THE KELLY

The kelly is a primary link between the drilling rig's surface equipment and the bit, and is
therefore a critical component of the rotary system. Although top drive systems have
replaced kelly/rotary table combinations on many rigs, some knowledge of their manufacture
and operation is useful.
Kellys are manufactured with either square or hexagonal cross sections ( Figure 1 , Courtesy
of Smith Services, a Schlumberger Company ).

Figure 1

Their angled surfaces, or drive flats, are designed to fit into a drive roller assembly on the
kelly bushing, so that as the rotary table turns to the right, the kelly turns with it. To allow for
normal right-hand rotation of the drill string, kellys have right-hand threads on their bottom
connections and left-hand threads on their top connections
API Standards
The American Petroleum Institute has established manufacturing and design standards for
kellys, and has included them in the follwoing publications:

 API RP 7G, Recommended Practice for Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits.
 API Spec 7-1/ISO 10424-1: Specification for Rotary Drill Stem Elements

API kellys come in two standard lengths: 40 ft overall, with a 37 ft working space, or 54 ft
overall, with a 51 ft working space.

PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
For a kelly to be efficient in turning the drill string, the clearance between its drive flat
surfaces and the rollers in the kelly bushing must be kept to a minimum. Kellys most often
wear out due to a rounding-off of the drive corners, as shown in Figure 1 (new kelly with new
drive assembly) and Figure 2 (worn kelly with worn drive assembly) .

Figure 1

This rounding is a natural wear process caused by the compressive force of the rollers on the
drive flats and accelerated by rotary torque.
 Figure 2

As rounding progresses, it further accelerates the wear process by increasing the clearance
and the contact angle between the drive flats and the rollers.
For minimal rounding, there must be a close fit between the kelly and the roller assembly,
with the rollers fitting the largest spot on the kelly flats. Manufacturing techniques and rig
operating practices play important roles in determining this fit.
Both square and hexagonal kellys are manufactured either from bars with an "as-forged"
drive section, or from bars with fully-machined drive sections. Forged kellys are cheaper to
manufacture. But machined kellys tend to last longer because:

 Unlike forged kellys, machined kellys are not subject to the metallurgical process of
decarburization, which leaves a relatively soft layer of material on the drive surface that
can accelerate the rounding process and increase the potential for fatigue cracks;
 Machined kellys are made to closer tolerances than forged kellys,and so are more likely
to closely fit the roller assembly throughout their length.

A square drive section normally tolerates a greater clearance between flats and rollers than
does a hexagonal drive section.
To minimize rounding, rig personnel should follow these guidelines (Brinegar, 1977):

 Always use new drive-bushing roller assemblies to break in a new kelly.

 If the rollers are adjustable, adjust them to provide minimum clearance.
 Frequently inspect and periodically replace drive assemblies to ensure that clearance and
contact angle between the kelly and the rollers is held to a minimum;
 Lubricate drive surfaces to reduce friction and binding at the rollers, and to allow the
kelly to slide freely through the kelly bushing.

Fatigue failures are seldom a problem with kellys because of the high-quality steels used in
their manufacture. Nevertheless, kellys should be regularly inspected for cracks and other
signs of wear, particularly within the threaded connections, in the areas where the flats join
the upper and lower upsets and in the center of the drive section.
The areas of highest stress concentration — and therefore the most likely locations for
fatigue failure — are the areas where the drive flats join the upper and lower upsets.
In general, the stress level for a given tensile load is less in the drive section of a hexagonal
kelly than in the drive section of a square kelly of comparable size. Hexagonal kellys are thus
likely to last longer than square kellys before failing under a given bending load.
Kellys can become crooked or bent due to improper handling. Examples of mishandling
include dropping the kelly, misaligning it in the rathole and thereby exerting a side pull,
using poor tie-down practices during rig moves, not using the kelly scabbard and improper
loading or unloading techniques. Depending on where a bend is located, it may cause fatigue
damage not only to the kelly but to the rest of the drill string, and can also result in uneven
wear on the kelly bushing.
Unusual side motions or swaying of the swivel are good indicators of a crooked kelly. A
good field service shop has equipment for straightening bent kellys, making this an easily-
corrected problem.
Up to a certain point, a worn kelly can be repaired either by reversing the ends, ( Figure 3 ) or
by remachining it to a smaller size.
 Figure 3

Auxiliary Equipment

A kelly saver sub should always be run between the kelly and the top joint of drill pipe. This
protects the kelly's lower connection threads from wear, as joints of drill pipe are continually
made up and broken out. A saver sub is much less expensive and much easier to replace than
the kelly itself, and it can also be equipped with a rubber protector to help keep the kelly
centralized and to protect the top joint of casing against wear.
A kelly cock is a valve installed above or below the kelly, which prevents fluid from
escaping through the drill string if the well should begin to flow or "kick." As an extra well
control precaution, an upper kelly cock (having left-hand threads) should be installed directly
above the kelly, while a lower kelly cock (having right-hand threads) should be installed
below the kelly. Installing two kelly cocks ensures that at least one of them is always
accessible, regardless of the kelly's position.
Automatic check valves, designed to close when the mud pumps are shut off, are also
available, and can be installed below the kelly to prevent mud from spilling onto the rig floor
during connections.
DRILL PIPE DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTHS
Like other oilfield tubulars, drill pipe comes in a variety of lengths, diameters, weights and
grades of steel. Drill pipe is also specified according to its upset (i.e., the type of end section
provided for weld-on connections or tool joints). Factors that influence drill pipe selection
include:

 Hole size
 Well depth
 Casing and cementing requirements
 Subsurface pressures
 Circulating system and drilling mud parameters
 Hoisting capacity of drillng rig
 Pipe availability and rental cost
 Contract provisions

The American Petroleum Institute has established standards for drill pipe manufacturing
practices, dimensions, strengths and performance properties. These standards appear in the
following publications:

 API Spec 5DP/ISO 11961: Specification for Drill Pipe

 API Bul 5C2: Bulletin on Performance Properties of Casing, Tubing and Drill Pipe
 API RP 7G: Recommended Practice for Drill Stem Design Operating Limits

Size and Weight

API-standard drill pipe is available in three length ranges:

 Range 1(18-22 ft)

 Range 2 (27-30 ft)
 Range 3 (38-45 ft).

The most commonly used length is Range 2. Thus, the typical "average" length of a joint of
drill pipe is about 30 feet, or just under 10 meters.
Table 1 lists outside diameters and nominal weights for API standard drill pipe (note that
these diameters and weights apply only to the drill pipe tube, and do not include the weights
and diameters of tool joints and upsets). This information is available in API Spec 5DP and
API RP 7G.
 Table 1: API Standard Drill Pipe Diameters and Weights
Outside diameter, inches Nominal weights, lb/ft*
2.875 10.40
9.50
3.5 13.30
15.50
4 14.00
13.75
4.5 16.60
20.00
16.25
5 19.50
25.60
21.90
5.5
24.70
25.20
6.625
27.70

Strength
The strength of a joint of drill pipe is defined in terms of :

 Pipe body yield strength: a measure of the pipe's resistance to axial tension
 Collapse resistance: a measure of the pipe's ability to withstand external pressure
 Internal yield pressure: a measure of the pipe's ability to withstand internal pressure.

The values of these parameters depend on the grade of steel used to manufacture the pipe,
and on the pipe's size and weight per unit length. Table 2 lists some of the standard grades of
steel used in drill pipe, along with their minimum yield strengths, while Table 3 shows how
drill pipe strength (Grade E in this case) varies with diameter and weight.

Table 2: API Standard Steel Drill Pipe Grades

Grade Minimum Yield, psi ,
E 75,000
X-95 95,000
G-105 105,000
S-135 135,000
V-150 150,000

Table 3: Minimum Performance Properties of Grade E Drill Pipe (after API Bul 5C2)
 Outside Nominal Collapse Internal Yield Pipe Body Yield
diameter, in. weight, lb/ft Resistance, psi Pressure, psi Strength, lb
2.375 6.65 15,600 15,470 138,000
2.875 10.40 16,510 16,530 214,000
9.50 10,040 9520 194,000
3.50 13.30 14,110 13,800 276,000
15.50 16,770 16,840 323,000
11.85 8410 8600 231,000
4.00
14.00 11,350 10,830 285,000
13.75 7200 7900 270,000
4.50 16.60 10,390 9830 331,000
20.00 12,960 12,540 412,000
16.25 6970 7770 328,000
5.00
19.50 10,000 9500 396,000
21.90 8440 8610 437,000
5.50
24.70 10,460 9900 497,000
6.625 25.20 4810 6540 489,000

DRILL PIPE UPSETS

An upset—located at either end of a joint of drill pipe and to which is attached a threaded
connection, or tool joint—is thicker than the rest of the drill pipe tube to provide for stronger
welds. Drill pipe upsets can be either internal, external or internal-external.

