Chapter 3: Hardware

Computer Architecture
 The central processing unit (CPU)
 Microprocessor
 Von Neumann architecture
 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), control unit (CU) and
registers
 System buses – control bus, address bus, data bus
 Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle
 Cores, cache and system clock
 Instruction sets for a CPU
 Embedded systems
Input and Output Devices
Input devices:
 Barcode scanners
 QR code scanners
 Digital cameras
 Keyboards
 Microphones
  Mouse
 2D/3D scanners
 Touchscreens
Output devices:
 Actuators
 Light projectors
 Printers
 3D printers
 Light emitting diode (LED) screens
 Liquid crystal display (LCD) screens
 Speakers
 Sensors
Data Storage
 Primary memory – random access memory (RAM) and
read-only memory (ROM)
 Secondary storage – magnetic, optical and solid state
 Virtual memory
 Cloud storage
Network Hardware
 Network interface cards (NICs)
 MAC addresses
 IP addresses
 Routers

3.1 Computer Architecture

3.1.1 The Central Processing Unit
The central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for the
execution and processing of all instructions and data in a
computer.
It consists of:
 Control unit (CU)
 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
 Registers and buses
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit (microchip) also
referred to as a processor or CPU.
The microprocessor:
 Contains the ALU and CU
 Interprets and executes instructions
  Carries out arithmetic operations
 Contains the system clock and primary memory

Components of a Typical CPU

1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
The ALU:
 Performs arithmetic operations (+, −, etc.)
 Performs logical operations (AND, OR, etc.)
 May have more than one ALU
 Can perform multiplication and division using shifting
operators
Exam Tip:
If asked about ALU functions, always mention both arithmetic
and logical operations.

2. Control Unit (CU)

The control unit:
 Reads instructions from memory
 Generates signals during the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle
 Controls all components of the computer
  Synchronizes data flow and program instructions

3. Registers
Registers are high-speed memory locations inside the CPU.
They:
 Store small amounts of data
 Store addresses of next instructions
 Store current instruction being decoded
 Are used during the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle
Examples of registers:
 CIR (Current Instruction Register)
 ACC (Accumulator)
 MAR (Memory Address Register)
 MDR (Memory Data/Buffer Register)
 PC (Program Counter)
Registers can be:
 General purpose
 Special purpose
4. System Clock
The system clock:
 Produces timing signals
 Ensures all components are synchronized
 Sends signals via the control bus
Increasing clock speed:
 Increases processing speed
 Carries risk of overclocking
 May cause overheating and system crashes

5. System Buses
Buses transfer data and control signals throughout a computer.
They use parallel data transfer.
Bus width can vary from 8 to 64 bits.
There are three types:
Address Bus (Unidirectional)
 Carries memory addresses
 Sends addresses from CPU to memory
Data Bus (Bidirectional)
 Transfers data between CPU and memory
 Transfers data to and from input/output devices
Control Bus (Bidirectional)
 Carries control signals
 Sends signals from CU to components
Important:
The width of the address bus and data bus determines:
 Word length
 Computer performance

Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM:
 Stores data and programs currently in use
 Also known as the Immediate Access Store (IAS)
 Requires data to be transferred to RAM before processing
 Contains memory addresses and contents
 Each memory location is unique
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
ROM:
 Cannot be altered
 Contains start-up routines

3.1.2 Von Neumann Architecture

Introduced by Von Neumann, this architecture introduced the
stored program concept.
Main features:
 Use of a central processing unit (CPU)
 Processor can access memory directly
 Memory stores both programs and data
 Programs consist of instructions executed sequentially
Exam Tip:
Always mention that programs and data are stored in the same
memory.

The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle

To execute instructions, the CPU:
1. Fetches instructions from memory
 2. Decodes them
3. Executes them
Both the address bus and data bus are used.

Stage 1: Fetch
 PC contains address of next instruction
 Address copied from PC to MAR using address bus
 Contents of memory location copied to MDR
 MDR contents copied to CIR
 PC incremented by 1

Stage 2: Decode
 Instruction is decoded
 CPU interprets the instruction

Stage 3: Execute
 CPU sends control signals to components
 Instruction carried out logically
Exam Tip:
For 3–4-mark questions, describe register movement clearly.

