REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

By: [Link] Gazmer

Assistant professor (Department of Pharmacology)
 Introduction
• The reproductive system (genital system) is the
biological system made up of the organs that
are involved in sexual reproduction and are
capable of reproducing its own kind.
• Sexual reproduction is the process by which
organisms produce offspring by making germ
cells called gametes (GAM-ēts spouses).
After the male gamete (sperm cell) unites with
the female gamete (secondary oocyte)—an
event called fertilization occurs
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The organs of male reproductive
system are:
– External genital organs:
i. Penis containing urethra
– Internal genital organs:
i. Testis
ii. Vasdeferens
iii. Seminal vesicles
iv. Prostrate gland
 PENIS:
• – It is the copulatory organ and also it
contains the terminal part of urethra.

• – The different parts of the penis are:

i. Corpora cavernosa- These are the two
pillars of erectile tissue lying side by side
under the skin of penis.
ii. Corpora spongiosum contains the urethra
and it lies below corpora cavernosa.
iii. Glans penis which is the enlarged tip of
penis.
iv. Prepuce which is a fold of skin covering
the glans penis.
 TESTIS:
• – Male reproductive organ  produce spermatozoa.
• – Two oval shaped bodies lying one on each side in the scrotum.
• – The scrotum forms a bag or pouch for the two testes.
• – Each testis is enclosed in a sac called tunica vaginalis which is
derived from peritoneum.
• The testis are suspended in the scrotum by means of Spermatic cords.

■ STRUCTURES:
• – Each testis (testicle) contains a number of tubules called
Seminiferous tubules.

• – The seminiferous tubules unite at the upper end of testis and form
Epididymis.

• – The epididymis forms the commencement of Vas deferens (Seminal

duct).

• – In between the seminiferous tubules there are interstitial cells

(leydig cells) which secrete testosterone.
 VAS DEFERENS(seminalduct):
– They are two in number one for each testis.
– The vas deferens commences from the epididymis at the upper
end of testis.
– It leaves the scrotum in the spermatic cord.
– It travels upwards within the spermatic cord and enters the
abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal.
■ From the abdominal cavity, the vas deferens enters the pelvis
and joins with the seminal vesicle which is situated at the back of
the bladder.
 SEMINAL VESICLES
– They are two in number, each one lies at the side of the
terminal part of vas deferens.
– The seminal vesicle joins with the terminal portion of vas
deferens and forms the ejaculatory duct.
– The ejaculatory duct pierces the prostate gland and opens into
the urethra.
■ The function of seminal vesicles is to produce a thick secretion
which is added to the spermatozoa during ejaculation.
 PROSTATE GLAND:
•– The prostate gland lies below the
bladder and it surrounds the rst part of
the urethra.
•– It is pyramidal in shape.
•– Its base is directed above and it is in
contact with the inferior surface of
bladder.
•– The apex is directed downward.
•– The prostate consists of glands,
ducts and involuntary muscles.
•– The prostate secretes a uid which is
conveyed to the urethra through ducts.
fl
fi
 SEMEN:
•– Semen is the compound secretion of testes, prostate and seminal vesicles.
•– Semen acts as vehicle for spermatozoa and also it provides nutrition to
the spermatozoa.
•– It is a thick, whitish colored viscous uid.
•– It is slightly alkaline with a pH of 7.4
•– Each ejaculation produces 3 ml of semen.
•– Each ml of semen normally contains about 60-100 million spermatozoa.
•– In addition, semen contains:
i. A viscid uid secreted by the seminal vesicles
ii. A thin lubricating uid secreted by prostate gland
iii. Mucous secreted by urethral glands.
fl
fl
fl
 SPERMATOZOA:
– Produced by the seminiferous
tubules of testis.
– Each spermatozoon contains
a head, body and tail.
– They are highly motile and
their function is to fertilize the
ovum in the female genital
tract.
 PUBERTY IN THE MALE
▪This occurs between the ages of 10 and 14.
▪Luteinizing hormone from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland stimulates
the interstitial cells of the testes to increase the production of testosterone.
■ Under the in uence of testosterone, sexual maturation and other
characteristic changes take place, including: growth of muscle and bone and a
marked increase in height and weight enlargement of the larynx and
deepening of the voice– it ‘breaks’ growth of hair on the face, axillae, chest,
abdomen and pubis enlargement of the penis, scrotum and prostate gland
maturation of the seminiferous tubules and production of spermatozoa. The
skin thickens and becomes oilier.
fl
 SPERMATOGENESIS
▪In humans, spermatogenesis takes 65–75 days.
▪It begins with the spermatogonia (stem cells), which contain the diploid (2n)
number of chromosomes.
▪When Spermatogonia undergoes mitosis some spermatogonia remain near the
basement membrane of the seminiferous tubule in an undifferentiated state to
serve as a reservoir of cells for future cell division and subsequent sperm
production.
▪The rest of the spermatogonia lose contact with the basement membrane, undergo
differentiation, and form primary spermatocytes.
▪Primary spermatocytes, like spermatogonia, are diploid (2n); that is, they have 46
chromosomes.
▪Shortly after it is formed, each primary spermatocyte replicates its
DNA and then meiosis begins.
▪In meiosis I, homologous pairs of chromosomes line up at the
metaphase plate, and crossing- over occurs.
▪Then, the meiotic spindle pulls one (duplicated) chromosome of
each pair to an opposite pole of the dividing cell.
▪The two cells formed by meiosis I are called secondary
spermatocytes.
▪Each secondary spermatocyte has 23 chromosomes, the haploid
number (n).
▪Each chromosome within a secondary spermatocyte, however, is
made up of two chromatids (two copies of the DNA) still attached by
a centromere.
▪No replication of DNA occurs in the secondary spermatocytes.
▪In meiosis II, the chromosomes line up in single le along the
metaphase plate, and the two chromatids of each chromosome
separate.
▪The four haploid cells resulting from meiosis II are called spermatids.
▪A single primary spermatocyte therefore produces four spermatids
via two rounds of cell division (meiosis I and meiosis II).

