HOLY FAITH CONVENT PENAL

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION PROCESSING

Data is raw, unprocessed facts. For example, the numbers 26, 29 and 30 represent data. We do not know
what the three numbers represent – they could mean just about anything – such as the number of students
doing IT in 5H, 5F and 5C, the dates of school sports events or even the number of students in three
classes. Information is processed data. Data processing is the manipulation of data to obtain information.
Taking one of the examples above, the number of IT students in the classes can tell you how many
handouts to prepare.

The term information system is given to any record keeping system. We come across information
systems all the time. Common examples of manual information systems are dictionaries and telephone
directories. What these examples have in common is that data has been collected (input), processed and
displayed (output) in order to provide useful information. Information is collected for the purposes of
culture, leisure, work, research and everyday life. In organisations, it is mainly used for planning and
decision-making. There are many sources of information, including, for example:

◆ measurement: sales, productivity output, cash receipts

◆ formal and informal communication: word of mouth, meetings, announcements, interviews

◆ publications: hurricane-preparedness tips, research, daily newspapers, media reports and trends
in chronic diseases

◆ questionnaires: opinion polls and market research

◆ products: labels containing ingredients, quantities, contents origin and dosage. The value of
information can include the cost of production, the cost of distribution and the value to the
purchaser. The more valuable the information is to the customer, the more the organisation can
charge for it. Also, customers may be willing to pay more to get information quickly. With the rise
of the Internet, two elements in this value chain have changed. The cost of distributing
information has been reduced drastically for web providers. Also, ‘free’ information may have
additional value. An online newspaper story may include graphs or pictures and links to other
stories on the same topic. Once information is collected, it is often communicated directly to the
person who wishes to use it. In order for it to be useful, information must be:

◆ relevant: it must be what the user needs to know, and be up-to-date

◆ accurate: it must be as correct as possible

◆ timely: information should be provided for problem solving before a critical stage is reached
and opportunities are lost

◆ complete: it must represent a ‘whole’ picture of a problem

◆ in an appropriate medium: it should be delivered using an appropriate communication medium,

whether by printed material or storage device

◆ cost-effective: the value of information should be more than the cost involved in its collection.

A common problem with manually entering data into a computer system is that it is very easy to input
incorrect data. Examples include users mistyping first names and surnames in a database so that wrong
spelling of names submitted to CXC to be printed on certificates. However, it is also possible for a device
to misread a barcode and therefore not provide any information to the user. Errors occur in any computer
information system. There are several approaches to dealing with the problems that errors cause,
specifically preventing errors (so that they do not occur) and detecting when errors do occur (so that they
can be corrected). Below a few approaches are considered.

Data entry errors

Sometimes data cannot be automatically scanned into the system for storage, so a common way is to type
the data directly into the computer system. Data entry errors, such as transposition errors, would then
occur when an operator enters data using a keyboard and mixes up digits and/or letters. For example, the
number 32 may be entered as 23. Other errors occur when data entry requirements are not clear. Do you
interpret 07/01/2019 as July 1 2019 or 7 January 2019? These errors can be accidental or deliberate.

◆ Accidental errors occur unintentionally: data is entered by mistake, in good faith, but in error.

◆ Deliberate: the user probably knows enough to get around any validation checks. Examples include a
disgruntled employee entering fictitious data into a company’s database. Possible solutions to this
problem include file access permissions imposed by the operating system, better vigilance of the
administrator and the cross-referencing of data with other supposedly reliable sources.

Software and hardware errors

There are two types of error here. Software might malfunction, erasing or corrupting previously entered
data. Hardware may develop a fault (often intermittent) that corrupts data. Examples include bad sectors
on a hard disk, bad memory or a power surge. The application may appear to accept data correctly but
when that data is retrieved, it is corrupt.

Transmission errors
Transmission errors occur when data received is not the same as that transmitted by the sender.

VALIDATION
Data validation is the computerised checking of input data for errors (data that may be unreasonable or
incomplete) before it is processed. It does not confirm the accuracy of data. There are different methods
of validation. The most appropriate method(s) to use will depend upon what data is being entered.

Range check
Range check ensures that the data entered is within a certain range. For example, when you enter a
number corresponding to a month of the year, the range of acceptable numbers is 1 to 12.

Reasonableness check
This check tests whether the data obeys specified criteria. For example, the age of a child at preschool
could be about 4 but not 14 years. Reasonableness checks are therefore used to detect doubtful data.

Data type check

This is also known as a character or alphanumeric check. When a database is created, each field will
accept a specific type of data. Whenever data is entered into a field, the database will check that it is of
the correct type, for example alphabetic or numeric. If it is not, then an error message will be displayed
and the data will have to be re-entered. The data type check is particularly important if a fixed length
field is defined to store the data. Any extra characters that exceed the maximum length would be lost.
Length checks are usually only performed on alphabetic or alphanumeric data.

Consistency check
A consistency check compares the contents of two or more fields to make sure that they make sense. It is
also called an inconsistency check, since it mostly identifies errors and discrepancies in the data. This
check compares new data with previously entered data.

