THE WHAT AND WHY OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

“For a human being, learning is not only being taught. It is more like breathing.”
WHY STUDY CHILD DEVELOPMENT?
• To make parents and educators Knowledgeable so they can provide essential
experiences that promote early brain development and long-term outcomes.
• To make early childhood educators strongly understand the child development so they
are better equipped to match individual needs with appropriate expectations,
educational practices, emotional support, and social interactions for optimal growth.
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF EARLY LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
• The Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the National Research Council (NRC) (2015)
report outlines key aspects of early learning and development, highlighting what
children need and how adults can meet those needs, supported by relevant
systems and policies.
• Learning is active, foundational, continuous and most importantly it is cumulative.
It begins as the fetus starts to perceive sounds and light, rhythms, and flavors.
Learning is also a continuous, dynamic interaction among experiences, gene
expression, and brain development.
• There are Four major domains of child development, physical, social-emotional,
cognitive, language and literacy. Each domain is crucial to early learning, and each
has specific developmental paths. learning and development occur simultaneously
across domains.
• Cognitive Domain: The child is processing information, recognizing letter
shapes, and understanding the connection between symbols and sounds.
• Fine Motor Domain: The child uses hand-eye coordination and fine motor
skills to control the pencil and accurately form the letters.
• Language and Literacy Domain: The child is developing early literacy
skills by learning letter recognition and phonemic awareness.
• Social-Emotional Domain: The child may be building confidence and a
sense of accomplishment as they master new skills, as well as potentially
interacting with others if this activity is done in a group setting.
• Stress and adversity can become a challenge to learning and harm well-being.
These effects may be moderated with the support of a responsive, nurturing adult,
that is why there should be responsive Relationships, High-Quality, Positive
Learning Interactions, and Environments ever since foundations of learning.
• All learning is based in culture, ever since they are born, children learn the rules,
values, and beliefs of their culture. That is why Culture becomes a filter for what
children are directed to learn.
GENE EXPRESSION
Gene expression plays a crucial role in child development by guiding cell differentiation
and growth. It helps shape physical traits, brain development, and immune function.
Environmental factors, such as nutrition and stress, can influence gene expression,
affecting cognitive abilities, behavior, and overall health. Understanding gene expression
highlights how both genetics and the environment interact to shape a child's development.
Gene expression is the process by which genetic information is used to create functional
products, usually proteins. It occurs in two main steps:
1. Transcription – DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA), that serves as
temporary copy of the gene’s information.
2. Translation – The mRNA is used to assemble a protein.
EARLY LEARNING GUIDELINES AND OUTCOME STANDARDS.
resources that help early childhood educators identify developmental and learning
outcomes and goals for young children, serving as a roadmap for evidence-based
practices.
• No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 was requiring each state to develop
content and academic achievement standards (K-12)
• National Governor’s Association and the Council of Chief State School Officers
developed a set of outcome standards - Common Core of State Standards
(CCSS)
• Good Start, Grow Smart (GSGS) — passed by Congress in 2002, Early childhood
version of NCLB. 3- and 4-year-olds in English/language arts and math
THE EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT PROFESSION
• The study of children development began in the late 1700s, an educator should be
focused on developmental appropriateness (which is that learning should be
appropriate depending of the individual age and cultural background).
• There are Six Core Standards designed to guide early childhood educators in
developing the knowledge and skills needed to support young children’s learning and
development effectively.
• Standard 1: Promoting Child Development and Learning, Educators must
understand how young children grow and develop in different contexts.
• Standard 2: Building Family and Community Relationships, Educators should
build strong, respectful relationships with families and involve them in their
child’s education.
• Standard 3: Observing, Documenting, and Assessing to Support Young
Children and Families, Educators need to use observation and assessment
tools to understand children’s progress.
• Standard 4: Using Developmentally Effective Approaches to Connect with
Children and Families, Educators should design engaging and inclusive
learning experiences that consider children’s diverse backgrounds.
 • Standard 5: Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum,
Educators must understand core academic subjects (math, literacy, science,
social studies, arts) and integrate them into developmentally appropriate
activities.
• Standard 6: Becoming a Professional, Educators should demonstrate ethical
behavior, ongoing professional growth, and advocacy for young children.
INCLUSION OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
Inclusion refers to procedures and curricular means for ensuring that all children are fully
accepted members of the programs and communities in which they participate.
• There are some Legislation and Federal Laws that talk about inclusion of children
o The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a U.S. federal
law passed in 1991, reauthorized in 2004 that ensures students with
disabilities receive free and appropriate public education (FAPE) tailored to
