CBIP MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINES, Third Edition
Chapter 14
NEW GENERATION CONDUCTORS
This chapter on New Generation Conductors has been revised to encompass both compact and
motion-resistant conductors. It now includes expanded information on various High Temperature Low
Sag (HTLS) conductors that are commercially available. The description of HTLS conductors has been
broadened to align with CIGRE TB 763 guidelines for uprating existing overhead lines, and reflects the
latest classification updates for HTLS conductors. Additionally, references have been incorporated
from the CEA’s February 2019 Guidelines for Rationalized Use of High-Performance Conductors.
Special Contributors: Chandra Kant
14.1 INTRODUCTION
At the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow in 2021, India outlined its climate action plan through
five key commitments, known as the Panchamrit. These commitments include expanding non-
fossil energy capacity from 180 GW to 500 GW by 2030, sourcing 50 percent of energy needs
from renewables by 2030, reducing projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes by 2030,
cutting carbon intensity of GDP by 45 percent by 2030 compared to 2005 levels, and achieving
net-zero emissions by 2070.
To support these goals, significant advancements in transmission infrastructure are necessary.
This includes careful planning of transmission corridors, attention to right-of-way (ROW)
conservation and addressal of ROW issues so as to enable construction of new transmission
lines expeditiously.
Recently, on 14th June 2024, Ministry of Power has issued Guidelines for payment of
compensation in regard to RoW for transmission lines. These are the guidelines for determining
compensation for damages regarding the RoW for laying transmission lines under Section 67
and 68 of the Electricity Act, 2003, read with Sections 10 and 16 of the Indian Telegraph Act,
1885, in addition to the compensation for normal crop and tree damages. These guidelines are
issued in supersession of the earlier guidelines. As per these guidelines, Compensation for the
tower base area shall be 200% of the land value and the compensation amount of ROW corridor
shall be 30% of the land value.
New Generation Conductors enhance the efficiency of existing transmission corridors by
maximizing power transfer capacity per unit of right-of-way (ROW). Among these, High
Temperature Low Sag (HTLS) conductors have become increasingly prevalent, particularly for
uprating or reconductoring of old transmission lines and maximizing the utilisation of existing
transmission corridors as well as infrastructure.
Given this, it's clear that New Generation Conductors are crucial for achieving India's ambitious
energy transition targets.
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14.2 NEW GENERATION CONDUCTORS
Salient types of conventional conductors used in transmission lines are already covered in
previous chapter. Apart from the above, there are several new generation conductors, that have
been introduced in the Indian transmission sector in past few decades.
(1) Compact (or formed wire) conductors: Overhead line conductors are typically made from
helically wound round wires. This design creates significant inter-strand voids within the
conductor, meaning that approximately 20% of the conductor’s cross-sectional area is air.
Compact conductors are composed of trapezoidal-shaped or Z-shaped wires arranged in one
or more layers, excluding the core. The compact conductors can also be homogenous type
where all the layers are made up of formed wires except the central core wire, which is round
in shape.
In case of Trapezoidal strands, the strands “fit” together tighter, thus reducing the size of
interstices or voids that are found in round-wire constructions. These conductors are
commonly referred as “Trapwire” due to the trapezoidal shapes of individual wires strands and
are designated with “/TW”.
In case of “Z-shaped” wires, the wires further lock into each other and result into enhanced
compactness.
Figure- 1: TW Conductor Figure- 2: Z-shaped Conductor
For a given aluminium area, compact conductors have a smaller diameter. This design results
in comparable ampacity with reduced climatic loads due to wind and /or ice. However, it's
crucial to conduct thorough corona performance studies before finalizing these conductors for
Extra-High Voltage and Ultra-High Voltage transmission lines, as their reduced diameter may
increase vulnerability to corona discharge. Additionally, for the same diameter, compact
conductors can incorporate more aluminium, thereby providing higher ampacity.