3.1.3 Cores, Cache and Internal Clock

Clock Cycle
The clock cycle synchronizes all operations.
Timing signals are sent via the control bus.
Increasing clock speed:
 Increases CPU processing speed

Bus Width Example

 16-bit bus → can address 2¹⁶ = 65,536 memory locations
 64-bit bus → can address 2⁶⁴ memory locations

Overclocking
Overclocking:
 Changing clock speed in the BIOS (Basic Input/Output
System)
 Can cause overheating
 May cause non-synchronized instructions
  Can crash the system

Cache Memory
Cache:
 Stores frequently used data and instructions
 Improves CPU performance
 Larger cache → better performance

Cores
A core consists of:
 ALU
 CU
 Registers
A quad-core processor:
 Has four independently operating cores
 Each core executes instructions
 Cores communicate using channels
3.1.4 Instruction Set
An instruction:
 Is a set of operations
 Must be decoded in sequence
 Consists of an opcode and an operand
Opcode
The opcode tells the CPU what operation to perform.
Operand
The operand is the data to be processed or refers to a memory
location/register.
An instruction set:
 Is the collection of allowed opcodes
 Contains low-level machine instructions
 Controls how the CPU processes operations
The Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle controls instruction processing
order.

3.1.5 Embedded Systems

An embedded system is a combination of hardware and
software designed to perform a specific task.
Hardware may be:
 Electronic
 Electrical
 Electro-mechanical
Embedded systems can be based on:
 Microcontroller
 Microprocessor
 System on a Chip (SoC)

Types
Microcontroller
 CPU, RAM, ROM and peripherals
 All embedded on a single chip
 Designed for a specific task
Microprocessor
 Integrated circuit
 Contains CPU only
 No peripherals
System on a Chip (SoC)
  May include microcontroller
 Contains CPU, memory, I/O ports and secondary storage
 All on a single chip

General Structure of Embedded System

 User interface
 Analogue or digital input
 Software and hardware
 Output
Embedded systems may include:
 Sensors
 Mechanical components
 Actuators
 Software
Modern systems:
 Use dual-core or quad-core CPUs
 Use various I/O connections
Operation
Input may be:
 Manual (e.g., pressing button)
 Automatic (e.g., sensor reading)
Embedded systems can be:
 Programmable
 Non-programmable

Benefits
 Small size
 Low cost
 Dedicated to one task
 Often no need for operating system
 Low power consumption
 Remote control capability
 Fast response time
 Reliable with mass production
Drawbacks
 Difficult to upgrade
  Specialist troubleshooting required
 Interfaces may appear simple but can be confusing
 Vulnerable to hacking if internet connected
 Often discarded rather than repaired
 Can cause environmental issues due to disposal

