Unit 5 Constructions Study objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to construct: } A bisected line A perpendicular to a line at a given point on the line } A bisected angle A perpendicular at the end of a line > Parallel lines > Acircle passing through any three given points An are of a circle that touches lines forming a right angle © An arc of a circle that touches lines forming an acute angle ~ An arc of a circle that touches lines forming an obtuse angle An ellipse, using both the four-centre method and the trammel method. 1 Introduction This unit introduces you to a special type of drawing technique in which the solution to a problem is obtained through graphical methods. This is different from what you have been doing until now. It is important that your drawings be accurate because you will have to measure the lengths of the lines from your diagrams to obtain the answer. Remember that you never scale measurement lengths from working drawings; you should always use the printed di- mensions. The diagrams in this unit are not working drawings, they are geometric constructions. In this unit you will be introduced to all the different construc- tions. In each case the constructions must be done carefully in order for the results to be accurate.Unit 5 Constructions 2 Geometrical constructions 2.1 Bisecting lines and angles v What do we mean when we speak of bisecting a line or an angle? When you bisect a line or an angle, you are dividing the line or angle into two equal parts. This is usually done by means of a compass. How to bisect a line with the aid of a compass Step 1: Draw a line AB of any given length. Step 2: Set your compass to a radius of more than half of the length of line AB. Draw two ares with the point of the compass positioned at A, one above and one below line AB. With the same radius on the compass, draw another pair of ares from point B. Step 3: The point where the two arcs meet at the top is point C and the point where the two ares meet below the line is point D. doin C and D. CD will bisect AB at right angles at O. AO is therefore equal to OB. Fig 5.1 Activity 1 Draw various slanted lines of different lengths and divide them into two equal parts by bisecting them. How to bisect any given angle with the aid of a compass ‘Step 1: Adjust your compass to any radius. With the point of your ‘compass positioned at B, draw an arc cutting AB and CB at D and E respectively.Drawing for Engineering Step 2: ‘With the point of your compass positioned at D, draw an are again. Then using the same radius, draw another arc from point E. The point where the two arcs cut or intersect is called F Step 3: Join BF which bisects angle ABC. Line BF is the bisector of angle ABC. A E Fig 5.2 Activity 2 ey Draw different angles and, by following the steps outlined above, find the bisector of each of the angles. 2.2 Perpendiculars v What is a perpendicular? A perpendicular occurs when one line intersects ancther line at 90°. The two lines will be perpendicular to each other and are referred to as perpendiculars. How to construct a line perpendicular to another line at a given point, using your compass (in this case C is the given point) Step 1: From point C on the line AB, and with a suitable radius, draw arcs intersecting AB at D and E. Step 2: Position the point of your compass at D and draw an are above C and, using the same radius, draw another arc from point E. The two ares will intersect at F. Step 3: Join FC and this line will be perpendicular to line AB at point C.Unit 5 Constructions c Fig 5.3 Activity 3 Draw several lines and construct a perpendicular at any point on w ose lines. How to construct a perpendicular at the end of a line Step 1: Draw a line AB. ‘Step 2: Choose any point outside line AB, which you will call C. Step 3: With the compass point on point C and using the radius CB, draw an arc to intersect. AB at D. Step 4: Join DC and extend to intersect the are at E. Step 5: Join EB to form a perpendicular. Fig 5.4 Practize constructing perpendiculars at the end of a few lines slanted at different angles. 83Drawing for Engineering 2.3 Parallel lines v What are parallel lines? We can compare parallel lines to railway lines or telephone wires. Parallel lines lie next to —_ the same distance apart, and never meet. How to construct a line parallel to line AB at a given dis- tance, using a ruler and compass Step 1: Draw a straight line AB. Mark any two points on AB as point C and point D. Set the required distance on the compass and, using the same radius, strike ares E and F from points C and D respectively. Step 2: Draw a tangent line to touch arcs E and F. This new line will be parallel to AB. ‘The term ‘tangent’ refers to a straight line that touches an arc of a circle only once. Fig 5.5 Activity 5 Wu, Practise constructing parallel lines, as shown above. It is impor- tant that you know how to do this, because in later exercises this type of construction will be used frequently. 