their individual needs. It requires schools to provide special education
services and accommodations to eligible children from birth to age 21.
o The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is a U.S. civil rights law passed
in 1991 that states that early childhood programs must be provide services
to young children with or at risk for developmental delays or disabilities
• There are also some institutions that help to make standards for early childhood
special education/early intervention professionals.
o The Division for Early Childhood (DEC) is a subdivision of the Council
for Exceptional Children (CEC) that focuses on young children (birth to
age 8) with disabilities and their families. It promotes policies, practices, and
research to support early intervention and special education services. use
strategies to facilitate integration into various settings. They plan,
implement, and evaluate developmentally appropriate curriculum,
instruction, and adaptations
• Benefits of inclusion: by creating an inclusive environment you as a teacher are
supporting children with disabilities to, promote significant developmental progress,
show better cognitive and communication development. Increase their level of
engagement, you are also helping them to enhance the growth and learning,
leading to better academic and social outcomes, improving social interactions and
reducing stigmatization, achieving positive outcomes for children with disabilities.
diminishing if children are later placed in restrictive settings, gaining
developmental, social, and attitudinal benefits. fostering compassion, empathy,
and positive perceptions of disabilities among typically developing children and
helping typically developing children better understand diversity and disability.
EVOLUTION OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT STUDY (PIONEERS OF CD)
• John Locke (1632–1704), Advocated humane treatment of young children.
Suggested that a child’s environmental experience influences knowledge
development. Described the newborn’s mind as a “empty slate”, where knowledge is
written based on sensory experiences.
• Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) Dispelled the view that children were
miniature adults. Believed children are innately good and that development follows
natural laws. Identified distinct developmental stages: birth to age 5, ages 5-12, 12-15,
15-20, and 20+. Emphasized education must begin at birth.
• Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827) Published a study on his son, emphasizing early
childhood development. Highlighted the importance of sensory stimulation for physical,
mental, and moral development.
• Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Published a record of his son’s development and On
the Origin of Species (1859). Proposed that the living world is dynamic and adaptive,
influencing the scientific study of children. His theories led to the study of human
adaptive characteristics.
• G. Stanley Hall (1846–1924) Applied the scientific method to study child development.
Published The Contents of Children’s Minds (1893), used for training students in child
studies.
• Lawrence K. Frank (1890–1968) Influenced the establishment of institutes to study
child development post-World War I. After World War II, interest in child development
research grew, resulting in numerous theories on child development and learning.
THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
• Attachment Theory: by John Bowlby (1907-1990) and Mary Ainsworth (1913-
1999) Early attachment experiences influence children's present and later lives.
Support healthy attachments among parents/teachers and children. There are
different attachment patterns that occur.
• Behaviorism Theory: by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), John B. Watson (1878-1958)
and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Children learn through external forces such as
reward and punishment. Create objectives for child learning. Reward and punish
children to ensure desired behavior. Use behavior modification strategies for
behavior.
• Cognitive Developmental/Constructivist Theory: by Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
and Jerome Bruner (b. 1915-). There is a focus on the invariance of cognitive
stages of development and how each stage is qualitatively different from other
stages. Children learn through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.
Observe children's stages of development and interact accordingly. Encourage
children to explore the environment and discover and construct knowledge through
activity and mental operations. There is a focus on discovery learning and how
culture shapes the mind. Scaffold children's learning to build on previous
knowledge. Promote discovery learning. Understand that learning always occurs
within a cultural context.
• Cognitive, Action Representation Theory: (no author?). A key process for
learning is imitation. Provide opportunities for children to imitate adults and peers.
• Cognitive, Core Systems Theory: by Elizabeth Spelke (b. 1949-). Evolution
produced core systems of knowledge or heightened abilities to learn concepts most
tied to survival. Infants have surprising capabilities, such as understanding that
others have goals and an ability to orient themselves in space. Respect the infant's
ability to learn. Recognize that knowledge builds over time and through experience.
• Cognitive, Multiple Intelligences Theory: by Howard Gardner (b. 1943-). Nine
qualitatively different kinds of intelligence exist. Learning experiences should match
the child's intelligence style; however, Gardner recommends that teachers help
children expand on all of the types of intelligence.
• Cognitive, Neo-constructivism Theory: by Nora S. Newcombe (b. 1951-). The
biologically prepared mind acts in evolved ways with an ever-changing
environment. The brain is ready to learn, and experiences provide information.
Teachers who use guided discovery methods rather than pure discovery strategies
enhance children's learning.
• Social Cognitive Theory: by Albert Bandura (b. 1925-). Individuals are self-
