial
chromosome is replicated and the bacterial cell divides in two, with each
daughter cell receiving a copy of the chromosome)
Bacteria reproduce like this very rapidly (on average, every 20 minutes)
If one bacterium contains a mutant gene that gives it antibiotic resistance, all of its descendants
(millions of which can be produced in a matter of hours) will also have the antibiotic resistance
This form of transmission enables antibiotic resistance to spread within a bacterial population
In horizontal transmission:
Plasmids (the small rings of DNA present in bacterial cells) often contain antibiotic-resistant genes
These plasmids are frequently transferred between bacteria (even from one species to another)
This occurs during conjugation (when a thin tube forms between two bacteria to allow the
exchange of DNA) – DNA from the bacterial chromosome can also be transferred in this way
In this way, a bacterium containing a mutant gene that gives it antibiotic resistance could pass this
gene on to other bacteria (even those from a different species). This is how ‘superbugs’ with
multiple resistance have developed (e.g. methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – MRSA)
This form of transmission enables antibiotic resistance to spread within or between bacterial
populations

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Your notes

Antibiotic resistance in bacteria can spread by vertical or horizontal transmission

Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an example of natural selection that humans have helped to develop.
This is due to the overuse of antibiotics in situations where they were not really necessary or the
incorrect use of antibiotics, for example:
For treatment of non-serious infections
Routine treatment of animals in agriculture
Failure to finish the prescribed course of antibiotics

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A variety of steps can be taken to reduce cases of antibiotic resistance, including:

Only prescribing antibiotics when absolutely necessary
Ensure patients complete courses of antibiotics Your notes
Rotate which antibiotics are used so that one type is not continuously used in the treatment of a
specific disease
Hold back some antibiotics from being used at all so they are available as a 'last resort'
More investment in research into new antibiotics

Pesticide resistance in insects

Pesticides are chemicals that kill pests of any kind, including insect pests, pathogenic organisms or
weeds
There are various types of pesticides, including:
Insecticides (kill insect pests)
Herbicides (kill plant pests)
Fungicides (kill fungal pests)
Molluscicides (kill slug and snail pests)
Rodenticides (kill rodent pests)
A major global use of pesticides is in the control of insect pests that consume or otherwise damage
human food crops (e.g. Colorado beetles that eat potato crops) or insects that are vectors of disease
(e.g. Anopheles mosquitos that transmit malaria)
In a similar way to antibiotic resistance in bacteria, insecticides that are sprayed on crops act as
selective agents
A selective agent is any environmental factor that influences the survival of a particular species
and so drives natural selection in that species
For example, any insect that has a mutation making them resistant to the insecticide will survive
and reproduce, passing on the resistant gene

Examiner Tip
Remember, vertical transmission is only responsible for passing on antibiotic resistance within a single
bacterial population, whereas horizontal transmission can spread antibiotic resistance within a single
bacterial population, between two populations of the same species of bacteria, or occasionally
between populations of different species of bacteria.

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4.3.15 Consequences of Resistance

Your notes
Consequences of Resistance
Consequences of antibiotic resistance
Antibiotic-resistant strains are a major problem in human medicine
New resistant strains are constantly emerging due to the overuse of antibiotics
By using antibiotics frequently, humans exert a selective pressure on the bacteria, which supports
the evolution of antibiotic resistance
Scientists are trying hard to find new antibiotics that bacteria have not yet been exposed to, but this
process is expensive and time-consuming
Some strains of bacteria can be resistant to multiple antibiotics and they create infections and
diseases which are very difficult to treat
When antibiotics were discovered, scientists thought they would be able to eradicate bacterial
infections, but less than a century later a future is being imagined where many bacterial infections
cannot be treated with current medicines
Commonly prescribed antibiotics are becoming less effective for many reasons, the main
being:
Overuse of antibiotics and antibiotics being prescribed when not necessary
Large scale use of antibiotics in farming to prevent disease when livestock are kept in close
quarters, even when animals are not sick
These factors have led to a reduction in the effectiveness of antibiotics, and an increase in the
incidence of antibiotic resistance
These bacteria are commonly known as superbugs
The most common example is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus that has developed resistance to a
powerful antibiotic called methicillin as well as other antibiotics (eg. penicillin) and is now known as
MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus)
Bacteria living where there is widespread use of many different antibiotics may have plasmids
containing resistance genes for several different antibiotics, giving them multiple resistance and
presenting a significant problem for doctors
In addition, resistance may first appear in a non-pathogenic bacterium, but then be passed on to a
pathogenic species by horizontal transmission
There is a constant race to find new antibiotics as resistant strains are continuously evolving

Reducing antibiotic resistance & its impact

Ways to prevent the incidence of antibiotic resistance increasing include:
Tighter controls in countries in which antibiotics are sold without a doctor’s prescription
Doctors avoiding the overuse of antibiotics, prescribing them only when needed (patients must
only be given antibiotics when absolutely essential) – doctors should test the bacteria first to make
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sure that they prescribe the correct antibiotic

Antibiotics not being used in non-serious infections that the immune system will ‘clear up’
(patients must not keep unused antibiotics for self-medication of such non-serious infections in Your notes
the future)
When prescribed a course of antibiotics, the patient finishing the entire course (even if they feel
better after a few days) so that all the bacteria are killed, and none are left to mutate to become
resistant strains
Antibiotics not being used for viral infections (antibiotics have no effect on viruses anyway, and
this just provides an unnecessary chance for bacteria to develop resistance)
The use of ‘wide-spectrum’ antibiotics being reduced and instead those antibiotics that are
highly specific to the infection (‘narrow-spectrum’ antibiotics) being used
The type of antibiotics prescribed being changed so that the same antibiotic is not always
prescribed for the same infections and diseases (this reduces the chance of a resistant strain
developing)
The use of antibiotics being reduced and more tightly controlled in industries such as agriculture –
controls are now in place to limit their use in farming, where antibiotics are used to prevent, rather
than cure, bacterial infections
The spread of already-resistant strains can be limited by:
Ensuring good hygiene practices such as handwashing and the use of hand sanitisers (this has
reduced the rates of resistant strains of bacteria, such as MRSA, in hospitals)
Isolating infected patients to prevent the spread of resistant strains, in particular in surgical wards
where MRSA can infect surgical wounds

Consequences of pesticide resistance

Pesticide resistance in insects is a problem for the security of future food supplies for human
populations, especially those that already face food shortages
Again, in a similar way to the use of antibiotics against bacteria, insecticides should be used sparingly
or on rotation to avoid the evolution of resistance in pest insect populations
Using a combination of pesticides can delay the emergence and spread of resistance in pest insect
populations
Farmers are also encouraged to use other forms of insect pest control, such as:
Biological control (introducing a natural parasite or predator of the pest insect)
Using crops that have been selectively bred or genetically modified to be pest-resistant

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