84Unit 5 Constructions How to construct a circle so that it passes through any three points A, B and C, which are not on a straight line Step 1: Given points A, B and C, join the three points to form two lines AB and BC. Step 2: Bisect AB and BC, i.e. draw perpendicular bisectors, and extend them until they intersect. The point where they intersect will be the centre of the circle, point O. Step 3: With radius OA, draw the cirele which will also pass through points B and C. a ( A Fig 5.6 How to draw parallel lines with the use of set squares Step 1: Draw line AB, as shown. Step 2: Place one set square on line AB. Step 3: Place the other set square against the set square on line ‘AB, as shown, and hold it firmly against the paper to prevent it from moving. Step 4: Slide the set equare on line AB along the other set square, as shown; in this way you can construct several parallel lines ‘to AB. Fig 5.7 85Drawing for Engineering How to divide a line into equal parts Step 1: Draw a line of any length and mark off a given length AB. Step 2: From point A, draw an inclined line using your set square. Use any angle (30°, 45° or 60°). Step 3: Mark off seven consecutive segments on the inclined line with your compass. You can use any radius, as long as you use the same radius for each segment that you mark off. The seventh segment is marked point FE Step 4: Now join point B to point F the last segment on the inclined line. Step 5: Use the set square method to draw lines from all the other points parallel to line BF. Step 6: The lines parallel to BF divide AB into seven equal seg- ments or parts. A B Fig 5.8 2.4 Setting out angles with the aid of set squares 86 Although the set squares are normally used to set out angles of 90°, 60°, 45° and 30°, they can algo be used to set out a number of other angles. Seo the following examples: ‘The 45° set, square is used to set out an angle of 185°, Fig 5.9Unit 5 Constructions The 60°-90° set square is used to set out an angle of 150°. Fig 5.10 60°-90° set square is used to set out an angle of 120°. 120° o eo" Fig 5.11 ‘Two set squares are used in conjunction to set out an angle of 15°. Fig 5.12 ‘Two set squares are used in conjunction to set out an angle of 1°. 87.Drawing for Engineering ‘Two set squares are used in conjunction to set out an angle of 108°. 105" Fig 5.14 Activity & 1 Draw a horizontal line 95 mm long and bisect it. Al 2 Draw a 30° line 100mm long and bisect it. 3 Draw a 75° angle and bisect it. 4 Draw a 105° angle and bisect it. 5 With the aid of set squares, accurately draw fig 5.15a-e full scale. Insert the dimensions, as shown in unit 3. : ‘Be v/ be 148. ar | 110 Ee 8 a LS {Xv | a | 88Unit 5 Constructions 2.5 Hexagons (Six-sided figures) Ke Although we will be concentrating on hexagons and octagons in this couree, there are several different terms and shapes you need to be familiar with to do geometrical constructions. A table con- taining these different geometric terms has been included at the end of this unit for easy reference. How to construct a regular hexagon with a given side Step 1: Draw line AB to the given length. Step 2: Using a 60° set square, project lines upwards from point A and B respectively, as shown. Mark off AF and BC to the same length as AB. Step 3: From points F and C, project with the set square to points E and D respectively, but first mark off the side measurements to the given size. Step 4: Complete the hexagon by drawing line ED. Fig 5.16 How to construct a regular hexagon with a given size across the flats Step 1: Mark off the given size BE Step 2: By using the set square turned around to the 30° side, project lines downward from points B and F to locate point A. Step 3: From points B and F, project vertical lines to points C and E. (FE and BC are perpendicular to the edge of the T-square.) Step 4: Complete the hexagon by projecting at 30° from points C and E to the centre D. 89.Drawing for Engineering EZ All the sides of a hexagon are equal. BF is the distance across the flats and is indicated by the symbol A/F. Fig 5.17 How to construct a regular hexagon by means of the cir- cumscribed circle