organizing and reflective. They can self-regulate their thoughts and actions. Self-
efficacy is important. Children learn by observing and imitating others. Modeling for
children is crucial. Promote children's self-efficacy as learners through problem
solving and reflection.
• Cognitive, The New Science of Learning Theory: by Andrew Meltzoff (b. 1950-
). Learning is computational and social. Offer young children interesting cognitive,
language, and social interactions and materials from which they can develop
conclusions.
• Contextual, Bioecological Systems Theory: by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-
2005). There are interactions among biological factors, the child's immediate family
and community, and societal and cultural factors. Every level of influence affect
children's learning, growth, and development. Adults pay attention to all of the
systems of influence, including family life and support for families in a society.
• Contextual, Dynamic Systems Theory: by Esther Thelen (1941-2004) and Karen
Adolph (b. 1963-). There is a focus on how brain structures change with use and
the challenges posed in context. Learning experiences may challenge the child in
ways that cause fundamental brain and behavior change.
• Contextual, Relationship-Based Theory: by Robert Hinde (b. 1923-) and Joan
Hinde (b. 1933-). The focus is on how the child exists within a system of
relationships and the dimensions of those relationships. Adults focus on the role of
meaningful, ongoing relationships.
• Contextual, Sociocultural Theory: by Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). The emphasis
is on the ability to think. Learning is a result of human interaction, culture, and social
experiences. Adults and more skilled peers scaffold new information to make it
accessible. Use the concept of zone of proximal development to enhance learning.
• Family Systems Theory: by Murray Bowen (1913-1990). Individuals must be
understood within the context of family-the emotional unit. Consider the child within
the family context. Learn families' roles, rules, and relationship agreements.
• Humanistic Theory: by Carl Rogers (1902-1987). People are innately good. The
self exists in a constantly changing world of experience, and the child knows the
most about his or her own experience. Have compassion and respect for the child's
 needs, abilities, interests, and learning styles. Promote children's self-efficacy. self-
actualization and self-direction.
• Humanistic, Hierarchy of Needs Theory: by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970).
Human beings have basic needs that are graduated to self-actualization. Needs
must be met in order for children to achieve self-actualization. Meet young
children's needs for safety and belonging during the early years.
• Humanistic, Positive Psychology theory: by Martin Seligman (b. 1942-).
Happiness has three dimensions: the pleasant life, the good life, and the
meaningful life. Help children appreciate such basic pleasures as companionship,
the natural environment, and our bodily needs.
• Maturational Theory: by Arnold Gesell (1880-1961). All areas of development are
important with an emphasis on physical growth and abilities. A child learns at his
or her own pace. Allow children to mature. Observe and provide an environment
with many learning opportunities.
• Perceptual Learning Theory: by Eleanor Gibson (1910-2002). This ecological
approach proposes that perception leads action and is the foundation for learning.
Provide many opportunities for young children to experience life with all of their
senses.
• Psychosocial Theory: by Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Stages of social and
emotional development and the effects of early relationships are emphasized. Meet
children's psychological needs for trust, autonomy, and independence.
• Unified Theory (Transactional Theory): by Arnold Sameroff (b. 1937-). Parents'
child-rearing beliefs and behavior, children's characteristics and behavior, and the
quality of the environment have effects on each other and on the child's
development. Both children and contexts influence each other. Notice the
interrelationships of child, teacher, and environment. Consider both risk and
resiliency factors and that an accumulation of risk factors has consequences for
children's developmental outcomes.
FAMILY SYSTEMS THEORY
A family is a unit of interdependent individuals.
PREGNANCY
A healthy pregnancy depends on access to prenatal medical care, good nutrition, oral
health, and the ability to prepare oneself emotionally.
PRENATAL HEALTH CARE
An expectant mother should seek professional prenatal health care as soon as she
suspects that she is pregnant, and throughout pregnancy. basic physical tests and blood
tests for abnormalities and other infections.
PERINATAL: PREPARING FOR PARENTHOOD
Perinatal: the period encompassing the weeks before a birth, the birth, and the few weeks
thereafter
Expectant mothers go through physical and hormonal changes, mood swings and feelings
of sleepiness, irritability, or mild depression, they are developing a sense of self as parent
and develop strong spousal support helps reduce anxiety
Expectant fathers are developing a sense of self as parent and partner
The total money it takes to raise a baby in the USA is $301, 970 with inflation, it is 233,610.
That it is why Living in poverty most highly influences the outcomes for children. They
were 37.3 Million people in poverty in 2020 (U.S Census) For a family of 4, income under
$23,850. 1 child in every 4 under 6 years was living in poverty. 1 in 5 children between
the ages of 6 and 17 are living in poverty (ChildStats, 2014).
POST NATAL
Assessment of Newborns
Apgar Score (Dr. Virginia Apgar, 1953) Observing the newborn at 1, 5, and sometimes 15
minutes after birth
• Appearance (skin color)
• Pulse (heart rate)
• Grimace (reaction to slight pain)
• Activity (motor responsiveness and tone)
• Respiration (breathing adequacy)
Each category receives 0, 1, or 2 points, 7 or more - doing well, 5--7 - a need for some
type of additional care. 4 or less - require immediate medical attention
ASSESSMENT OF NEWBORNS