 In an internal upset, extra wall thickness is added by decreasing the pipe's inside
diameter at the upset area; the outside diameter does not change ( Figure 1 ).
 Figure 1

 In an external upset, extra wall thickness is added by increasing the pipe's outside
diameter at the upset area; the inside diameter does not change ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2
  In an internal-external upset, extra wall thickness is added by decreasing the pipe's
inside diameter and increasing its outside diameter at the upset area ( Figure 3 ).

Figure 3

TOOL JOINTS
Tool joints (Figure 1) are box-pin connections with rounded threads, which are fabricated
separately from the drill pipe tube and then welded on at the upsets.
 Figure 1

A key consideration in tool joint design—both from the standpoint of tool joint makeup and
rotational forces encountered during drilling—is torsional yield strength. Tool joint
performance specifications therefore include information on torsional yield strength and on
recommended makeup torque. The proper make-up torque for a tool joint is a function of its
type, size, outside diameter, inside diameter and condition.

API Standards for Tool Joints

API RP 7G (1998) and API Spec 7-2/ISO 10424-2 (2008) list standards for various tool joint
types, including:

 Internal flush (IF): includes NC26,* NC31, NC38, NC46 and NC50 connections
 Full hole (FH): includes NC40 connections
 Open hole (OH)
 Slim hole (SH): includes NC26, NC31 and NC38 connections
 Slim line (SL): H-90/PAC
 Wide open (WO): includes NC38, NC46 and NC5O connections
 "Xtra" hole (XH): includes NC46 and NC5O connections.

* "NC" designate API Numbered Connection. These API connections were

developed for incorporation into the old tool joint connection types, and for design of
new connections. The number size is simply the size of the pitch diameter in inches at
the gauge point of the threads rounded off to the first two digits with the decimal
point removed. For example, the gauge point of the pin in Figure 2 , measured 5/8"
from the shoulder, is 5.616 inches giving a number size of 56.

Figure 2
 Table 1 illustrates the differences between some of these basic tool joint types for the case of
4 ", 16.60 lb/ft, new Grade 95 drill pipe (API RP 7G).

Table 1: Properties of New Tool Joints, 4-1/2", 16.60 lb/ft, Grade 95 Drill Pipe
Tool OD, ID, Tensile Torsional Recommended make-
Upset
Joint inches inches yield, lb yield, ft-lb up torque, ft-lb
Internal-
External 4 " FH 6.000 3.00 976,156 34,780 21,149
Internal-
NC46 6.250 3.25 1,084,426 39,659 16,997
External
Internal-
NC50 6.375 3.75 939,095 37,676 18,838
External
Internal-
External 4 " H90 6.000 3.25 938,984 39,021 22,616

Tool joints also vary according to the number of threads per inch (ranging between 3 and 5
threads per inch, with most connections having 4 or 5 threads per inch), the amount of taper
per foot and the overall length of the box and pin.

Identification
An examination of the tool joint connections listed above indicates that some of them are
identical. For example, the NC 26 connection applies to both Internal Flush and slim hole
upsets. This is indeed the case; API RP 7G lists these interchangeable and equivalent
connections.
Tool joints are identified by a series of 5 markings stenciled at the base of the pin connection:

 The first marking designates the company symbol.

 The second marking is a number from 1 to 12, indicating the month that the tool joint was
welded.
 The third marking denotes the last two digits of the year in which the tool joint was
welded (e.g., 06 2006).
 The fourth marking is the pipe mill code.
 The fifth marking is the pipe grade code, designated as follows:
 Grade Symbol
N-80 N
E E
C-75 C
X-95 X
G-105 G
S-135 S
V-150 V
Heavy Double-stencil pipe
Wall grade code

For example, the markings

ZZ 5 09 I E

at the base of the pin designate the company initials ZZ, and indicate that the tool joint was
welded in May 2009 by Nippon Steel Corporation (designation "I") on Grade E drill pipe.

PIPE CAPACITY AND DISPLACEMENT

Capacity is the amount of fluid that can be contained in a pipe or an annulus; it is generally
expressed as volume per unit length (e.g., barrels per foot). Displacement is expressed either
as the length of pipe required to displace a unit volume of fluid (e.g., feet per barrel), or the
volume of fluid displaced by a unit length of pipe (e.g., barrels per foot).
These quantities are fundamental to well planning and operations, particularly with respect to
drilling fluids, well control and cementing. They can be determined using formulas or read
from service company charts or tables.

Capacity and Displacement Formulas

The following formulas are adequate for quick calculations. But because they are based only
on the pipe body diameters and do not account for upsets and tool joints, they are
approximations only, and should be used with some caution.
Pipe Capacity = ( /4) (IDpipe)2

Annular Capacity = ( /4) (Dhole2-ODpipe2)

Displacement = ( /4) (ODpipe2 - IDpipe2)

where IDpipe = inside diameter of pipe; ODpipe = outside diameter of
pipe; Dhole = hole diameter (Note: in a cased hole, casing ID replaces
hole diameter)
With pipe diameter expressed in inches and capacity or displacement expressed in barrels per
foot, the constant ( /4) is replaced by 0.0009714, or (1/1029).
 For example:

 The internal capacity of 4.5 inch, 16.60 lb/ft, plain-end drill pipe (inside diameter of
3.826 inches) is (.0009714) (3.826 )2 = 0.0142 bbl/ft.
 The annular capacity in an 8.5-inch diameter hole would be (.0009714) (8.52 -4.52) =
0.0547 bbl/ft.
 Its displacement is (.0009714) (4.52 -3.8262) = 0.00545 bbl/ft.

Tables
Tabulations of pipe capaciity and displacement are usually included in engineering data
books published from oil field service companies and pipe manufacturers. These data books
are available in hardcopy and digital formats. Some of the digital versions—notably
Halliburton's eRedbook® ([Link] a downloadable version of its
classic Cementing Tables—include built-in calculators and other interactive applications.
When using these tables, it is important to note the assumptions (for example, the type of
upset or tool joint) under which the calculations were made.

DRILL PIPE HANDLING AND INSPECTION GUIDELINES

Mishandling, rough treatment and improper make-up can severely weaken oilfield tubulars.
This is especially true for drill pipe, which is relatively thin and flexible compared to the rest
of the drill string. Such weakening can lead to pipe or tool joint failures. To avoid such
failures (and the fishing jobs that usually result), drilling personnel need to handle pipe with
care.
Although drilling engineers are not normally involved in handling tubulars, it is important
that they be familiar with proper procedures and observe that they are being followed. Such
attention to detail will, in the long run, prevent well problems. The guidelines in this section,
taken from Rowe and Wilson (1981), provide a summary of good handling practices.

Thread Protection
Steel thread protectors should always be used when picking up, laying down, moving or
storing oilfield tubulars. General guidelines are as follows:

 Before picking up drill pipe from the racks, remove the thread protectors, thoroughly
clean all connections and inspect the connections for damage. If solvent or other liquid is
used for cleaning, the connections must be dried before applying thread compound. This
thread compound should be of a high grade, and API-recommended for tool joint use.
 Re-install the thread protectors before moving the pipe onto the catwalk. Do not remove
them again until the joint is picked up and the connection is ready to be made.

Pick-Up, Tripping and Lay-Down

 Pick-up, tripping and lay-down procedures can have punishing effects on drill pipe and
increase the chances of failure. Here are some guidelines for minimizing these effects:

 Before picking up, tripping or laying down pipe, inspect all handling equipment for
proper operation and signs of wear, including the elevators, the rotary table, the master
bushing, the slip bowl, slips, tongs and pull lines. Worn elevator bores, shoulders or
latches could result in dropping the drill string, while a damaged or worn rotary table,
master bushing, bowl or slips could lead to crushing of the drill pipe tube.
 Stagger breaks on each trip so that each connection can be checked and thread compound
reapplied every second or third trip.
 Exercise care when running in the hole — run in slowly enough to avoid sudden impact
on ridges or shoulders, to avoid tagging bottom and to prevent high surging or swabbing
pressures.
 Do not use the slips as a brake to stop the downward drill pipe movement when tripping
in the hole.
 Do not allow the slips to "ride" the pipe when tripping out of the hole.
 Use backup tongs when breaking connections; do not depend on the weight of the drill
string to keep the pipe from turning in the slips.
 Set the slips with the tool joint as near as practical to the rotary table— this minimizes the
possibility of bending the pipe during make-up or breakout.
 When picking up, laying down or standing back pipe, make sure that the catwalk, V-door
and derrick floor are clear of foreign objects that could cause impact damage, and that the
pipe is cleaned of any damaging or corrosive fluids.