Examples of the Use of Embedded Systems

Examples include:
 Security systems
o Use sensors (temperature, acoustic, pressure)
o Monitor for intruders
o Sound an alarm if necessary
 Set-top boxes
o Record and play back television programmes
o Accept aerial, cable, satellite or Wi-Fi inputs
o Can be controlled remotely
 Lighting applications
o Control lighting depending on time of day
o Detect room occupancy
 o Adjust brightness of ambient light
o Use sensors and actuators
 Vending machines
o Monitor selection and money entered
o Detect tilting and temperature
o Deliver items using actuators and motors
o Count money entered
o Use microcontrollers to control multiple functions
 Washing machines
o Selection via keypad
o Allows wash program selection
 Motor vehicles
o Fuel injection systems
o Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation
o In-car entertainment
o Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
 Sample Questions and Answers
a) Describe the role of registers and buses in a typical
computer system. [4]
Sample High-Level Answer
Registers
Registers are data-holding places within the CPU.
They can hold:
 An instruction
 An address
 Data
Registers can be general or special purpose.
Common registers:
 CIR (Current Instruction Register)
Stores the current instruction being decoded and executed
 ACC (Accumulator)
Stores temporary data during ALU calculations
 MAR (Memory Address Register)
Stores the address of the memory location currently being
read from or written to
  MDR (Memory Data Register)
Stores data just read from memory or about to be written
to memory
 PC (Program Counter)
Stores the address of the next instruction to be fetched
System Buses
System buses carry out three functions:
 Address bus
Carries addresses throughout the computer system
 Data bus
Carries data to and from CPU, memory and I/O devices
(Data can be an address, instruction or numerical value)
 Control bus
Carries signals from the CPU to synchronize operations
b) Discuss four ways to improve the performance of a CPU in a
computer system. [4]
 Increase the size of RAM
o Reduces data movement
o Improves operational speed
 Increase the width of the address bus and data bus
o Allows more memory locations to be addressed
 o Improves CPU performance
 Increase the clock speed
o Allows more instructions per second
o Risk: overheating and loss of synchronization
 Use multi-core processors (e.g. quad core)
o Allows multiple functions to run simultaneously
o Improves overall performance
Tips
 In part (a), include features of both registers and buses.
 Four marks require four fully explained points.
 In part (b), explain why each method improves
performance.
Sample Low-Level Answer
a) Registers store data during the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle.
Example: Accumulator.
Buses allow data and instructions to move around the computer.
b) Performance can be improved by:
 Using more RAM
 Changing clock speed
 Using bigger buses
Exam-Style Questions
1. Match each statement to the correct computer term:
Statements:
 Ensures correct synchronization of all computer operations
 Can improve CPU performance by increasing its width
 Temporary storage space that stores frequently used data
and instructions
 Can lead to overheating and non-synchronised operations
in the CPU
 Part of the processing chip that does the processing work
Terms:
 Core
 Overclocking
 Address/data bus
 System clock
 Cache (memory)
2. Give three benefits and three drawbacks of using
embedded systems in household devices. [6]
 3. a) Explain what is meant by the Fetch-Decode-Execute
cycle. [2]
b) Describe three actions that take place during the Fetch-
Decode-Execute cycle. [3]
3.2 Input and Output Devices
3.2.1 Input Devices
Barcode Readers
Barcodes are a series of dark and light parallel lines of varying
thickness.
 Represent digits 0–9
 Read using laser or LED light source
 Reflected light read by photoelectric cells (sensors)
 Creates a digital sequence of dark and light
Barcodes are mainly used in supermarkets but can be used
anywhere items need identification.
Barcode data:
 Stored in a products database
 Acts as a key field to uniquely identify records
 Retrieves product details (e.g. price)
 Allows automatic stock control and sales reporting
Advantages to Management
 Faster and easier price changes
 More up-to-date sales information
 No need to price every item
 Automatic stock control
 Can link to loyalty cards to analyses buying habits
Advantages to Customers
 Faster checkout queues
 Reduced charging errors
 Itemized bills
 Cost savings passed to customers
 Better tracking of sell-by dates
QR Codes
Quick Response (QR) codes are a type of barcode made up of a
matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background.
 Hold much more data than barcodes
 Up to 7089 digits or 4296 characters
 Three large corner squares align the code
Uses:
 Advertising products
 Automatic website access
 Electronic boarding passes
How QR codes are read:
 Smartphone/tablet camera points at QR code
 Stored app processes the image
 Browser decodes embedded web addresses
 Links sent to device
Advantages Compared to Traditional Barcodes
 Hold more information
 Built-in error-checking
 Easier to read
 No expensive laser/LED scanners required
 Easy to transmit (text or image)
 Can be encrypted for protection
Disadvantages Compared to Traditional Barcodes
 More than one QR format available
 Can transmit malicious code (at tagging)
  Easy to generate malicious embedded code
Digital Cameras
Digital images can be transferred via:
 USB
 Bluetooth
 Memory card reader
Microprocessors control:
 Shutter speed
 Focus
 Aperture
 Flash
 Red-eye removal
Modern uses:
 Car bumpers (parking aid)
 Drones
 Endoscopes
Images captured by:
 Photodiodes (Charge Coupled Devices – CCDs)
 Converted into pixels
  Stored as electronic matrix
Keyboards
Keyboards are common data entry devices.
Types:
 Physical keyboards (USB or Bluetooth)
 Virtual keyboards (touchscreen devices)
Each key has an ASCII value.
The computer detects the key pressed and determines the
character.
Disadvantages:
 Slow data entry
 Prone to errors
 Can cause Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
Microphones
Microphones have many applications, for example as a
sensor in intruder detection systems or to input text into a
computer (using speech recognition).
A microphone:
 Converts sound into electric currents of varying amplitude
 A diaphragm vibrates
 A copper coil vibrates back and forth within a magnetic
field
 The magnetic current is converted into digital data
 The data is stored in computer memory
Optical Mouse
An optical mouse is a pointing device that allows the user
to:
 Move an on-screen cursor
 Select options from a menu
It uses:
 LED light source
 Reflected light to calculate movement
Unlike a mechanical mouse:
 Works on any surface
 Has no moving parts to wear out
 Connects via USB or Bluetooth
Advantages Compared to Mechanical Mouse
 No moving parts (more reliable)
 Dirt cannot get trapped
 No special software required
 Advantages of Wired Mouse (USB) Compared to Wireless
Mouse
 No signal loss
 Cheaper (no batteries required)
 Fewer environmental issues (no battery disposal)
Scanners
Scanners are used to scan documents.
Information on the document is converted into an
electronic format stored in memory.
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
OCR software:
 Converts printed text into editable text files
 Imports text into a word processor
 Allows text to be manipulated
2D Scanners
Uses:
 Airports (passport reading)
 Border control
 Security systems (facial recognition)
 Smartphone security (prevent unauthorised access)
 3D Scanners
Produce 3D images (tomography).
Uses:
 Medical imaging (MRI scanners use radio waves)
 Building up images of human anatomy
Touchscreens
Touchscreens are common input devices used in:
 Ordering stations
 Information kiosks
 Smartphones
 Tablets
There are three common touchscreen technologies:
 Capacitive
 Infrared
 Resistive
All types allow use of:
 Bare fingers
 Special stylus
 Capacitive
 Two surfaces create electrostatic fields
 Detect change in current when touched
 Position calculated by microprocessor
 Allows multi-touch (pinch/slide)
 Good clarity in all lighting
 Durable screens
Sensitive to:
 Magnetic fields
 Microwaves