fi
▪A unique process occurs during spermatogenesis. As spermatogenic
cells proliferate, they fail to complete cytoplasmic separation
(cytokinesis).
▪The cells remain in contact via cytoplasmic bridges through their entire
development. This pattern of development accounts for the
synchronized production of sperm in any given area of the seminiferous
tubule. It may also have survival value in that half of the sperm contain
X chromosome and half contain a Y chromosome.
▪The larger X chromosome may carry genes needed for spermatogenesis
that are lacking on the smaller Y chromosome.
▪The nal stage of spermatogenesis, spermiogenesis, is the development
of haploid spermatids into sperm.
fi
▪During this process, spherical spermatids transform into elongated,
slender sperm.
▪An acrosome forms at top of the nucleus, which condenses and
elongates, a agellum develops, and mitochondria multiply.
▪Sertoli cells dispose off the excess cytoplasm that sloughs off.
▪Finally, sperm are released from their connections to Sertoli cells, an
event known as spermiation.
▪Sperm then enter the lumen of the seminiferous tubule. Fluid secreted
by Sertoli cells pushes sperm along their way, toward the ducts of the
testes. At this point, sperm are not yet able to swim.
fl
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• SECONDARY ORGAN:
A. Breasts (mammary glands)
• EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS:
B. Mons veneris/mons pubis
C. Labia major
D. Labia minora
E. Clitoris
F. Hymen
• INTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS
G. vagina
H. Uterus
I. Ovaries
J. Fallopian tubes
 Secondary organ
▪ BREASTS (Mammary glands):
• – They are the accessory or secondary reproductive organs in female that secretes milk.
• – The mammary glands are rudimentary in males.
• – The breasts lie on the pectoralis major muscle on both sides where they extend between the
sternum and axilla.
• – From above to downward, they extend between the 2nd and 6th rib.