Connections
Initial make-up is probably the most important factor affecting the life of tool joint
connections. The following practices should be a part of make-up procedures:

 Pre-determine proper make-up torque, as specified for the particular connection, size,
outside diameter and inside diameter.
 Use care when stabbing the pin connections into the box end, making sure that the pin
does not strike the box shoulder or glance off the box threads.
 Make up connections slowly. High-speed kelly spinners or the spinning chain, when used
on initial make-up, can cause galling of the threads. The driller should never jerk on
the tong line to obtain proper make-up torque.
 Use a properly working, accurately calibrated torque gauge to measure the required line-
pull as joints are made up to the required torque. This line pull is equal to the length of
the tong arm (measured from the center of the tool joint, with the tongs in the set position
at a 90° angle to the pull line) multiplied by the tong line pull.

Inspection
The IADC and the API have established detailed inspection guidelines for drill pipe and tool
joints, which can be found in these standards:

 API RP 7G: Recommended Practice for Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits
 API RP 7G-2/ISO 10407-2: Recommended Practice for Drill Stem Element Inspection
Drill string failures result primarily from fatigue. The API defines a fatigue failure as one
"which originates as a result of repeated or fluctuating stresses having maximum values less
than the tensile strength of the material." These stresses are products of the bending, torsion,
vibration, tension and friction inherent in drilling operations, and are aggravated by
corrosion, erosion, poor handling and other factors.
Fatigue failures are progressive; they generally begin as small cracks, which propagate as
continued stress is applied. Unfortunately, fatigue is hard to detect in its early stages, and
there are no accepted procedures for determining the amount of accumulated fatigue damage
or the remaining life of pipe.
Accepted methods for inspecting the drill pipe tube involve:

 visual or magnetic particle inspection to locate cracks, pits and other surface marks;
 remaining wall thickness measurement, using either:
o pipe-wall micrometers;
o sonic pulse echo (resonance measurements);
o gamma ray devices, calibrated to within 2% accuracy;
o outside diameter measurement;
o cross-sectional area measurement, either by means of a direct-indicating
instrument calibrated to within 2% accuracy, or by integrating wall thickness
measurements taken at 1-inch intervals.

Required API procedures for inspecting tool joints involve:

 measuring outside diameter.

 checking shoulders for galls, nicks, washes, fins or other evidence of wear.
 randomly checking 10% of the joints for manufacture markings and installation dates to
determine if the tool joint has been reworked.

Optional tool joint inspection procedures include:

 determining minimum acceptable shoulder width, as specified in API RP7G.

 measuring for box swell and/or pin stretch.
 examining thread profile for indications of overtorque, insufficient torque, lapped
threads, galled threads and stretching;
 conducting a magnetic particle inspection if evidence of stretching or swelling is found.

Fatigue failure can occur rapidly under certain conditions. In areas that experience a high
incidence of washouts or pipe failures, drilling personnel must be particularly selective about
what they run in the hole, even if it means discarding joints for which the only signs of
fatigue might be a few gouges in the slip area.
API 7G lists standards for classifying and identifying used drill pipe; Figure 1 shows where
identification marks are applied.
 Figure 1

Automatic Pipe Handling

Automatic pipe racker systems provide a means of handling drill pipe by remote control.
Operated from consoles on the rig floor (and, in some systems, from a derrick console) they
use hydraulic, pneumatic or air power to latch and unlatch elevators, pull and set slips, make
or break pipe connections, and lay down and pick up pipe. These systems are used primarily
on floating drilling vessels, but are also available for use on platforms, jack-up rigs and land
rigs.
Automatic pipe handling systems can provide dramatic savings on trip time and manpower,
but their greatest benefit is increased safety. Safety is an especially important consideration
on floating drilling vessels, where rough weather and heavy seas frequently render manual
methods of pipe handling not only impractical, but dangerous.
Figure 2 (Horizontal handling system for conveying drill pipe and casing from the pipe racks
to the rig floor), Figure 3 (Vertical handling system used to raise the pipe from horizontal,
place it in vertical setbacks and finger boards for storage, and convey it to the center of the
rig floor to be made up into the drill string) and Figure 4 (Iron roughneck used to make up
the threaded pipe joints and torque them to precise specifications), taken aboard Japan's deep
sea scientific drilling vessel D/V Chikyu, illustrate the main components of an automatic pipe
handling system.
Figure 2

Figure 3
 Figure 4

Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4, provided courtesy of JAMSTEC. All rights reserved.)

FATIGUE AND DRILL STRING FAILURES

It is well known that metal is weaker under dynamic loading than under static conditions.
Steel is capable of absorbing dynamic loading, or cycles of stress, for an infinite number of
reversals if the stress is kept under a certain limit. This is illustrated in Figure 1—Example of
an S-N curve showing stress versus number of cycles to produce failure.
 Figure 1

We can use as a simple illustration a nail (mild steel) that is bent back and forth until it
breaks.

 The point at which the curve straightens out is called the endurance limit. If the stress
does not exceed this limt, the material can undergo any number of cycles without
experiencing failure. In this case, if the stress is kept below 27,000 psi the nail will not
break regardless of how many times it is bent.
 At 30,000 psi the nail will break after 2,000,000 cycles.
 At 48,000 psi, which is the elastic limit, the nail will break immediately.

These failures that occur under cyclic stress are called fatigue failures.
Fatigue failure is progressive. It starts as a submicroscopic yielding of the atoms along the
crystal slip planes. As the metal continues to move under alternating stress, heat is generated,
lowering the cohesive strength of the constituents. This forms submicroscopic cracks which
progressively unite until the resulting crack becomes visible. The direction of the crack is
normal (90 degrees) to the stress— drill pipe failures are thus circumferential.
Some of the properties of steel that determine its endurance limt include chemical
composition, microstructure, surface finish, and tensile properties. As a very rough
approximation, the fatigue strength of drill pipe is about one half of its tensile strength. In
addition, the presence of notches and corrosion have a great effect on the fatigue strength.
Drill pipe is subjected to cyclic stresses in tension, compression, torsion and bending.
Tension and bending (alternate tension and compression of the same pipe wall) are the most
critical of these stresses. The magnitude of any stress can be compounded by the effect of
vibration.
Pure fatigue failures in straight hole drilling—exclusive of dog-legged or deviated holes, or
where failures are associated with notches and corrosion—are becoming less frequent. As is
discussed in the IPIMS subtopic Drill Collars, this is due to the general practice of using
sufficient drill collar weight (accounting for buoyancy and hole inclination) so that the drill
string is in tension down through the top two or three drill collars. Today the major factor in
fatigue failures is the cyclic bending when pipe is rotated in a hole having a change in
direction, or dog-leg. This occurs in straight hole drilling as well as in directional drilling.
Failure can occur even when proper drill collar weight is maintained, and there is no
permanent set in the drill pipe. When pipe is deflected and rotated, it goes through cycles of
stress from tension to compression on each side of the pipe with each rotation. It might be
noted that drill pipe rotating at 100 rpm makes 144,000 revolutions per day if left on bottom
continually. Hence in just 7 days there could be more than a million stress cycles on the pipe
when rotating under conditions creating variable stress.
The portion of the drill string that is most subject to bending is the drill pipe, just above the
drill collars. The maximum stress on the drill pipe occurs in the relatively thin pipe wall,
from the run-out point of the upset to approximately 20 inches from the tool joint. This
change of cross section in the tool joint acts as a vise and becomes the fulcrum of the bending
force. If the pipe could bend uniformly throughout its length, stress would be lower and
cycles of stress to failure would be higher.
The amount of drill pipe fatigue damage depends upon:

 The tensile load in the pipe at the dog-leg.

 The severity of the dog-leg.
 The number cycles in the dog-leg of each portion of the pipe.
 The dimensions and properties of the pipe.

Methods are available for estimating the cumulative fatigue on joints of pipe that have been
rotated through severe doglegs. The method portrayed in Figure 2 (Fatigue damage in
gradual doglegs in a non-corrosive environment. Image B4-6 reproduced with permission
from the International Association of Drilling Contractors ([Link]) IADC Drilling
Manual, 11th Edition) is a simple device to be used as a guide in analyzing joints suspected
of suffering fatigue damage.
 Figure 2

For example, consider a string of 3.5-inch diameter drill pipe under the following conditions:

 Rotary speed = 100 RPM

 Rate of penetration = 100 ft/hr
 Dog-leg severity = 10 degrees per 100 ft
 Length of drill pipe below dog-leg = 6000 ft
 Non-corrosive environment

Based on Figure 2, the tension on the drill pipe would be 70,000 lbf, and the dog-leg would
expend about 35 percent of the life of the drill pipe joint.