Infrared
 Uses glass screen
 Infrared transmitters and sensors
 Touch interrupts infrared beams
 Allows coordinate detection
 No screen pressure required
 Good screen durability
 Not severely affected by scratches
 Sensitive to:
 Moisture
 Light interference
Resistive
 Two layers of polymer separated by air gap
 Voltage applied across layers
 Pressure makes contact
 Current flows at contact point
 Microprocessor calculates coordinates
Features:
 Good resistance to dust and water
 No multi-touch
 Vulnerable to scratches and cracked layers
3.2.2 Output Devices
Actuators
An actuator:
 Controls a process
 Starts/stops conveyor belts
 Opens/closes valves
 Mechanical or electromechanical device
 Examples: relay, solenoid, motor
Light Projectors
Project computer output onto a larger screen or interactive
whiteboard.
Two common types:
 Digital Light Projector (DLP)
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Digital Light Projector (DLP)

Uses:
 DMD chip with many tiny mirrors
 Mirrors tilt to reflect light
 Produces grayscale image
 RGB filters create full-color image
Advantages
 Higher contrast ratios
 Higher reliability
 Longer lasting
 Smaller and lighter than LCD
 Single DMD chip reduces lining issues
Disadvantages
 Shadowing in moving images
 No grey components in image
 Color saturation not as good as LCD

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projector

Uses:
 White light split into red, green and blue
 Three LCD components
 Images recombined via prism
Advantages
 Sharper image than DLP
 Better color saturation
 Uses less energy
 Generates less heat
Disadvantages
 Contrast ratios not as good as DLP
 Limited lifespan
 LCD panels degrade over time

Printers
Two common types:
 Inkjet
 Laser

Inkjet Printers
 Spray liquid ink droplets onto paper
 Use thermal bubble or piezoelectric technology
 Stepper motors move paper
 Suitable for small print runs
 High-quality color printing
Modern inkjets:
 Use ink reservoirs instead of cartridges
 Reduce ink replacement issues
 Laser Printers
 Use dry powder ink (toner)
 Electrostatic drum
 Toner sticks to charged areas
 Heat fuses toner to paper
Advantages:
 Fast printing
 Suitable for large print runs
 High-quality text