▪ External features:
– The breasts are hemispherical in shape that contain a small prominence at the centre called nipple
Internal structures:
• – The breast consists of a number of lobules which are made of columnar epithelium.
• – These lobules are surrounded by fat.
• – These lobules give rise to lactiferous ducts which pass towards the nipple.
• – These ducts have an enlargement at the end which is called ampulla(lactiferous sinus).
▪ DEVELOPMENT OF BREASTS:
• – At birth, it is poorly developed and it contains only a rudimentary nipple.
• – At puberty, it starts to develop and the gland tissue increases.
• – This is due to the action of oestrogen and progesterone secreted by the ovaries.
• – The active development commences at the starting of menstruation when there is deposition of fat
and increase in size.
• – After menopause, the ovaries lose their function and the breast tends to shrink.
▪ SECRETION OF MILK:
• – During pregnancy, oestrogen and progesterone secreted by the ovary, stimulate the growth of ducts
and lobules of breast.
•– Later these two hormones are secreted by placenta and produce the same effect.
•– After child birth, the secretion of these two hormones decreases.
•– Now, milk secretion is stimulated by prolactin of anterior pituitary,
•– Oxytocin of posterior pituitary is responsible for milk ejection.
EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS:
– These organs are collectively known as Vulva and it consists of the following
parts:
Mons veneris (mon pubis): It is the superior border of vulva made of fatty mass
that lies in front of symphysis pubis. It gets covered with pubic hair after puberty.
Labia majora: They are two round and thick folds of skin which form the sides of
the vulva.
Labia minora: they are the two thin folds of skin which lie in the space enclosed
by labia majora. There lies a vestibule which contains the openings of urethra and
vagina.
Clitoris: It is a small erectile body which is situated at the apex of the vestibule
and it is highly sensitive structure that corresponds to the penis.
Hymen: It is a thin membrane which covers the vaginal ori ce. It is usually
perforated so as to allow the menstrual ow.
fl
fi
INTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS:
– Vagina: it is a canal made of muscular walls that extends from the vaginal
ori ce below to the cervix of the uterus above.
– Uterus: Also called womb is a hollow muscular organ situated in the pelvis
and is covered by peritoneum and lies between the bladder in front and rectum
behind.
■ The uterus can be divided into three parts:
Fundus- Upper part which lies above the two openings of fallopian tube.
Body- It is the part which lies between the fundus and cervix.
Cervix- It is the lower constricted part and is continuous above with the body
of uterus through an ori ce.
- Fallopian tube: they are attached on either sides of the fundus of uterus.
fi
fi
LIGAMENTS OF UTERUS:
– The uterus is supported and held in position by means of two ligaments.
[Link] broad ligaments which are folds of peritoneum. They extend between the sides of the uterus
and the pelvic wall. They contain fallopian tube, round ligament, blood vessels, nerves and
lymphatics.
[Link] round ligaments which extends from the uterus (below the fallopian tube) to labia majora.
Structure of uterus: The walls of the uterus are thick and consists of three layers:
 Outer peritoneal layer called perimetrium.  Middle muscular layer called myometrium.
 Inner mucous layer called endometrium.
Functions of uterus
▪ Plays an active part in menstruation.
▪ Receives the fertilized ovum and retains it during pregnancy.
▪ Expels the foetus by contraction of its muscular walls.
▪ It also nourish and house a fertilized egg until the fetus or offspring is ready to be delivered.
▪ OVARIES:
• – The ovaries are two in number.
• – They lie on either side of the uterus.
• – A fold of peritoneum attaches the ovaries to posterior aspect of broad ligament.
• – The ovaries lie below the fallopian tube of each side.
▪ Structure: It contains-
• – A central soft tissue called stroma.
• – An outer surface called germinal epithelium.
▪ The germinal epithelium contains the graf n follicles.
▪ The graf n follicles contains ova.
▪ The ova are surrounded by a uid called liquor folliculi.
• – Ovulation occurs due to the rupture of the graf n
follicles.
• – Corpus luteum is the graf n follicle which has liberated its ovum.
FUNCTIONS OF OVARY:
– Formation, development and liberation of ova. – Secretion of oestrogen (by graf n follicle).
– Secretion of progesterone (by corpus luteum).
fi
fi
fl
fi
fi
fi
▪ FALLOPIAN TUBE:
• – The fallopian tubes are two in number and arise one on each side
from the upper angles of uterus.
• – They lie in the upper margin of broad ligament of uterus and has outer peritoneal layer, middle
muscular layer and inner mucous layer.
▪ The fallopian tube has three different parts:
• i. Uterine end: It is attached to the walls of uterus. The opening at this end continues with the
cavity of uterus.
• ii. Ampulla: It is a slight enlargement near the fumbrial end.
• iii. Fumbrial end: It is the terminal portion of fallopian tube which has a nger like processes
called mbriae. It also has an opening which gives access to the peritoneal cavity.
▪ FUNCTIONS OF FALLOPIAN TUBE:
• – The fallopian tube acts as a passage for ova from the ovary to
uterus.
• – Usually, the fertilization of ovum by spermatozoa occurs in the fallopian tube.
fi
fi
PUBERTY IN FEMALES:
• – It is the age at which internal reproductive organs mature.
• – It usually occurs at the age of 10-14 years in girls.
• – It is marked by the onset of menstruation (the menarche).
• – The physical and physiological changes which occur at puberty are:
i. Maturation of ovaries, uterus and uterine tubes.
ii. Enlargement of vagina and breasts.
[Link] of axillary and pubic hair.
iv. Increased growth and widening of pelvis.
v. Onset of menstruation and ovulation.
[Link] deposition of fat in subcutaneous tissue.
vii. Mental and emotional maturity.
OVULATION
▪Maturation of the graf an follicle and liberation of ovum is termed as ovulation.
▪The ovary contains graf an follicles which are about 40,000 in number. They are formed even
during the foetal life. The rest get degenerated but all the follicle are lost at menopause.
▪Ovulation occurs due to the rupture of the graf an follicles. This is stimulated by luteinizing
hormone of anterior pituitary.
▪After discharging the ovum, the graf an follicle forms the corpus luteum. Estrogen is produced by
the corpus luteum.
▪If pregnancy takes place, the corpus luteum persists up to 5th-6th month of pregnancy but if it does
not takes place then the corpus luteum regresses and gets atrophied and forms corpus albicans.
▪Ovulation occurs at the 14th day of menstrual cycle.
▪The ovum is discharged into the peritoneal cavity.
▪It is carried to the fallopian tube by the action of mbriae.
▪The ovum gets fertilized in the fallopian tube and later gets embedded in the uterine wall.
▪If the ovum is not fertilized, it is discharged through the menstrual ow.
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fl
 MENSTRUATION
▪Menstruation starts at puberty.
▪It stops temporarily during pregnancy but permanently at
menopause.
▪It occurs almost every 28days.
▪Menstruation involves periodic discharge of blood from uterine
cavity.
▪During menstrual cycle, the endometrium undergoes cyclic
changes and is prepared to receive the fertilized ovum. These
endometrial changes are also associated with changes in the ovary.
MENSTRUATION
Menstrual cycle undergoes three phases:
Destructive phase (Menstrual phase):
– It is the phase lasting for the rst 5 days of the cycle during which menstrual bleeding occurs.
Follicular phase (Proliferative phase):
• – It extends for the next 9 days.
• – During this time, repair of the endometrium occurs.
• – At this stage, the graf an follicle of the ovary matures (FSH is important here) and ova develops inside.
• – The graf an follicle now secretes oestrogen.
• – Around the 14th day of the menstrual cycle, the graf n follicle ruptures and release the ova.
• – The graf an follicle now becomes corpus luteum.
Luteal phase (Secretory phase):
• – This phase lasts for next 14 days where the endometrium becomes thick and vascular so as to receive the
fertilized ovum.
• – Now, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone (LH is important).
• – If conception occurs by implantation of the fertilized ovum, the secretion of progesterone continues
throughout pregnancy.
• – Otherwise, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate and does not produce progesterone.
• – Later, the capillaries of endometrium burst and menstruation occurs.
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
MENOPAUSE (Climacteric)
▪ It is the cessation of menstruation which occurs in a women’s life of about
45 years of age.
▪ It is caused by the changes in the concentration of sex hormones.
▪ The ovaries become less responsive to FSH and LH.
▪ So, ovulation and menstrual cycle become irregular and stop ultimately.
▪ Menopause is accompanied by certain changes like:
• – Flushing and sweating
• – Shrinkage of breast
• – Atrophy of sex hormones
• – Episodes of uncharacteristic behavior (mood swings).
OOGENESIS & FOLLICULAR DEVELOPMENT
■ The formation of gametes in the ovaries is termed
oogenesis.
■ In contrast to spermatogenesis, which begins in males
at puberty, oogenesis begins in females before they are
even born.
■ During early fetal development, primordial (primitive)
germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to the ovaries.
■ There,germ cells differentiate within the ovaries into
oogonia.
Oogonia are diploid (2n) stem cells that divide mitotically to
produce millions of germ cells.
■ Even before birth, most of these germ cells degenerate in a
process known as atresia.
■ A few, however, develop into larger cells called primary
oocytes that enter prophase of meiosis I during fetal
development but do not complete that phase until after puberty.
■ During this arrested stage of development, each primary
oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of at follicular cells,
and the entire structure is called a primordial follicle.