 Note that such damage is permanent even though the stress is relieved and/or the joint
passes through the dog-leg. Similar repetitive stresses on the joint will eventually cause
failure. Thus, if the joint passes through this or a similar dog-leg with the same rotary
speed and penetration rate three times it will fail.
 In the same regard, drill pipe may be damaged on one hole even though it does not fail. If
it is placed near the top of the string on the same or next hole, it may or may not be able
to withstand the very nominal bending stresses encountered. Thus, failures can occur later
and far from the position in the string where the trouble started, or in subsequent wells.

A correction formula to use for other penetration rates and rotary speed is:

% Life Expended = (% life expended from API charts) × (Actual RPM/100) × (10/Actual ft/hr)
 In other words, three times the rotary speed at 1/3 the penetration rate will give the same
effect.
If dog-legs of sufficient magnitude are known or suspected, it is good practice to string-ream
the dog-leg area. This reduces the severity of the hole angle change.

DRILL COLLARS

In the early years of rotary drilling , a typical bottomhole assembly (BHA) consisted of
nothing more than a short crossover sub, or collar, between the bit and the drill pipe. Over
time, drillers observed that penetration rates tended to increase as more weight was applied to
the bit,and so they began using BHAs with longer sections of heavy pipe (in keeping with the
original terminology, these heavy joints of pipe have continued to be called drill collars).
But even as these heavier BHAs brought improved bit performance, it became clear that
applying more weight to the bit involved a trade-off: a greater potential for drill pipe failure
due to increased compressive force and resultant bending or buckling.
When drill pipe rotates in a compressed state, it experiences cyclic stress reversals. Each
rotation of the string causes the drill pipe fibers to go from compression to tension to
compression. This high cyclic stress bending causes metal fatigue, which is cumulative and
eventually leads to drill pipe failure ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1
 Buckling tendencies are greatest in the pipe body between the end upsets, which is the
thinnest and most flexible part of the drill string. The abrupt change in cross-sectional area
between the pipe body and the upsets sets up stress concentrations just above and below the
much stiffer tool joint.
Thus, a fundamental objective in BHA design and drill collar weight selection is to
"eliminate the potential for axial and torsional buckling of the drill pipe" (Mitchell, 1995).
This is illustrated in Figure 2 .

Figure 2

Weight Requirements: Vertical Hole

Figure 3 (after Mitchell, 1995) illustrates two points of transition for a drill string in a vertical
well:

 The neutral point of bending, or NPB, is the point of transition from a straight to a bent
drill string.
 The neutral point of tension and compression (NPT&C) is the point below which the
drill string is in compression, and above which it is in tension.
The NPB should always be located in the bottomhole assembly, below the drill pipe. It is this
quantity that is of practical interest in drill string design. The NPT&C, on the other hand, is
normally located in the drill pipe and is not used in BHA design.

Figure 3

In practical terms, the buoyant weight of the drill collars should correspond to the desired
weight-on-bit:
(Wdc)air x BF = WOB x SF (1)
where:
(Wdc)air = weight of drill collars in air
BF = buoyancy factor, which is equal to 1- (fluid/solid) . For steel drill
collars in drilling fluid, solid is equal to 65.5 ppg (7.85 specific
gravity), and fluid is the drilling fluid density or mud weight (ppg or
specific gravity).
WOB = desired weight on bit, based on manufacturer's
recommendations
SF = predetermined safety factor. May range from 1.10 to 1.25,
depending on local conditions. In any case, it must be high enough to
 ensure that the NPB will always be in the BHA and not in the drill
pipe.
The number of drill collars needed to attain the required weight on bit can be
determined from total weight of the collars in air, the average collar length and the
unit weight (i.e., lb/ft) of each collar.
Example 1:
Given the following information:

 Bit weight required = 60,000 lb

 Mud weight = 12 lb/gal
 Safety factor = 1.15
 Drill collars available: Nine 8" OD 2 " D 31' length, 150 lb/ft; also
unspecified number of 6 " OD 2 " ID 30' length, 100 lb/ft

If all nine 8" OD collars are used, how many 6 " collars are needed?
Solution:
Buoyancy Factor (BF) = 1 - (12/65.5) = 0.82
Required weight of collars in air = WOB (SF/BF) = (60,000) ( 1.15/0.82)
= 84,146 lb
Weight of 8" collars = 9 31 150 = 41,850 lb
Weight of 6 " OD collars required = 84,146 - 41,850 = 42,996 lb
Number of 6 " OD collars = (42,996)/(100 30) = 14.1
=> Pick up fifteen (15) 6 " drill collars

Weight Requirements: Inclined Hole

In a wellbore with an inclination angle  from vertical, the amount of drill collar weight that
can be transferred to the bit is reduced by a factor equal to cos  At the same time, a
portion of the drill pipe weight can be transferred to the bit, because its helical buckling
tendencies are reduced. The equation that accounts for both drill collar and drill pipe weight
in an inclined wellbore (Mitchell, 1995) is :
WOB = [(Wdc)air BF cos] + 1617 [BF (ODdp2-IDdp2 ) (ODdp4-IDdp4 ) sin
) / (Dhole - ODdp) ]0.5
where:
WOB = desired weight on bit, lb
(Wdc)air = weight of drill collars in air, lb/ft
BF = buoyancy factor
ODdp= outside diameter of drill pipe, inches
IDdp= inside diameter of drill pipe, inches
 Dhole = actual hole diameter, inches

Example 2:
Given the same information as in Example 1 above — except that in this case the
average hole inclination in the BHA interval is 35 degrees — how many 6 " collars
are needed to attain the desired 60,000 lb weight-on-bit?

 Drill pipe = 4.5 inch, 16.6 lb/ft (3.826 inch I.D.); average hole diameter = 12.5
inches.

Solution:
WOB = [(Wdc)air BF cos] + 1617 [BF (ODdp2-IDdp2 ) (ODdp4-IDdp4 )
sin ) / (Dhole - ODdp) ]0.5
60000 = [(Wdc)air 0.82 cos] + 1617 [0.82 (4.52-3.8262 ) (4.54-
3.8264 ) sin 35 ) / (8 - 4.5 ) ]0.5
=> (Wdc)air =58,077 lb

Weight of 8" collars = 9 31 150 = 41,850 lb

Weight of 6 " OD collars required = 58,077 - 41,850 = 16,227 lb

Number of 6 " OD collars = (16,227)/(100 30) = 5.4
=> Pick up six (6) 6 " drill collars

Drill Collar Dimensions and Strengths

Drill collars are available in both API and non-API sizes. Length ranges for API collars are
Range 2 (30, 31 ft) and Range 3 (42, 43 ft).
Below is listed a range of drill collar outside diameters and bores.
Drill Collar outside
Inside bores, inches*
diameters, inches *
3.00 1.0 1.125
3.125, 3.25 1.0 1.125 1.25 1.5
3.375, 3.5, 3.75 1.25 1.5 1.75
3.875 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.00 2.25
4.00, 4.125, 4.25,
1.5 1.75 2.00 2.25
4.50
4.75, 5.00 1.5 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
5.25 1.5 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.8375
5.50, 5.75 1.5 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.8375 3.00
6.00, 6.25, 6.50, 1.5 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.8375 3.00 3.25
 6.75, 7.00, 7.25,
7.50, 7.75, 8, 8.25,
8.50, 8.75
9.00, 9.25, 9.50,
1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.8375 3.00 3.25
9.75
10.00, 10.25,
2.00 2.25 2.50 2.8375 3.00 3.25
10.50, 10.75
11.00, 11.25,
2.50 2.8375 3.00 3.25
11.50, 11.75, 12.00
* 1 inch = 25.4 mm
The unit weight of a steel drill collar may be determined as follows, assuming a steel density
of 490 lb/ft3 [sp. gr. = 7.84]:
Drill collar weight, lb/ft = 2.6725 (ODdc2-IDdc2), with OD and ID given in inches
Drill collar weight, kg/m = 0.00616 (ODdc2-IDdc2), with OD and ID given in
millimeters

TAPERED STRINGS

A tapered drill collar string is one in which the diameters of the collars change gradually over
the length of the string. Its purpose is to reduce the potential for connection failures and
fatigue damage by ensuring that changes in cross-sectional area from the larger to the smaller
drill collar are not too abrupt .
The largest-diameter collars should be placed at the bottom of the string in a vertical hole
interval, and should gradually be tapered upwards toward the smallest drill collars or heavy-
wall drill pipe.
Smith International (1988) has published the following general rules-of-thumb for running
tapered drill collar strings:

 The stiffness of the larger-diameter drill collar should not exceed 3.5 times that of the
adjacent, smaller-diameter drill collar, where

Stiffness = EI
E = Young’s Modulus:

o E for steel (Ni-200): 30.0 x 106 psi

o E for Aluminum: 10.6 x 106 psi

I = Axial Moment of Inertia, in4

 OD = pipe outside diameter, inches; ID = pipe inside diameter,
inches

 The section modulus (SM) of the larger drill collar should be no more than 5.5 times that
of the smaller drill collar, where

 Do not reduce the drill collar outside diameter (OD) more than two inches at any
crossover (for example, if the bottom collar OD is 10 inches," the collar above the
crossover should have an OD no smaller than 8 inches);
 Run at least three collars (i.e., one triple stand) of the next smaller size with each size
change.