For example, checking that the age entered corresponds to the age calculation from the date of birth.
Consider the following employee record:
Employment Status Form
Are you unemployed? No Unemployment benefits claimed? Yes Number of years working 12
Current occupation Foreman
It would be useful to have a consistency check to crosscheck the information in the ‘Are you
unemployed?’ and ‘Unemployment benefits claimed?’ fields, since you should not claim for
unemployment benefits if you are still working. In this example, therefore, either an error has been made
on input or this is a deliberate attempt to claim benefits while still working. Other examples of
consistency checks are:

◆ Single mothers with children can claim for childcare allowance. Check that the number of children is
not zero.

◆ Only full-time employees are paid overtime. Check that these fields correspond.

Presence check
This type of check ensures that the data is actually entered. It can be used on any field in a database. For
example, every person in a particular database must be assigned to a department. Therefore, a presence
check on each employee’s record could ensure that a department is entered in the form.

Format check
This check verifies the data that has been entered in the correct format. For example, a national ID
number may have the format 9999-99-99-999, where 9 represents a number.

Length check
This check verifies that the data entered is the correct length. For example, a pass code for a
credit card may consist of four digits, therefore entering three or five digits may result in an error.

Check digit
A check digit is an extra digit added to the end of a code. It is used to detect errors arising from
transcription and also to ensure that codes originally produced by a computer are re-entered into another
computer correctly. It is calculated from the other digits in the number. Check digits are included in
barcode numbers.

VERIFICATION
Data verification is the checking for mistakes such as transcription errors when data is copied from one
medium or device to another. Verification checks do not guarantee that the entered data is correct, it only
checks that the data entered matches the source data. Therefore, you should be aware that if the original
form was completed incorrectly, then the entered data might pass some verification checks despite being
incorrect. One way to guarantee that the data entered matches the source data is a procedure called double
(data) entry. Data is entered twice using a program that checks each second entry against the first. For
example, some applications require users to enter their password twice. The application compares the two
passwords to confirm that they are the same. In other applications where there is more data to be entered,
the program produces a list with the pairs of data that do not match so that the correct values can be re-
entered.

Visual checks
Another verification method is to use on-screen prompts. After a set of data is entered, it is redisplayed
on the screen. The user is prompted to read it and confirm that it has been entered correctly. If the user
has entered any data incorrectly, it is re-entered. This method of verification is not very reliable since
many data entry personnel will not read the information that is redisplayed or check it carefully against
the source document. Accidental errors can also be prevented by verification in asking for confirmation of
instructions. For example, if you try to delete files the computer may ask ‘Are you sure [y/n]?’ or it may
display a summary of input data and ask for verification of its validity before the data is stored.
Questions
1. Explain the difference between data validation and data verification.
2. Give an example of a data-related hardware error.
3. Copy and complete the table below by giving an example of valid data for each item:

FIELD NAME ACCEPTABLE VALUES EXAMPLE OF VALID DATA

a. Opening hours 8 am to 4pm
b. Bulk orders >250
c. Standard shipping 3 to 5 days
d. ID Card Number 99999999999

Data-Capture Forms

These forms must be designed so that their instructions are clear and concise, leaving no doubt as to how
to enter the data onto the form. For example, the format for dates could be specified as ‘dd/mm/yyyy’ so
that the format ‘mm/dd/yy’ is not used in error. The responses from the forms are called human readable
since data entry personnel manually enter the responses written on the forms. This method of data capture
is liable to transcription and other errors when the data is entered into the computer. One method of
avoiding transcription errors is double (data) entry, where the data is entered twice by two different
people and the computer will only accept the data if the two versions are identical.

Turnaround document

A turnaround document is a machine-readable document that has some information printed on it by a

computer but has more information added to it by a human. It is then fed back into a computer to transfer
this newly added information. These documents serve two purposes. They are used to:

◆ verify the accuracy and completeness of information that has already been entered

◆ update information already entered with additional data. Optical mark recognition and optical character
recognition are often used together in a turnaround document. Eg. play whe or lotto slip. Another
example of a turnaround document is the multiple-choice sheets used in examinations. Information such
as the candidate number, subject and school code is printed on the multiple-choice answer sheet by the
computer. Thee student takes the test and fills in the answer grid by making marks in the appropriate
boxes using a pencil or ballpoint pen. The form is then returned to the examination council to be fed into
a special reader.
Turnaround documents allow cheap, fast input of information into a computer system. Data can also be
printed on turnaround documents in barcode format.

Alternatives to turnaround documents

In some industries, turnaround documents are being replaced by small handheld computers, including
mobile devices. These pocket-sized devices have a display screen and touchscreen keyboard. For
example, many local utility companies now issue their meter readers with handheld computers. At the
start of the day the names and addresses of the customers to be visited are downloaded into the computer.
As the meter reader visits customers’ homes, he or she types the meter readings into the computer. At the
end of the day the readings can be transferred automatically onto the main computer to issue bills.
Another example involves delivery services that equip drivers with these devices. As the driver delivers
items to the school canteen, the recipient uses a stylus to sign the delivery document on the device. This
signature is captured digitally and uploaded to the database as proof of delivery.
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