Furthermore, compact conductors demonstrate slightly improved energy absorption for
vibrations. This is due to the increased surface area of the contacts between strands in
adjacent layers, which leads to reduced inter-strand contact stresses. CIGRE TB 763 also
mentions that for wind-only loading conditions, loads may be lower in case of compact
conductors, as the aerodynamic properties of the surface result in a lower drag coefficient at
high wind speeds.
(2) AL59 (High Conductivity All Aluminium Alloy Conductor)
These conductors are also homogenous conductors and constructed using Aluminium-
Magnesium-Silicon (Al-Mg-Si) Alloy wires like AAAC conductor. However, unlike conventional
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A2 & A3 conductors, the Al-Mg-Si alloy wires for Al59 conductors are usually aged artificially
after solution-heat-treatment of the rods and prior to drawing. In conventional A2 & A3
conductors, the solution-heat-treatment is followed by drawing and then these are artificially
aged. As a result, the Al59 wires have significantly improved conductivity i.e. 59% IACS
(maximum resistivity of 0.02905 ohm.mm2/m at 20°C) vis-à-vis A2 & A3 wires having
conductivity of 53% & 52.5% IACS respectively. However, these wires have relatively lower
tensile strength viz. 230-250 MPa, vis-à-vis A2 wires having tensile strength of 295 MPa and A3
wires having tensile strength of 315- 325 MPa.
Al59 conductors, made entirely of aluminum alloy and lacking a steel core, typically have lower
resistance compared to traditional ACSR conductors of the same size. This allows for the use
of smaller Al59 conductors to achieve equivalent power flow and thermal capacity. However,
when selecting conductor sizes, especially for EHV and UHV transmission lines, it's crucial to
ensure compliance with corona performance standards, electric and magnetic field limits,
environmental considerations, and statutory requirements.
The absence of a steel core in Al59 conductors also results in a lighter weight. Consequently,
the reduced size of Al59 conductors leads to even lower weight compared to equivalent ACSR
conductors. This lighter weight generally results in reduced sag for the same stringing tensions.
The table below provides a comparison of Al59 and equivalent ACSR conductors :-
Table 1: Comparison of Al59 and equivalent ACSR conductors
Name Type Stranding Diameter Resistance UTS
[mm] [Ω/km] [kN]
Panther ACSR 30/3.0 mm-Al + 7/3.0 mm-St 21 mm 0.1390 89.67
Al59 37/3.08mm 21.56 mm 0.1075 65.47
Zebra ACSR 54/3.18 mm-Al + 7/3.18 mm-St. 28.62 mm 0.06868 130.32
Al59 61/3.08mm 27.72 mm 0.0653 108
Snowbird ACSR 42/3.99 mm-Al + 7/2.21 mm-St. 30.56 mm 0.05516 118
Al59 61/3.31mm 29.79 mm 0.0566 124.70
Moose ACSR 54/3.53mm-Al + 7/3.53 mm-St. 31.77 mm 0.05552 161.2
Al59 61/3.31mm 29.79 mm 0.0566 124.70
Bersimis ACSR 42/4.57 mm-Al + 7/2.54mm-St. 35.05 mm 0.04242 154
Al59 61/4.02 mm 36.18 mm 0.0384 169.17
The above table indicates that Al59 conductors have a lower Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
than their ACSR counterparts. As a result, ultimate tensions under full wind conditions are also
typically lower when the conductors are strung at the same percentage of their ultimate tensile
strength.
The reduced size, weight, and tension of Al59 conductors lead to lower transverse, vertical, and
longitudinal loads on transmission towers, which can enable more optimized tower designs.
However, in regions with high wind pressures, heavy ice or snow loading, or where higher
reliability is required, certain sizes of Al59 conductors might approach or exceed the maximum
permissible tension limit. In such cases, either the conductor should be used at lower tensions
with increased sag, or a larger size or different conductor type should be considered.