3D Printers
3D printers produce solid objects.
Technology:
 Additive printing (layer by layer)
 Materials: powder resin, ceramics
Binder 3D printing:
 First pass: powder
 Second pass: binding agent
 Builds up thin layers (~0.1 mm)
 Uses:
 Medicine (prosthetics)
 Art and sculpture
 Replacement parts

LED and LCD Screens

LED Screens
 Made of tiny light-emitting diodes
 Each LED is red, green or blue
 Brightness controlled by electric current
 Used in large advertising displays

LCD Screens
 Made of liquid crystal matrix
 Require backlight
 Do not produce light directly
 OLED Screens
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED):
 Generate own light
 No backlighting required
 Very thin screens (≈2 mm)
 Can be flexible
 Provide true black
 Consume very little power

Speakers
Speakers produce sound from varying electric currents.
If sound is stored digitally on a computer, it must pass through a
digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) before being sent to the
speaker.
A speaker:
 Contains a paper/plastic cone
 Has a permanent magnet
 Has a coil of wire wrapped around a former
 Electric current passes through the coil
 The coil vibrates
  The cone vibrates, producing sound

3.2.3 Sensors
Sensors are input devices that read physical properties from
their surroundings (for example, temperature, pressure, light,
humidity).
Since computers only understand binary (digital) data:
 Sensor output is usually analogue
 It must pass through an analogue-to-digital converter
(ADC)

Monitoring vs Control
Monitoring
 Sensor data is read
 Data is compared to stored values
 Output may alert user
 No automatic change to process
Examples:
 Monitoring vital signs in hospital
 Intruder alarm systems
Control (Feedback)
 Sensor continuously measures data
 Data sent to microprocessor via ADC
 Compared to pre-set values
 If outside range → action taken
 Actuator activated
 Continuous loop = feedback
Example:
 Car headlights switch on when dark
 Greenhouse temperature control
Control data may pass through a DAC before operating
actuators.

Common Sensors
Temperature Sensor
Description:
 Measures temperature of surroundings
 Produces analogue signals
 Signal changes as temperature changes
Applications:
 Central heating systems
 Chemical processes
 Greenhouse monitoring

Moisture Sensor
Description:
 Measures water levels (e.g. soil moisture)
 Based on electrical resistance
Applications:
 Irrigation systems
 Food processing

Humidity Sensor
Description:
 Measures amount of water vapor in air
 Output varies with moisture content
Applications:
 Building climate control
  Greenhouse air monitoring

Light Sensor
Description:
 Uses photoelectric cells
 Produces analogue current
 Output depends on light brightness
Applications:
 Street lights switching on/off
 Automatic car headlights

Infrared (Active)
Description:
 Uses infrared beam
 Detects interruption or reflection
Applications:
 Security systems
 Automatic doors
Infrared (Passive)
Description:
 Measures heat radiation from objects
 Detects movement
Applications:
 Motion detection
 Security alarms

Pressure Sensor
Description:
 Measures pressure
 Converts pressure into electrical signal
Applications:
 Industrial systems
 Car braking systems
Acoustic Sensor
Description:
 Microphone-based
 Detects sound
  Converts sound to electrical signals
Applications:
 Security systems
 Noise detection

Gas Sensor
Description:
 Detects oxygen or carbon dioxide levels
Applications:
 Pollution monitoring
 Car exhaust systems

pH Sensor
Description:
 Measures acidity levels
 Voltage changes depending on acidity
Applications:
 Chemical processes
 Soil testing
Magnetic Field Sensor
Description:
 Measures changes in magnetic fields
 Output varies based on field strength
Applications:
 Anti-lock braking systems (ABS)

Accelerometer
Description:
 Measures acceleration or motion
 Uses piezoelectric cells
Applications:
 Mobile phone screen rotation
 Gaming controllers

Proximity Sensor
Description:
 Detects nearby objects
Applications:
 Automatic doors
 Touchless systems

Flow (Rate) Sensor

Description:
 Measures rate of liquid or gas flow
Applications:
 Industrial flow control
 Medical devices

Level Sensor
Description:
 Detects liquid levels
 Can be capacitive or conductivity-based
Applications:
 Fuel tanks
 Water level monitoring
Sample Questions and Answers
a) Explain the term sensor. [2]
A sensor is an input device that measures physical properties
from the environment and converts them into electrical signals.