 SPECIAL FEATURES
 Drill collars may be fabricated with special features to improve their strength, ease of
handling, downhole performance and recoverability in case fishing becomes necessary.
 Non-Magnetic Drill Collars
 Drill collars and other bottomhole assembly tools are usually made of plain carbon steel,
which can cause magnetic interference with the compasses contained in directional
survey tools. To reduce this interference, drill collars made of nickel-copper or other non-
magnetic alloys can be run in the BHA sections where the compasses are to be located.
 Square Drill Collars
 In severe "crooked hole" drilling environments (e.g., steeply dipping bedding planes,
fractured or faulted formations, extremely hard formations or hard-and-soft formation
sequences), controlling wellbore deviation can be a particular challenge. In such cases,
square drill collars can be run above the bit to centralize the bottomhole assembly,
maximize its stiffness and torsional damping, and minimize axial vibrations. Their major
disadvantages are that they are expensive to buy and maintain, they tend to create high
rotary torque, they are difficult to fish, and they grind drilled cuttings to fines, thereby
increasing mud consumption (Mitchell, 1995).
 Spiral Grooves
 Small-to-medium OD drill collars with spiral grooves ( Figure 1 ) help prevent
differential sticking by reducing the contact area between the collars and the borehole
wall, and by allowing the hydrostatic mud pressure to equalize around the drill collars.
Note that the weight of a round drill collar will be reduced by approximately 4% by
spiral conversion.
 Figure 1

 Stepped Bores
 Stepped bores (Figure 2) are reduced ID sections through pin connections of drill collars.
They are used to increase the pin strength in small and medium diameter collars when
large bores are needed for circulating fluid. A typical example would be a 6 inch drill
collar with a 2 inch bore that is reduced to 2 1/4 inches through the pin.

Figure 2


 Slip and Elevator Recesses

 Slip and elevator recesses ( Figure 3 ) eliminate the need for safety clamps and lift subs,
enabling the rig crew to simply change elevators and handle drill collars as they would
handle drill pipe. Machining and repairing these recesses, however, requires extreme
caution and close adherence to manufacturer specifications — even slight deviations in
recess depth, curvature on the ends, surface finish and cold rolling can cause serious high
stress problems. Slip and elevator recesses should not be used in highly corrosive
environments because of the increased potential for stress corrosion.


Figure 3


 Fishing Neck
 A fishing neck (Figure 4) — so called because of its ability to receive a fishing overshot
and grapple in case the collar parts in the hole — is a section of reduced outside diameter
at the end of a drill collar. It is machined to allow smaller connections, which can be
properly torqued using available rig tongs and catheads. Fishing necks are common in
drill collars of more than 8 inches outside diameter, but are occasionally found on smaller
sizes when the clearance between the collar and the hole is very small.

 Figure 4

Hard-Facing
 Many drill collars are hard-faced with tungsten carbide for areas where abrasive
formations cause rapid outside diameter wear. As is the case with machining slip and
elevator recesses, hard facing requires extreme care. The steel used in drill collars is very
sensitive to quench effect, and can easily be cracked or left with high residual stresses
that can cause cracks to form later. An additional concern is that rough hard-facing can
result in costly casing wear.

DRILL COLLAR CONNECTIONS

Design of the best rotary-shouldered connection for a drill collar calls for the pin and box to
be balanced in bending fatigue. It has been found that the pin and box are equally strong in
bending if the section modulus of the box in its critical zone (ZB) is 2.5 times greater than
the section modulus of the pin at its critical zone (ZP). These zones are shown in Figure 1 .
 Figure 1

In the box connection, the critical zone is just short of the end of the pin at the root of the last
engaged thread. It is not supported by the mating pin threads, and it is the weakest section in
the box. The critical zone of the pin is about " from the shoulder, at the root of the thread.
Section modulus ratios from 2.25 to 2.75 work very well under most conditions, and in some
cases, ratios from 2.0 to 3.2 give satisfactory performance. These numbers for bending
fatigue balance are only valid if the connection is properly tightened so that the pin gets
sufficient shoulder support.
Torsional strength is another important structural property of rotary-shouldered connections.
Critical areas of pin (AP) and box (AB) that are used for torsional strength are also shown in
Figure 1. This torsional strength determines the required make-up torque. API RP 7G
provides complete torque information for the various sizes of connections and collars.

Drill Collars vs. Drill Pipe

The difference between the treatment and properties of drill collar connections and drill pipe
tool joint connections is often misunderstood. A drill collar connection can never be made as
strong as the drill collar body. It is a sacrificial element. When it becomes worn, it is cut off
and replaced by machining new threads.
Drill pipe tool joint connections, in contrast, are much stiffer and stronger than the pipe body.
They seldom experience bending fatigue damage. The most common damage to tool joint
 threads results from leaking joints, rough handling, thread wear and swelled boxes made thin
by outside diameter wear. Damaged tool joints can often be reworked and returned to service
by chasing (that is, straightening and cleaning) the threads, thus losing only a fraction of an
inch in length.

API Numbered Connections

Historically, the nominal size of a rotary-shouldered connection was the actual outside
diameter of the drill pipe that the tool joint was designed to fit. The same connections have
been used on drill collars, although the nominal size has no meaning when applied to drill
collars. Many old connections have been incorporated into the API Numbered Connection
(NC) series.
The numbered connection series provides a good selection of connections for almost any size
drill collar. Any other API connection with four threads per inch works well. A thread with a
0.038 inch root radius will have less notch effect than a thread with a smaller radius.

Selection Criteria
Avoid using drill collar connections with five threads per inch. The 90° threads make good
drill collar connections, but relative to API threads, recommended make-up torques result in
reduced shoulder loads. Higher hoop stresses are developed and thin boxes must be avoided.
Good connections are designed to fit drill collars through 11" OD. A problem, however, is
that only large rigs may have tongs and line pull capacities to handle a 7 inch joint that
would be used on a 9 or 9 inch drill collar. Only a very few rigs can handle an 8 inch
connection on a 10 or 11 inch drill collar. There are two methods for alleviating this problem:

 A fishing neck can be used, where the drill collar diameter is reduced for about one foot
on the pin end and three feet on the box end ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2
 For example, a 9" drill collar may be reduced to 8 " for a 6 " connection, while a
10" drill collar may be reduced to 9 " for a 7" connection.

 A low torque face ( Figure 3 ) may be used.

Figure 3

In some cases, a combination of fishing necks and low torque faces may be used. The
important thing to remember is that sufficient torque on a modified end or, if necessary, a
smaller joint is far better than inadequate torque on a full-size end and a larger joint.
A feature recommended for all drill collars is cold rolling of thread roots. Cold rolling forces
metal fibers into compression in the thread root area, making the connection more resistant to
bending fatigue. This is standard procedure for most manufacturers. Good repair shops are
also equipped to cold roll re-cut drill collars. This process improves resistance to notch
fatigue and has not shown any adverse effects.
Stress relief features are highly recommended for drill collars, and are almost universally
used on drill collars five inches in diameter or larger ( Figure 4 ).