method. Step 1: Draw line MN and mark off AB to the given size. ‘Step 2: Draw an are from points A and B, with a radius equal to AB. Where the two ares intersect, you obtain point O. Step 3: With centre O and radius OA, draw the circumscribed cirele of the regular hexagon. Step 4: With a radius equal to the length AB and the compass point at A, mark off point F. Move the compass point to F and mark off point E. Repeat on the other side of the circle to find points C and D, Step 5: Join B and C, C and D, D and E, E and F and also F and A.Unit 5 Constructions 2.6 Octagons [Eight-sided figures) How to construct a regular octagon Step 1; Draw a circle with D as the diameter. Step 2: Construct horizontal, vertical amd 45° lines through the centre of the circle. Step 3: Use a 45° set aquare to draw the sides of the octagon. Ez ‘The line segments comprising the sides of the octagon must be drawn in such a way that they will just touch the circle. The octagon can also be drawn when a side is given, using the same method as for the hexagon, but with a 45° set square. Fig 5.19 2.7. Joining straight lines with arcs using a compass How to construct an are of a circle go that it touches two lines that form a right angle ‘Step 1: Draw a right angle. Position the compass point on the point of the angle and draw an arc with the desired radius. Step 2: From each point where the arc intersects with the ‘straight lines, draw another arc. Where the two arcs intersect, ‘the centre for the desired are is formed. Step 3: Place the compass point on the intersection and draw the radius touching the angle. Step 4: Join the arc with the straight lines. mH et A Step 2 Step 3 Fig 5.20 9Drawing for Engineering How to construct an arc of a circle so that it touches lines that form an acute angle Step 1: Draw an acute angle. Then draw lines parallel to these lines at a distance equal to the desired radius, R, of the arc. Step 2: Drop perpendiculars from the intersection point to the lines forming the angle. Step 8: Draw the required are from the intersection point. Step 4: Join the are with the straight lines of the angle. Fig 5.21 How to construct an are of a circle so that it touches lines that form an obtuse angle Step 1: Draw an obtuse angle. Then draw lines parallel to these lines at a distance equal to the desired radius, R, of the are. Step 2: Drop perpendiculars from the intersection point to the Jines forming the angle. Step 3; Draw the required are from the intersection point. Step 4: Join the arc with the straight lines of the angle. Tlble Step 3 Step 4 Fig 5.22 92Unit 5 Constructions Activity 7 w Show all the constructions clearly. 1 Construct full scale the drawings shown below. 2 Insert dimensions. Use only your drawing instruments. Do not use a radii template for drawing ares. (A radii template is a plastic mould shaped like a radius.) 0. 3 AIS 7 A m8 cl 4 Fig 5.23 How to construct an arc of a circle so that it touches a line and another are or a circle Step 1: Draw the are or circle with radius R1 and the line as construction lines, Step 2: Draw a construction line parallel to the straight line at a distance equal to the required radius, R. With radius = R+ Rl, draw an are of a circle, as shown in fig 5.24. Where the new arc and parallel line meet will be the centre of the desired arc. Step 3: Draw the arc. Step 4: Darken the lines. 93.Drawing for Engineering Sy xy ev : o a Step i Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Fig 5.24 How to construct an are of a circle so that it touches two other ares or circles. Step 1: Draw the given arcs, or circles, as construction lines, as shown. Step 2: Add the radius of the required are of the circle to the radius of the original two ares and draw two circular arcs to in- tersect each other. Join this point of intersection with each centre point of the two arcs. All of this is done with construction lines. Step 3: Draw the required are of the circle using the intersection point as a centre. ‘Step 4: Darken the other arcs, or circles, as a full line. [JY Shc He Step 1 Fig 5.25 Activity 8 Show all the construction lines. wv 1 Construct full scale the drawings shown in fig 6 2 Insert the dimensions.Unit 5 Constructions Use only your drawing instruments. Do not use a radii template for drawing the arcs. 2.8 An ellipse Unlike a cirele in which the horizontal and vertical axes are equal in length, the two axes of an ellipse are different in length. The long axis is called the major axis and the short axis is called the minor axis. In this course we are going to use the