The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) is a test developed by T.

Berry Brazelton to evaluate newborns' neurological development, reflexes, and social
interactions. Administered within the first two months of life, it assesses 28 behavioral
responses (such as alertness and crying) and 18 reflexes (like sucking and grasping) to
understand how an infant interacts with their environment. While not a diagnostic tool, the
NBAS helps identify a baby’s strengths, needs, and temperament, providing valuable
insights for parents and healthcare professionals to support early development.

Assessment of newborns is Rooted in culture: Individualist vs. Collectivist Cultures

• Individualist Cultures (e.g., U.S., Northern Europe): Value individual over group.
Emphasize personal responsibility, independence, competition, and production.
• Collectivist Cultures (e.g., Africa, Asia, Southern Europe): Value group over
individual. Emphasize interdependent relationships, process over product.
PARENTING STYLES:

• Authoritarian – A strict, controlling parenting style where parents enforce rigid

rules and high expectations. They emphasize obedience and discipline, often with
little warmth or flexibility. Children may become obedient but might struggle with
self-esteem and decision-making.
• Permissive – A lenient and indulgent approach where parents set few rules and
rarely enforce consequences. They are warm and nurturing but lack structure,
which can lead to children having difficulty with self-discipline and respecting
boundaries.
• Authoritative – A balanced parenting style that combines warmth and support with
clear rules and expectations. Parents encourage independence while maintaining
reasonable limits. This style is often linked to positive child development, fostering
confidence, responsibility, and good social skills.
• Neglecting (or Neglectful) – A detached and uninvolved parenting style where
parents provide little guidance, attention, or emotional support. Children raised this
way may struggle with self-esteem, relationships, and emotional regulation due to
a lack of parental involvement.
• Over-involved (or Helicopter Parenting) – A highly controlling and protective
style where parents excessively intervene in their child's life, making decisions for
them and shielding them from challenges. While well-intended, this can hinder a
child’s independence, resilience, and problem-solving skills.

FAMILY DYNAMICS AT BIRTH

• Establishing a New Social System: Birth creates new relationships and roles
within the family. Reactions vary based on pregnancy and birth experiences, family
size, values, and health status.
• Bonding: Defined as a complex psychobiological connection between parent and
infant. Involves feelings of commitment and closeness.
• Parental Adjustment: New parents may feel overwhelmed by the realities of
parenting.
• "Baby Blues" refers to a common, temporary emotional state that many new
mothers experience after childbirth, characterized by mood swings, sadness,
anxiety, irritability, and fatigue. It typically begins a few days after delivery and lasts
for about two weeks, caused by hormonal changes Affects 26% to 85% of new
mothers. Symptoms: feeling overwhelmed, exhausted, irritable (lasts ~2 weeks).
10%-20% Postpartum Depression
• Fatherhood: Motivations for becoming fathers include increased status, pleasure
in interactions, and strengthening relationships. The father should EAR.
• Engagement: Time spent in caregiving and play.
• Accessibility: Being available for the child.
• Responsibility: Making decisions for the child.
 • Siblings’ Adjustment: Siblings may struggle with the arrival of a new baby.
Parents can help by: Discussing the baby’s needs. Involving older siblings in
decision-making. Highlighting the infant’s interest in the older sibling.
ROLE OF THE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROFESSIONAL
• Understand: factors influencing optimal prenatal development and successful
deliveries.
• Provide: information to parents on early growth and development, emphasizing
the critical first three years.
• Guide: parents in understanding and addressing sibling reactions to a new
baby; offer tips for preparing and helping siblings adjust.
• Respond: empathetically to changes in young children's classroom behavior