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(3) Vibration resistant & Motion resistant Conductors
In order to enhance the resistance of conductor to vibration induced by wind, different kinds
of conductor constructions have been adopted by some countries. Some of the conductor
constructions are as follows:-
(i) T2 or Twisted pair conductors: Twisted pair conductors consist of two standard stranded
conductors are twisted about one another, generally, in a left-hand stranding direction and
with a helix approximately 3 meters long. The resulting cross-section has the form of a
rotating eight. This peculiar profile creates air turbulence so that the laminar flow of the
wind around the conductor is altered and, consequently, a significant reduction of the
vibration amplitude is achieved. This non-round conductor resists motion due to its
aerodynamic characteristics and is widely used in the Central United States. In Germany,
this type of T2 conductor was successfully used as a remedy against aerodynamically
caused audible noise emissions on conventional conductors.
Figure- 3: Twisted pair (or T2) Conductor
(ii) Self-damping conductor [SDC]: Shaped-wire
conductors have also been used to reduce the effects
of wind-induced motions. Such conductors include
“self-damping” (SDC) conductor, which incorporates
small gaps between the successive layers of strands,
allowing energy absorption through impact.
Figure-4: Self damping conductor
with radial gap between layers
(iii) Low noise conductors: In Japan, special conductor
configurations have been developed for low noise
performance. These conductor constructions involve
application of several formed wires in the outer layer
of conductor so as to disturb the laminar flow of wind
and hence reduce the aeolian vibrations as well as
noise level.
Figure-5: Low noise conductor
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14.3 HIGH-TEMPERATURE, LOW-SAG CONDUCTORS
High-Temperature, Low-Sag (HTLS) conductors are such conductors that are capable of being
operated continuously at temperatures of at least 150ºC without appreciable increase in sag. Some
of the conductors can be operated as high as 250ºC without significant changes in their mechanical
and electrical properties. HTLS conductors operate at these elevated temperatures with less sag than
all aluminum conductors and often, less sag than ACSR.
Above a certain temperature known as the ‘Knee Point Temperature,’ the rate at which sag increases
in HTLS conductors with rising temperature decreases significantly. This occurs because the higher
thermal expansion of aluminum or aluminum alloys compared to the conductor core results in all
stress being transferred to the core beyond the knee point temperature. Consequently, beyond this
temperature, the conductor's expansion coefficient aligns with that of the core. Since the core's
coefficient of linear expansion is lower than that of the entire conductor, the increase in sag is much
less pronounced.
Figure-6: Typical Sag Vs Temperature Graph of HTLS conductor showing ‘Knee point’
The ‘Knee Point’ is a feature of bimetallic conductors. However, in traditional bimetallic conductors
like ACSR, the knee point temperature is typically well beyond the operating temperature range,
meaning these conductors do not exhibit reduced sag behaviour within their normal operating
temperatures.
In contrast, HTLS conductors experience their knee point temperature within their operating
temperature range, leading to a more favourable sag performance at elevated temperatures.
14.4 CONSTITUENT MATERIALS OF HTLS CONDUCTOR
These conductors consist of heat-resistant aluminium strands to provide conductivity and a core to
provide strength and control thermal elongation. The aluminium strands are resistant to annealing,
i.e. strength degradation, when exposed to their rated temperature. They are either made of annealed
aluminium or temperature resistant aluminium-zirconium alloys. There are four basic types of core
materials used in HTLS conductors: steel, “invar” steel, metal matrix composite and polymer matrix
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composite cores. In all cases, the core provides strength and a lower coefficient of thermal expansion
when compared to aluminium.
CIGRE TB 763 enlists following materials & their salient properties:-
Figure-7: Salient materials for Outer Layers
Figure-8: Salient materials for Core
*Emergency operating temperature is not well defined in standards, but it is generally agreed that the
emergency temperature should not apply for more than 10 hours per year or 1000 hours cumulative
over the life of the line.
**Fully annealed aluminium strands can operate at temperatures greater than 250°C but are normally
limited to lower temperatures because of concerns regarding connector aging and steel core wire
coatings.