Figure 4

The only disadvantage of these features is that more of the collar must be removed to re-cut a
joint. However, a damaged drill collar joint is usually in such poor condition that it is good
practice in any event to remove most of the old joint before cutting.
Drill collars smaller than five inches outside diameter are seldom damaged by fatigue. Most
damage while in service results from high torque. Drill collars with a 4 inch OD 2 inch
ID are manufactured about equally with and without relief features. In this case, no set rules
apply, and operating conditions dictate the preference.
Stress relief features only slightly reduce the torsional strength of a connection. On medium
and large connections, this strength reduction is insignificant — it should, however, be
considered on small connections. Collars with a 2 inch internal flush bore, or smaller
joints, should never be supplied with stress relief features.
HEAVY WALL DRILL PIPE
Heavy wall drill pipe ( Figure 1 ) is an intermediate drill string member — heavier, stronger
and stiffer than regular drill pipe, but at the same time more flexible than drill collars.

Figure 1

Because it has the same external dimensions as regular drill pipe, it is much easier to handle
than drill collars. Figure 2 illustrates some of its important features.

Figure 2
 The most important drill string application for heavy wall drill pipe is in the area above the
topmost drill collars where drill pipe fatigue failure is most likely to occur. To reduce fatigue
failures in this area of the borehole, 18 to 21 joints of heavy wall drill pipe may be run above
the drill collars. This provides a gradual change in stiffness between drill collars and drill
pipe. Also, the ability of the heavy wall drill pipe to bend (unlike drill collars) serves to
relieve high stresses at the connections.
To prevent too great a change in stiffness between the drill collars and the heavy wall drill
pipe, the guidelines below can be used.

Table 1. Sizing guidelines for heavy wall drill pipe and drill collars
Heavy Wall Drill Pipe OD ( inches ) Maximum Drill Collar OD ( inches )
3.50 6.00
4.00 6.50
4.50 7.25
5.00 8.25
Heavy wall drill pipe was first used in directional drilling, which generally requires
flexibility in the drill string. It is now widely used in vertical and horizontal drilling as well.
With less wall contact than would be experienced with drill collars, its usage reduces torque
and wall-sticking tendencies. Its smaller degree of wall contact, together with its greater
stiffness relative to regular drill pipe, results in increased stability and better directional
control. Heavy wall drill pipe is also useful in reducing hook loads, making it ideal for
smaller rigs drilling deeper holes.
In certain special applications (most notably horizontal drilling) heavy wall drill pipe may be
run in compression. It is important to keep in mind, however, that a joint of heavy wall drill
pipe is not as strong as a drill collar, and that it is still susceptible to buckling and fatigue
failure. In a vertical hole, heavy wall drill pipe must be maintained in tension.

STABILIZERS
Stabilizers, by centralizing the drill string at selected points in the borehole, perform these
important functions:

 They ensure that the weight of the drill collars is concentrated on the bit.
 They reduce torque and bending stresses in the drill string.
 They prevent wall-sticking or key-seating of the drill collars.
 They can be used to build, drop or maintain hole angle in directional drilling, and
maintain constant bit direction in straight-hole drilling.

The type and placement of stabilizers in the drill string depends on local drilling conditions
and well objectives.
 In areas with a tendency toward crooked drilling, the stabilizer(s) immediately above the bit
must have adequate wall contact to provide bit stability and guidance. The stabilizer(s) must
also have wear properties that permit them to stay in gauge for the life of the bit, and they
must be able to centralize the drill string without digging into the borehole wall.
In an angle-holding, or packed-hole assembly, which requires maximum stiffness to "lock
in" the direction of the drill string, the stabilizers should have the largest possible cross-
sectional area that will permit adequate circulation passage.
For packed-hole drilling techniques, stabilizers act like drill bushings to minimize drift and
hole angle change by centering the drill string. When utilizing a pendulum, or angle-dropping
assembly, stabilizers are frequently used to increase the effectiveness of pendulum by proper
stabilizer placement and/or a reduction in gauge diameter. They similarly serve to increase
the effectiveness of an angle-building assembly by allowing a ‘’belly’’ or sag in the collars
between stabilizers . Stabilizers are also designed to prevent wall-sticking of the drill collars
and to guide them out of key seats.

Stabilizer Types
There are a variety of stabilizer types available for different drilling environments, the most
common of which are:

 Integral blade stabilizers

 Replaceable sleeve stabilizers
 Replaceable wear pad stabilizers
 Non-rotating sleeve stabilizers
 Welded blade stabilizers.

These stabilizers types are designed either for bottomhole configuration (pin up/box down
with proper API fishing neck, to be run just above the bit), or string configuration (box up/
pin down, to be run at various points in the drill string).
Integral Blade Stabilizer
The integral blade stabilizer ( Figure 1 : Integral Blade Stabilizer. Courtesy of Downhole
Stabilization Inc. [[Link]] ) can be used in all degrees of formation
hardness, but is specifically designed for harder formations to lessen the risk of moving
replaceable or welded-on components. Its long ribs are designed to provide the wall contact
necessary for proper stabilization, and are contoured to minimize torque while drilling.

Figure 1
 For larger hole sizes, the integral blade stabilizer can be manufactured with a shop-
replaceable sleeve. Its long ribs are milled directly on the sleeve to provide unitized
construction, thus preventing loss of ribs in the hole as sometimes happens with welded rib
stabilizers.
These stabilizers can be provided with pressed-in tungsten-carbide compacts or welded-on
hardfacing on the wear surfaces to increase gauge life. Integral blade stabilizers are available
in both string and bottom hole types. Integrated blade stabilizers are more expensive due to
the fact that the outside diameter cannot be restored.
Replaceable Sleeve Stabilizer
The replaceable steel sleeve stabilizer ( Figure 2: Courtesy of Smith Services, a
Schlumberger company) can be used in all degrees of formation hardness, but is specifically
designed for harder formations to lessen the risk of moving or welded-on components. Its
long ribs are designed to provide the wall contact necessary for proper stabilization, and are
contoured to minimize torque while drilling.

Figure 2

Sleeves can be changed in the rotary table, making this stabilizer type economical for remote
locations. Replaceable sleeve stabilizers are available both in bottomhole and string
configuration. They can be used for more than one hole size by changing sleeve size. Deep-
grooved passages between the sleeve ribs assure adequate circulation past the tool.
Replaceable Wear Pad Stabilizer
The replaceable wear pad stabilizer, with rig-replaceable wear pads, is very effective for
packed-hole assemblies, and can be used in all types of formations. ( Figure 3 shows a
replaceable wear pad string stabilizer, while Figure 4 shows a bottomhole configuration.

Figure 3

Figure 4
 The wear pads, which can easily be changed out in the rotary table with hand tools, provide
long wall contact area, and pressed-in tungsten carbide and carburized wear surfaces provide
maximum downhole life. Within limits, changing wear pads permits body use in more than
one hole size ( Figure 5 ).

Figure 5

Built-in wear indicators are available to indicate the need for replacement before body
damage occurs. The stabilizer body has a fluted configuration to provide for adequate
circulation. This stabilizer type is available in either bottomhole or string configuration, so
that two or three tools can be run in tandem hookups to provide additional wall contact as
required.
Non-Rotating Sleeve Stabilizer
The non-rotating sleeve stabilizer ( Figure 6: Non-rotating rubber-ribbed stabilizer.
Courtesy of Downhole Stabilization Inc. [[Link]] ) is one of the
most effective stabilizer types.

Figure 6
 A true "drill bushing," it can be used in hard to medium-hard non-abrasive formations, since
the sleeve does not rotate or dig into the borehole wall. The one-piece, rig-replaceable sleeve
is molded over a mild steel inner bushing to prevent it from being lost downhole, and has
fluted marine-type inner bearings, designed to allow continuous cleaning by the circulating
fluid. Drilling fluid acts as a lubricant and coolant to avoid friction between the mandrel and
the non-rotating sleeve. The non-rotating sleeve stabilizer is always a string-type tool.
Welded Blade Stabilizer
The welded blade stabilizer ( Figure 7: Welded blade stabilizer. Courtesy of Downhole
Stabilization Inc. [[Link]] ) ) is designed to centralize drill collars
and provide better borehole alignment.

Figure 7

Its rotating blade is especially effective in soft formations, where balling-up of mud and
cuttings on the drill string can cause problems.