following a sibling's birth.
• Familiarize: yourself with community resources for families with infants,
especially those with special needs, and share this information when needed.
THE BRAIN OF THE INFANT
• Infant brain begins to develop at three weeks and continues to develop throughout
one’s lifetime.
• It grows the fastest prenatally and during the first three years of life!
• 1st year: brain volume grows by 101% (2-thirds of its adult size; grey matter
(containing neuronal cells) has increased by 149% (Knickmeyer et al.,
2008). 2nd year, 4-fifths of its adult size.
• Genetic expression and epigenetic changes account for the basic structure of the
brain.
• Prenatally and in infancy experiences build the structure of the brain by forming
synapses and each sensory experience is recorded in a neuron, or brain cell.
• internal experiences such as feelings and hunger
• external experiences such as opportunities to explore, move, interact, and
hear language
PERCEPTUAL LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
• Perception is the nervous system communicating an event to a sensory organ and that
organ communicating the information to the brain. The brain organizes and processes
the information and plans an action.
• Development of perception begins as the infant seeks and receives information
through the senses.
• Five senses: touch, taste, seeing, hearing, and smell.
• Touch- sense of touch emerges between 7 ½ and 14 weeks of embryonic
development.
• Sense of touch around the mouth area is important (for nursing).
• Touch plays a significant role in infant development – linked to early language
acquisition. (e.g., Receptive language)
• Study by Diego and Field (2007) found that infant massage was related to
higher weight gain.
• Skin-to-skin holding (or kangaroo care) : infants scored higher, more inclined to
hold their gaze on their mothers
• Vision- although infants can see at birth, they tend to be nearsighted.
• They are learning to coordinate the use of their eyes.
• By 10 to 11 months, infants use their visual skills to learn about objects in their
world.
• They follow the gaze of an adult.
• Infants prefer bold patterns and colors! (human faces, active, smiling, talking,
blinking, or laughing faces, edges of the designs, the point where two contrasts
come together, prefer blue and green objects over red…)
• Hearing- a fetus can hear by at least 30 weeks!
• A newborn can hear fairly well and are responsive to human voice.
• Infants are startled by loud sounds, soothed by soft sounds.
• Newborns can differentiate between sounds and prefer the sounds of their own
language and their mother’s voice (McGaha, 2003).
• It is important to screen infants for hearing loss before they are 6 months old
otherwise it can lead to developmental delays. every state and territory in the
United States has an Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI) program.
• Taste- infants are very aware of different tastes.
• Taste of milk elicits a response of satisfaction.
• They prefer sweet tastes and usually will reject sour, bitter or salty tasting foods.
• An infant might be more prone to favor foods that are typical to their culture.
(Flavors of mother’s diet are carried in amniotic fluids- breast milk also carries
these flavors.)
• Smell- infants can sense a variety of scents and turn away from odors such as
vinegar and alcohol.
• Odors motivate babies to move.
• Turn towards the smell of mother. (Newborns’ sense of smell may be why
newborns who are placed on their mother’s stomach immediately after birth
move toward the mother’s breasts and begin feeding.
ATTACHMENT THEORY
• Attachment emerges during the first year.
• Based on the quality of the interactions between the child and parent (or caregiver).
• Bowlby- psychiatrist conducted research on attachment and separations in the
1950’s and 1960’s.
• Addresses development of sense of safety the child feels, when in proximity to
caregiver.
John Bowlby’s early research focused on mother-child attachment and separation
• Around 8 months of age: Stranger anxiety- fear of strangers, characterized by
avoidance, crying, or other distress signals. Separation Anxiety- fear of being
away from the attached person.
THREE TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