b) Give three reasons why sensors are used in mobile phones

and gaming controllers. [3]
 Detect movement
 Detect rotation
 Detect tilt or position

c) Describe how sensors, actuators and a microprocessor are

used to control conditions in a chemical process. [5]
 Sensors measure temperature and pH
 Signals sent to microprocessor via ADC
 Data compared with stored values
 If temperature > 70°C → heater switched off (via DAC and
actuator)
 If pH > 3.5 → valve opened to add acid
 Continuous feedback ensures correct conditions
Teacher’s Comments (Exam Guidance)
 Always define terms clearly.
 Use diagrams where appropriate.
 For control systems, mention:
o Sensor
o ADC
o Microprocessor
o Comparison with stored values
o Actuator
o DAC (if required)
o Feedback loop
Marks are awarded for:
 Correct terminology
 Clear explanation
 Logical process description
3.3 Data Storage
Memory and storage can be split into two groups:
 Primary memory
 Secondary storage
Primary Memory
Primary memory consists of:
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
 Non-volatile memory
 Stores start-up instructions
 Contains BIOS and other firmware
 Data is stored permanently
Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Volatile memory
 Stores data, files and programs currently in use
 Data lost when power is turned off
 Used to improve operational speed of a computer
RAM sizes:
 Typically, 4 MB to 8 MB (ROM chips)
 RAM chips: usually 1 GB to 256 GB
 Secondary storage: typically 2 TB or larger
If data is needed by the CPU:
  It must first be loaded into RAM
3.3.1 Primary Memory
Primary memory is divided into:
 ROM
 RAM
 Cache memory
Cache Memory
 Extension of RAM
 High-speed memory
 Stores most frequently used data and instructions
 Checked before RAM
 Improves CPU efficiency
Types of RAM
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Uses transistors and capacitors
 Needs constant refreshing
 Less expensive
 Higher capacity than SRAM
 Main memory type
Static RAM (SRAM)
 Uses flip-flops
 Does not need refreshing
 Faster access time than DRAM
 Used for cache memory
 More expensive
 Lower capacity
 Uses less power than DRAM

3.3.2 Secondary and Offline Storage

Secondary storage devices:
 Not directly accessed by CPU
 Non-volatile
 Store applications, operating system and files
Examples:
 Hard disk drive (HDD)
 Solid-state drive (SSD)
 Optical media
 Flash memory
3.3.3 Magnetic, Optical and Solid-State Storage
There are three main technologies:
 Magnetic storage
 Solid-state storage
 Optical storage

Magnetic Storage
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
 Example of magnetic storage
 Can be fixed or removable
 Data stored on platters made from aluminium, glass or
ceramic
 Coated with magnetisable material
 Read/write heads float above platter surface
 Platters spin thousands of times per second
 Data stored in sectors and tracks
Key Terms
 Latency – Time taken for correct sector to rotate under
read/write head
  Fragmentation – Data scattered across disk affecting
performance

Solid-State Storage
Uses NAND or NOR flash memory.
Data stored as electrical charges in floating gate transistors.
Examples:
 SSD
 Memory sticks
 SD cards
Benefits of SSD Compared to HDD
 More reliable (no moving parts)
 Lighter
 Faster access
 Less power consumption
 Quieter
 Much faster data access
Drawbacks of SSD Compared to HDD
 Limited number of write cycles
  More expensive
 Difficult data recovery if controller damaged

Optical Media
CDs and DVDs
 Use red laser light
 Data stored as pits and lands
 Dual-layering increases capacity
Blu-ray Discs
 Use blue laser light (shorter wavelength)
 Higher storage capacity
 Suitable for high-definition movies
 Support encryption
 Greater interactivity
(1 nm = 10⁻⁹ m, 1 µm = 10⁻⁶ m)

3.3.4 Virtual Memory

When RAM is full:
 Part of secondary storage used as virtual memory
  Known as swap space
Process:
 Old or inactive data moved from RAM to HDD/SSD
 Memory mapping used
 Fixed-length contiguous blocks
Benefits:
 Programs larger than physical RAM can run
 Reduces need for immediate RAM upgrade
Disk Thrashing
Occurs when:
 Excessive swapping between RAM and HDD
 System slows significantly
 Less impact on SSD (no moving parts)