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14.5 TYPES OF HTLS CONDUCTOR
CIGRE TB 763 classifies HTLS Conductors into following types:
Type 1: Conductors consisting of a strength member made of steel, coated steel, or steel alloy, and
an envelope for which the high temperature effects are mitigated by means of thermal-resistant
aluminium alloys
Type 2: Conductors consisting of a strength member made of steel, coated steel, or steel alloy, and
an envelope for which the high temperature effects are mitigated by means of annealed aluminium.
Type 3: Conductors consisting of a metal-matrix composite (MMC) strength member, and an
envelope for which the high temperature effects are mitigated by means of thermal-resistant
aluminium alloys or annealed aluminium.
Type 4: Conductors consisting of a polymer-matrix composite (PMC) strength member, and an
envelope for which the high temperature effects are mitigated by means of annealed aluminium or
thermal- resistant aluminium alloys for HTLS applications.
Following table describes each HTLS conductor type and provides former or usual acronyms and
trademarks. Any of the Types of HTLS conductors may be manufactured with either round,
trapezoidal, or Z-shape aluminium wires.
Figure-9: Types of HTLS Conductor
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HTLS Type1 : (Z)TACSR, INVAR and GAP type conductors fall in this category. All these conductors
have either TAL or ZTAL in their outer layers. The core may be galvanized or aluminium-clad steel wires
or steel alloy wires such as INVAR.
(A) (Z)TACSR Conductor has the same construction as conventional ACSR (Type 0), with
galvanized or aluminium-clad steel wires for the core. The main advantage of (Z)TACSR or
(Z)TACSR/ACS is that their aluminium alloy wires do not deteriorate at temperatures up to
150°C for TAL and 210°C for ZTAL. Hence, they can operate at temperatures much higher than
ACSR. However, as they use steel as their core wires, they exhibit only a limited low sag
behaviour. As per CIGRE TB 763, at present (Z)TACSR is used in place of conventional ACSR
in more than 70% of the overhead transmission lines in Japan. TACSR/ACS conductor is also
in use in Austria and in Germany since the early 1990`s. The main application is in highly
populated areas for the refurbishment of old distribution lines.
Figure-10: TACSR Conductor
(B) (Z)TACIR Conductor: Like (Z)TACSR, (Z)TACIR features a conventional stranded construction
similar to ACSR. However, instead of steel strands, (Z)TACIR uses Invar alloy steel wires for
the core, with (Z)TAL wires surrounding them. Invar is an iron-nickel alloy with a relatively
small coefficient of thermal expansion. In fact, the name “Invar” has been derived from word
“Invariable”, primarily due to its low coefficient of thermal expansion. The coefficient of
thermal expansion of invar wire is around one third that of galvanized or aluminium-clad steel
wire.
The installation procedures and accessories for (Z)TACIR are almost identical to those used
for standard ACSR. The only modification needed is a slight increase in the length of
compression-type accessories to accommodate higher current-carrying requirements.
However, one drawback of TACIR is the lower tensile strength of the Invar steel core
compared to conventional steel, which can be a limitation for longer spans.
Figure 11- (Z)TACIR Conductor
(C) Gap-type conductor, G(Z)TACSR: GAP conductors feature a distinctive design, with a small
gap between the steel core and the innermost aluminum layer. This design allows the
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conductor to be tensioned solely by the steel core, which stabilizes the conductor’s knee-
point to the stringing temperature and takes advantage of the steel core's low-sag properties
over a wider temperature range. The gap is filled with heat-resistant grease to minimize
friction and prevent water ingress.
During the installation of G(Z)TACSR conductors, the aluminum layers need to be de-
stranded to reveal the steel core. The conductor is then sagged on the steel core, followed by
the compression of a steel clamp. The aluminum layers are then re-stranded and trimmed,
and the aluminum component of the dead-end clamp is compressed. While this installation
method differs from that used with standard conductors, the compression splices and bolted
suspension clamps remain similar. To ensure optimal performance, a special semi-tension
or semi-strain suspension assembly must be installed approximately every five suspension
spans or around 2 km.