trammel and four-centre methods to construct ellipses. Trammel method A trammel is an instrument used for drawing ellipses. In this case we are going to use a home-made trammel made out of cardboard. Step 1: Set out the major axis AB and minor axis CD. Step 2: Cut one end of a long piece of cardboard into a sharp point and mark off half the major axis to equal a and half the minor axis to equal ¢. ‘Step 3: Now use the trammel across the axes so that one of the marks is always on the major axis and the other on the minor axis. For each position make a light pencil mark at the sharp point. For two of the four quadrants, the trammel will have to be turned over and the marks a and ¢ transferred from one side to the other. 5Drawing for Engineering 96 Step 4: Finally, join the marks with a smooth curve to form the ellipse. se Step 3 Step 4 Fig 5.27 Four-centre method For this method you will need a compass to construct the ellipse. Step 1: Mark off the major axis AB and minor axis CD. Step 2: Join point A of the major axis to point C at the end of the minor axis. Step 3: With point O as centre and OB as radius, draw an are from point B to obtain point E on OC produced (which means OC has been extended). Step 4: With point C as centre and CE as radius, draw an arc to obtain point F Step 5: Bisect AF to obtain points G and J. Step 6: Mark off OH, which is equal to OG. Join J to H and extend. Step 7: Mark off OK, which is equal to OJ. Join K to G and H and extend. Step 8: With the compass point on J and a radius of JC, draw the top arc. Mave the compass point to K and draw the bottom are.Unit 5 — Constructions With the compass point at G and a radius of GA, draw the are on the left side. Move the compass point to H and draw the arc on the right. Note that the lines GK, HK, GJ and HJ indicate the points where the ares join together. 97.Drawing for Engineering Activity 9 yy As in the case of the other activities, you must practise these constructions until you can draw them almost without thinking. ‘The secret is to practise every second day and not be discouraged if you don’t succeed in your first attempts. Remember you will not be assessed on whether you can list the steps of construction, but on whether you can draw an accurate construction. Draw all the constructions full scale. 1 2 3 ‘Use the trammel method to set out an ellipse with a ‘major axis of 140 mm and a minor axis of 85 mm. Use the four-centre method to construct the following ellipse: major axis 100mm, minor axis 50mm. Construct an ellipse with a major axis of 100mm and a minor axis of 75mm. Construct the view of the elliptical gland, as shown in fig 5.29a. Insert dimensions and print a title. The profile of the special cam shown in fig 5.29 is made up of half an ellipse and a semicircle. Draw the view of the cam shown. Dimension the view and print a title. Fig 5.29 shows a view of a cover. Construct the given view, insert the dimensions and print the title. ‘The pattern shown in fig 5.29d is made up of a circle con- taining parts of two identical ellipses, with a major axis of 100mm and minor axis of 50mm. Draw the pattern.Unit 5 —_ Constructions c d Fig 5.29a-d Views of constructions 3 Summary Having completed unit 5, which deals with the various kinds of constructions used in drawing, you have been provided with all the basic theories and skills which underpin drawing as a subject. In the remaining units, where you will be asked to construct var- ious working drawings, you will have to apply your newly gained knowledge and techniques. Self-evaluation Practise the exercises contained in the nine activities until you ean do them quite easily. Asin the previous units, you should draw up and create your own review sheets of the unit for quick reference. By going over these sheets on a weekly basis to start off with, and thereafter on a monthly basis, you will find ‘it much easier to cope with the examination load at the ‘end of the year. © Review the material presented in fig 5.30 and be sure that you are familiar with all the terms. © Ifyou find it difficult to understand this unit, you must contact someone who can help you, You can consult other students, your lecturer, technicians or draughtspersons. 99Drawing for Engineering LINES horizontal vertical ANGLES: SX, obiique LE incined “ry perpendiculars wg Pe INL A TRIANGLES aquilate ral (unequal) (woe shee) {three equal sides) scalene QUADRILATERALS four sides POLYGONS CIRCLES diameter diagonal he rightangled quadrant arc: normal radius centre: circumnterence semibirele tangent Fig 5.30