• Secure Attachment – A healthy attachment style where a child feels safe, valued,
and confident that their caregiver will meet their needs. These children explore their
environment freely but seek comfort from their caregiver when needed. As adults,
they tend to have stable, trusting relationships.
• Insecure Avoidant Attachment – A style where children learn to be independent
and avoid seeking comfort from caregivers because their emotional needs were
often ignored or rejected. They may appear self-sufficient but struggle with
emotional intimacy in relationships later in life.
• Insecure Resistant Attachment (also called Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment)
– A style where children are clingy and struggle with trust because their caregiver’s
responses have been inconsistent—sometimes nurturing, other times distant.
These children may have difficulty calming down after distress and often worry
about abandonment in adult relationships.

INFANT TEMPERAMENT
Chess and Thomas identified three main types of temperament:
1) The easy temperament- child is easygoing, sleeps and eats with regularity,
displays a positive mood.
2) The difficult temperament- child is slower to develop regular eating and sleeping
routines, irritable, difficulty adjusting, cries louder and longer than easily soothed
children.
3) The slow-to-warm-up temperament- child displays mild positive or negative
reactions, is resistant to new people/situations, and is moody/slow to adapt.
INFANT EMOTIONS
Infant displays a variety of emotions including affection, joy, surprise, anger, fear,
disgust, interest, and sadness.
Differences in emotional responses occur as the infants get older. Most significant
changes occur during 6 to 12 months.
• Rapid Developmental Changes: rapid brain development and the maturation of
the nervous system lead to complex emotional responses.
• Increased Mobility: As infants become more mobile (crawling, standing, and
eventually walking), their interactions with the environment increase, leading to a
wider range of emotional expressions
• Learning from Experience: Experiences accumulation begin to draw responding
to new situations. Their emotional responses become more context-specific as they
learn from past experiences and begin to anticipate outcomes.