Figure 12-G(Z)TACSR Conductor
HTLS Type 2 : This category represents Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported (ACSS) conductors,
which visually closely resembles ACSR conductors. Unlike some other conductors, ACSS is not
offered with a single steel core strand. The steel core wires can be coated with various materials,
including aluminized, galvanized, zinc-5% aluminum Mischmetal, or aluminum clad. The steel core
itself comes in different strengths: high strength (HS), extra high strength (EHS), or ultra-high strength
(UHS).
ACSS is available in "Standard Round Strand ACSS" or "Trapezoidal Aluminium Wire Strand ACSS/TW"
configurations. Both round and trapezoidal wire options are offered with areas or diameters matching
conventional ACSR constructions, and special high-strength configurations are also available. The
use of annealed aluminum strands in ACSS provides higher mechanical self-damping compared to
standard ACSR with the same stranding ratio. However, during tension stringing, care must be taken
to avoid damaging the relatively soft annealed aluminum strands.
Figure 13-ACSS/TW Conductor
The tensile strength of ACSS is lower than that of 1350-H19 aluminum, and its rated strength is
reduced depending on the stranding configuration (e.g., 35% for 45/7, 18% for 26/7, 10% for 30/7)
compared to similar ACSR constructions. This reduced strength can be mitigated by using extra-high
strength steel core wires, increasing the steel core area, or both. Due to the low tension in the
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annealed aluminum wires, the Knee-point-Temperature is also low, and thermal elongation of ACSS
is essentially governed by the steel core alone. Additionally, ACSS does not experience creep under
normal tension loading. ACSS/TW constructions, while offering the same aluminum cross-sectional
area as ACSS, benefit from reduced ice and wind loading and lower wind drag per unit of aluminum
area.
HTLS Type 3 : ACCR, or Aluminum Composite Core Reinforced Conductor, features a core made from
an aluminum composite reinforced with continuous aluminum oxide fibers. While its construction,
strength, and modulus are similar to those of ACSR, ACCR benefits from lower weight, resistance,
and thermal expansion (sag) due to the properties of its composite core. The aluminum strands in
ACCR can be either round or trapezoidal in shape and are heat-resistant AT3 (ZTAL), with a maximum
continuous operating temperature of 210°C and an emergency rating of 240°C. The special kind of
composite core used in these type of HTLS conductors are primarily referred to as Metal-matrix
Composite core or MMC.
ACCR offers superior aging resistance due to its aluminum composite core, which remains effective
at temperatures up to 300°C. The conductor also exhibits good corrosion resistance, similar to all-
aluminum conductors. Since the core is composed entirely of aluminum, it does not need a coating
to prevent galvanic corrosion.
Figure 14-ACCR Conductor
HTLS Type 4: This category includes HTLS conductors having carbon-fibre composite core such as
ACPR, ACPS, ACCC, ACFR, C7, HVCRC etc. These conductors has one or more outer layers of
annealed aluminium surrounding a Carbon Fibre Composite Core. The core is a single wire consisting
of a polymer reinforced with continuous carbon fibres. The core is coated with a layer of glass fibre or
other suitable material to prevent galvanic corrosion between the carbon and aluminium strands. The
core has a higher strength than steel, lower modulus, weight and thermal expansion than steel. The
special kind of composite core used in these type of HTLS conductors are primarily referred to as
Polymer-matrix Composite core or PMC.
The aluminium strands may be zirconium or annealed aluminium and are typically trapezoidal.
Figure 15-A Typical Type 4 HTLS Conductor
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REFERENCES:
1. CIGRE TB 763, Conductors for the uprating of existing overhead lines
2. CEA Manual on Transmission Planning Criteria 2023
3. CEA Guidelines for Rationalised Use of High Performance Conductors
4. CIGRE Green Books- Overhead Lines
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