JARS
A jar is a mandrel which slides within a sleeve. The free end of the mandrel is shaped in the
form of a hammer to provide a striking action against the face of the anvil.
In well operations, jars are used to provide quick, sharp, upward or downward motion to free
stuck pipe. Although we most commonly associate them with fishing operations, they can
also be run on drilling bottomhole assemblies as a precautionary measure. Drilling jars are
especially appropriate for drilling in sticky, heaving, sloughing or crooked holes. They also
have applications in controlled-weight directional drilling, as well as in coring operations.
Figure 1 shows a mechanical rotary drilling jar.
 Figure 1

Jars are usually identified according to type, inside and outside diameter, thread connection
and stroke length. There are a number of jar types available, and the type of jarring action
utilized will depend on the jar being used and the specific operating conditions. For typical
mechanical or hydraulic jars, upward or downward motion is initiated by pulling up or
slacking off on the drill string until a pre-set triggering load is reached, initiating a sharp
blow. A few such blows may be sufficient to free a stuck drill string without the expense and
risk of a fishing job.
Hydraulic jars use a hydraulic fluid to control the firing of the jar until the driller can apply
the appropriate load to the string to give a high impact. This controlled action (delay) is
provided by hydraulic fluid which is forced through a small port or series of jets. Hydraulic
jar firing delay is dependent upon the combination of load and time. Hence hydraulic jars are
adjustable according to the downhole over-pull.
In drilling operations, jars are generally run high in the drill collar string, with some drill
collars above them. Optimum jar placement and triggering load, along with the need to
enhance the jarring impact by running a companion tool known as a jar accelerator, is best
determined individually for each bottomhole assembly, with input from the service company
providing the tools.
In general, an increase in jar stroke length increases the jarring effect. With these obvious
advantages, a long stroke hydraulic jar is preferable to a mechanical jar.
Two phenomena have to be considered when jarring: the impact force and the impulse of
the jarring action. The impact force must be high enough to break the binding force causing
the pipe to stick. It must also act long enough to move the pipe—this is what is termed the
impulse.
 Both the impact force and the impulse are influenced by the number of drill collars located
above the jar. The smaller the quantity of drill collars, the higher the impact force.
Conversely, the larger the number of drill collars the greater the impulse force. A
compromise has to be reached where both impact and impulse are working together to free
the pipe.
The jars should be run in tension wherever possible. This is mandatory for mechanical jars,
and while hydraulic jar manufacturers state that their jars can be run in compression, this is
not advisable because applied weight on bit can lead to inadvertent cocking of the jar.
For vertical wells, the amount of drill collars to be run below the jar should be the sufficient
to allow the required bit weight and place the neutral point at least 30 feet away from the jar.
The buoyed weight method should be used to calculate the required length and a 15% safety
factor added. For directional wells, an additional safety factor should be applied to the
buoyed weight of the collars to account for frictional drag of the string against the low side of
the hole.
References: Rabia (2001); Anadrill (2001)

REAMERS
In hard or abrasive formations, the outside cutting structure of a bit gradually wears away if it
is not protected. The bit becomes "pinched" or undergauge, resulting in a hole diameter that
becomes smaller with increasing depth. Figure 1 shows an extreme example of an under-
gauge bit — this 6 " bit, with no stabilization, wore down to 4 " OD after making 428 ft in
59 hours.

Figure 1
When a hole is severely undergauge, it is necessary to ream each new bit back to bottom
before drilling can resume. This not only costs rig time and reduces bit life, but it increases
the possibility of sticking the drill string.
Roller-cutter rotary reamers, with either three points or six points of wall contact ( Figure 2
and Figure 3 ), have proven to be effective for keeping holes in gauge.

Figure 2

This not only prolongs bit life, but it also minimizes wear on other tools used in packed-hole
assemblies in crooked hole drilling areas.
Three-point bottomhole reamers are designed to be run between the bit and the drill
collars, with the spacing from the bit to the reamer kept to a minimum. This set-up keeps the
hole in gauge to ensure minimum time spent reaming back to bottom, protects the gauge of
tools above the reamer and provides some stabilization to the bit.
Three-point string rotary reamers are sometimes run in the drill collar or drill pipe strings
to centralize the strings in crooked hole areas. When run above the drill collars, they can be
effective in reaming out dog-legs, key-seats and ledges. Both types of three-point reamers
contain wall contact points spaced 120° apart.
Six-point bottomhole reamers are run between the bit and drill collars, and are used when
greater reaming capacity is required than can be provided by the three-point design. They are
especially effective in hard, abrasive formations where extremely hard cutters can be run in
 the lower points and regular hard cutters in the upper points. The six points of contact, spaced
60 °C apart, provide better stabilization than a three-point reamer in crooked hole areas.
A variety of roller reamer cutters are available for different formation types. For hard
formations that require a scraping action, such as dolomite, hard lime and chert, the "Q"
cutter ( Figure 3 , top) may be used. For extremely hard formations, the "K," or knobby cutter
( Figure 3 , bottom) may be used. Its tungsten carbide compacts act as teeth to fracture the
formation.

Figure 3

The reamer bodies shown here utilize drive-fit hardened reamer pins and bearing blocks,
which can be easily replaced at the wellsite without the need for special tools or welding.

HOLE OPENERS
A hole–opener ( Figure 1 : Full-diameter hole opener . Courtesy of Downhole Stabilization
Inc. [[Link]]) is designed to enlarge the diameter of a previously or
simultaneously drilled smaller borehole.

Figure 1
Three situations (at least) are possible (Sampaio, 2007):

 To drill the borehole section with a smaller bit, and later to enlarge to the final diameter.
In this case, a special tool called bull nose is connected in the place of the bit, to guide the
hole opener along the pre-drilled hole.
 To drill the borehole section with a smaller bit and simultaneously enlarge to the final
diameter.
 To enlarge a section below a casing with a diameter larger than the internal diameter of
the casing. In this case, a special hole opener known as an underreamer, with hinged
arms actuated hydraulically, is used—the drilling fluid pressure actuates in rams that
open the arms, forcing the cutters against the borehole wall.

 FLOAT SUBS
 A float sub, which is usually run just above the bit, contains a check valve ( Figure 1 :
Drill pipe float valve. Courtesy of Downhole Stabilization Inc.
[[Link]]). Its purpose is to prevent drilling fluid from
backflowing into the drill string. Such backflow could occur, for example, in the top
section of the hole when large volumes of cuttings are produced at high rates of
penetration, which might result in increased mud density and plugged bit nozzles. A float
sub can also reduce the potential for kicks due to swabbing. When a float sub is placed
above the bit, the drill string has to be filled while running in the hole. is designed to
enlarge the diameter of a previously or simultaneously drilled smaller borehole.

Figure 1

 References: Baker Hughes INTEQ (1995); Rabia (2001); Sampaio (2007)

CIRCULATING SUBS
A circulating sub is incorporated within the drill string (above the mud motor or MWD
assembly) to provide a large opening to circulate through. A ball is dropped to close the
downward path of the mud flow and open a side path that allows the mud to flow in straight
to the annulus. A circulating sub is used when lost circulation material (LCM) is to be
pumped, to avoid plugging the bit, MWD or mud motor. Circulation needs to be increased to
clean the hole prior pulling out of the hole.
References: Baker Hughes INTEQ (1995); Rabia (2001); Sampaio (2007)

CROSSOVER SUBS
Crossover subs join drill string components of different sizes or thread connections ( Figure
1 : Crossover Sub and Figure 2 : Non-magnetic corssover sub. Courtesy of Downhole
Stabilization Inc. [[Link]]). For example, a double-box crossover
would be needed to join a bit with an API Regular pin connection to a drill collar with API
Full Hole pin connection. It is important to keep track of the types of connections on each
component of the drill string, and to make sure that the appropriate crossovers are available.

Figure 1
VIBRATION DAMPENERS
One of the more important considerations in drill string design is dealing with the vibrations
and shock loads that are produced as the bit rotates on bottom. Such vibrations can cause
rough running at the surface, and can result in damage to the bit, drill collars, drill pipe and
other components.
There are a number of drilling parameters that determine whether vibration will occur,
including:

 formation lithology (e.g., hard rock, broken formations, and formations with intermittent
hard and soft streaks)
 depth;
 bottomhole assembly configuration;
 weight on bit
 rotary speed.