3.3.5 Cloud Storage

Cloud storage stores data on remote physical servers.
Large providers:
 Use server capacities of 1 exabyte (2⁶⁰ bytes) or more
Types of cloud:
Public Cloud
 Operates as single entity
 Shared infrastructure
Private Cloud
 Dedicated system behind firewall
 Exclusive to one organization
Hybrid Cloud
 Combination of public and private cloud

Data Redundancy
When the same data is stored on multiple servers:
 Ensures backup
 Improves reliability
 Protects against hardware failure
Solid-State Storage (Exam Practice Focus)
Sample Gap-Fill Question – Solid-State Devices
Key Technical Terms (from question list)
 bit value
 control gate
  electrons
 floating gate
 insulator
 intersection
 lasers
 matrix
 moving parts
 NAND
 negative
 positive
 transistor
 volatile
How Solid-State Devices Work
Solid-state devices control the movement of electrons within a
matrix made up of NAND chips.
The device is made up of a matrix and at each intersection
there is a transistor.
There are a floating gate and a control gate transistor.
When a voltage is applied:
 Electrons are attracted towards the positive terminal.
  This gives control over the bit value stored at each
intersection.
After 12 months, the charge can leak away, which means the
device needs to be used at least once a year.
One of the main advantages of solid-state devices is there are
no moving parts to wear out.
Exam Tip
For 6-mark explanation questions:
 Mention matrix, floating gate, control gate, electrons, and
bit value.
 Explain clearly how voltage controls charge storage.
 Include advantage (no moving parts).

3.4 Network Hardware

3.4.1 Network Interface Cards (NIC)
A Network Interface Card (NIC):
 Allows a device to connect to a network
 Contains a Media Access Control (MAC) address
 May be wired (Ethernet) or wireless
 Can be built-in or external
MAC Address
A MAC address:
 Identifies the physical device on a network
 Assigned by the manufacturer
 Part of the NIC
 48 bits long
 Can be:
o Universally Administered Address (UAA)
o Locally Administered Address (LAA)
Used to:
 Identify sender and recipient within a local network

IP Address
An IP address:
 Identifies global address on the internet
 May not be unique within local network
 Assigned by ISP using DHCP
 Can be:
o Static
 o Dynamic
IPv4
 32 bits
 Format: A.B.C.D (e.g. [Link])
IPv6
 128 bits
 Removes collisions
 More efficient routing
 Built-in authentication checks

Static vs Dynamic IP Address

Dynamic IP Address
 Changes each time device connects
 Greater privacy
 Can cause issues for VoIP
 May disconnect unexpectedly
Static IP Address
 Permanently assigned
 Better for servers
  Faster upload/download speeds
 More expensive

Differences Between MAC and IP Address

MAC Address IP Address

Identifies physical device Identifies global network location

Assigned by manufacturer Assigned by ISP

48 bits 32 bits (IPv4) / 128 bits (IPv6)

Cannot usually be changed Can be static or dynamic

3.4.2 Media Access Control Addresses

MAC addresses:
 Written as six pairs of hexadecimal digits
 Format example: NN-NN-NN-DD-DD-DD
 NN = manufacturer code
 DD = device serial number

3.4.3 Internet Protocol Addresses

When a device connects to a network:
  Router assigns IP address
 Uses Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Two versions:
 IPv4
 IPv6
IP addresses used in:
 Routing operations
 Identifying where device connects to internet
3.4.4 Routers
A router:
 Routes data packets between networks
 Connects LAN to WAN
 Uses IP addresses
 Converts data format if necessary
 Chooses best path for packet
A switch:
 Directs data packet within network
 Uses MAC address
 Sends packet to correct device
 Sample Question
Explain the function of a MAC address and an IP address,
including similarities.
Key Points for Full Marks:
 MAC identifies physical device
 IP identifies network location
 Both identify devices
 Both used in routing
 MAC usually fixed
 IP can change

Exam-Style Question (Network Terms)

Match definitions:
a) Hardware component allowing internet access → NIC
b) Unique identifier format NN-NN-NN-DD-DD-DD → MAC
address
c) Automatically assigns IP address → DHCP
d) Device allowing data packets to move between networks →
Router
e) Address giving global position on network → IP address