Engineers can use these and other parameters during the well planning process to develop
computer models for optimizing drill string design. They can also monitor vibrations during
the drilling of the well by means of surface or downhole (MWD) sensors. It is often possible
to control or eliminate downhole vibrations by modifying the bottomhole assembly
configuration, or simply by adjusting rotary speed and/or weight on bit.
A vibration dampener or shock sub may be useful in some cases for absorbing vibrations
and shock loads. A vibration dampener is a type of shock absorber designed to prevent
vibrations generated by the bit from traveling up the drill string to the surface. It is
commonly run between the bit and the drill collars, or above the large-diameter short drill
collar segment of a packed-hole drilling assembly. When properly used, vibration dampeners
can result in faster drilling rates, longer bit life, less damage to the drill string and surface
equipment, and reduced torsional impact.
In its simplest form, a shock sub consists of three parts: a grooved female housing, a
matching splined male housing and a set of entrapped spring elements ( Figure 1 , Figure 2 ,
and Figure 3 ). The spring and spline mechanisms are lubricated in hydraulic oil which is
retained by seals between the housing and the mandrel. When installed above the bit, weight
on bit tends to compress the springs and close the shock sub. The pressure drop through the
bit nozzles below the tool tends to counteract this by acting against the internal cross section
and pumping the tool open. In theory as the bit bounces and or the assembly vibrates the
shock sub strokes rapidly up or down around a median point, minimizing fluctuations in
WOB and isolating the bit and assembly from each other. Shock subs are used to minimize
the effect of drillstring vibrations upon the bit to enhance bit performance and bit life. In
addition the effects of bit bounce are reduced and isolated from the drillstring to reduce
fatigue wear of the string.
Figure 1

Figure 2
 Figure 3

Because of the complexity and magnitude of the forces acting on the bit and drill string,
vibration dampeners cannot be considered a cure-all for vibration problems. They should not
be routinely added to drill strings without first modeling their effects. Improperly applied, a
shock sub may not only fail to absorb severe vibrations, but could even create additional
vibrations, thereby accelerating, rather than preventing, drill string failure.
References: Baker Hughes INTEQ (1995); Rabia (2001); Sampaio (2007); Smith
International (1981).

DRILL STRINGS FOR HIGH-ANGLE DRILLING

In high-angle drilling (i.e., horizontal and extended-reach wells), getting the required weight
to bottom is a primary requirement just as it is with vertical drilling operations, and torque,
drag and buckling are critical design parameters.
The approach to drill string design for high-angle wells is fundamentally different from that
of vertical wells. The weight on bit (WOB) in high-angle drilling does not come from the
weight of drill collars placed between bit and drill pipe as the case for vertical drilling.
Instead, an "inverted" configuration is used consisting of, from top to bottom:

 A vertical section, made up of conventional drill pipe run in tension

 A weight stack section, consisting of drill collars or heavy wall drill pipe
 A build section, consisting of compressive service drill pipe (this is the section where
maximum bending stress occurs)
  A horizontal load section, consisting of large-diameter or compressive service drill pipe
—this section must transmit axial and torsional loads, and it is here that torque and drag
are of primary concern and must be kept to a minimum.
 A bottomhole assembly consisting of a bit, downhole motor, subs, non-magnetic drill
collars, MWD/LWD tools and rotary steerable systems.

References

American Petroleum Institute (1999). API Bull 5C-2. Bulletin on Performance Properties of
Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe. Twenty-first Edition. Washington D.C., USA.

American Petroleum Institute (2006). API Spec 7-1/ISO 1042401:2004: Specification for
Rotary Drill Stem Elements. First Edition. Washington D.C., USA.

American Petroleum Institute (1998). API RP7G: Recommended Practice for Drill Stem
Design & Operating Limits. Sixteenth Edition. Washington D.C., USA.

American Petroleum Institute (1998). API RP7G: Recommended Practice for Drill Stem
Design & Operating Limits. Sixteenth Edition. Washington D.C., USA.

American Petroleum Institute (2009). API RP7G-2/ISO 10407-2:2008: Recommended

Practice for Drill Stem Element Inspection. First Edition. Washington D.C., USA.

American Petroleum Institute (1988). API Spec. 5D: Specification for Drill Pipe. First Edition.
Washington D.C., USA.

American Petroleum Institute (2009). API Spec. 5DP: Specification for Drill Pipe. First
Edition. Washington D.C., USA.

Anadrill (2001). Advance Drilling Systems, Equipment Guideline (January 5). Houston:
Schlumberger.

Baker-Hughes INTEQ (1995). "Drilling Engineering Workbook" (A Distributed Learning

Course). Houston, TX USA (10 December).

Brandon, B.D. et. al (1992). "First Revision to the IADC Fixed Cutter Dull Grading System."
SPE/IADC Technical Paper 23939, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, New
Orleans (18-21 February). Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum Engineers.

Brinegar, Doyle W (1977). "What You Should Know About Kellys." Oil and Gas Journal.
(May 2).

Burgoyne, Adam T. Jr., Milheim, Keith K., Chenevert, Martin E. and Young, KS. Jr.
(1986). Applied Drilling Engineering. Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Craddock, Anthony J. (1973). "Present, Future Trends in Downhole Drilling Tools." Petroleum
Engineer (August): 61-64. Houston: Hart Publications, Inc.

Downhole Stabilization Inc. (2010). Product catalog at [Link].

Bakersfield, CA USA: Downhole Stabilization Inc.

Garret, W.R. and Wilson, Gerald E. (1974). "Proper Field Practices for Drill Collar Strings."
SPE Technical Paper 5124, prepared for the 49th Annual Fall Meeting of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Houston, October 6-9. Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum
Engineers.

Garret, W.R. (1962). "The Effect of a Down Hole Shock Absorber on Drill Bit and Drill Stem
Performance." Presented at the Petroleum Mechanical Engineering Conference of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Dallas, September 23-26.

Gatlin, Carl. (1960). Petroleum Engineering. Drilling and Well Completions. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, USA: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Halliburton Services. (1981 ). Halliburton Cementing Tables. Duncan, OK, USA: Halliburton
Services.

International Association of Drilling Contractors (2009): IADC Drilling Manual, 11th

Edition. Houston: IADC Publications.

Lubinski, Arthur. (1961). "Maximum Permissible Dog-Legs in Rotary Boreholes." Journal of

Petroleum Technology (February). Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum Engineers.

Mitchell, Bill (1995). Advanced Oilwell Drilling Engineering Handbook, 10th edition, 1st
revision. Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum Engineers.

Rabia, H. (2001). Well Engineering and Construction. Reading, U.K.: Entrac Consulting
(September).

Rollins, H.M. (1966). "Drill Pipe Fatigue Failure." Oil& Gas Journal (April 18).

Rowe, Morris E. (1976). Heavy Wall Drill Pipe. A Key Member of the Drill Stem. Publication
No. 45. Houston: Drilco Division of Smith International, Inc.

Rowe, Morris E. and Wilson, Gerald E. (1981). "How to Get the Most Out of Your
Drillstring." Petroleum Engineer International (September).

Sampaio, Jorge H.B. Jr. (2007). Drilling Engineering Fundamentals. Bentley, Western
Australia: Curtin University of Technology

Smith International, (1988-89). Datadril/Drilco/Dyna-Drill/Servco Tools and Services,

General Catalog. Houston
Smith International, Inc. (1988). DRILCO Drilling Assembly Handbook. Fourth Edition.
Houston.

Wilson, Gerald E. (1976). "How to Drill a Usable Hole." Four Parts. World Oil (August,
September, October, November).

Wilson, Gerald E. (1979). "How to Select Bottomhole Drilling Assemblies." Two Parts.
Petroleum Engineer International (March, April).

Wilson, Gerald E. (1977). "Operators Slash Deep Drilling Costs with RWP® Stabilizers." Oil
and Gas Journal (August 8).

Woolley, Steve (1978). "MudChek® Kelly Valve Cuts Waste of Time, Mud." Oil and Gas
Journal (February 20).

ADDITIONAL READING
Gravem, Trond (2006). "Demonstrating Capability". Geo Expro (November).
[Link]
Hill, T., Ellis, S., Lee, K., Reynolds, N., and Zheng, N. (2004). "An Innovative Design
Approach to Reduce Drill String Fatigue". SPE 87188, presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling
Conference held in Dallas, Texas, USA.(2-4 March) . Richardson, TX, USA : Society of
Petroleum Engineers.
Lapeyrouse, Norton J. (1999). Formulas and Calculations for Drilling, Production and
Workover. Woburn, MA USA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Originally published by Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston.
Lou, A., and Souder, W. (1998). "Composite Drill Pipe for Oil and Gas E&P Operations".
SPE 48888, presented at the SPE International Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition in
China held in Beijing, China (2-6 November). Richardson, TX, USA : Society of Petroleum
Engineers.
Murch, C. (1996). "Application of Top Drive Drilling to Horizontal Wells". SPE 37100,
presented at the SPE Horizontal Well Technology Conference held in Calgary, Alberta,
Canada (18-20 November) . Richardson , TX, USA : Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Shepard, S., Reiley, R., and Warren, T. (2001). "Casing Drilling: An Emerging
Technology". SPE 67731, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in
Amsterdam, The Netherlands (27 February-1 March). Richardson, TX, USA: Society of
Petroleum Engineers.
Summers, M., and Crabtree, S. (1998). "Drill String Management to Reduce Drilling
Risks". SPE 39325, presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in Dallas, Texas (3-
6 March). Richardson, TX, USA: Society of Petroleum Engineers.