fl
■ The ovarian cortex surrounding the primordial
follicles consists of collagen bers and broblast-like
stromal cells.
■At birth,approximately200,000 to 2,000,000 primary
oocytes remain in each ovary.
■ Of these, about 40,000 are still present at puberty, and
around 400 will mature and ovulate during a woman’s
reproductive lifetime.
■ The remainder of the primary oocytes undergo atresia.
fi
fi
■ Each month after puberty until menopause, gonadotropins (FSH and LH) secreted
by the anterior pituitary further stimulate the development of several primordial
follicles, although only one will typically reach the maturity needed for ovulation.
▪A few primordial follicles start to grow, developing into primary follicles.
▪Each primary follicle consists of a primary oocyte that is surrounded in a later
stage of
development by several layers of cuboidal and low-columnar cells called granulosa
cells.
▪The outermost granulosa cells rest on a basement membrane.
▪As the primary follicle grows, it forms a clear glycoprotein layer called- zona
pellucida between the primary oocyte and the granulosa cells.
▪In addition, stromal cells surrounding the basement membrane begin to form an
organized layer called the theca folliculi.
▪With continuing maturation, a primary follicle develops into a
secondary follicle.
▪In a secondary follicle, the theca differentiates into two layers:
(1) the theca interna, a highly vascularized internal layer of
cuboidal secretory cells that secrete estrogens, and (2) the theca
externa, an outer layer of stromal cells and collagen bers.
▪In addition, the granulosa cells begin to secrete follicular uid,
which builds up in a
cavity called the antrum in the center of the secondary follicle.
▪The innermost layer of granulosa cells becomes rmly attached to
the zona pellucida and is now called the corona radiata.

fi
fi
fl
▪The secondary follicle eventually becomes larger, turning into a mature (graa an)
follicle.
▪While in this follicle, and just before ovulation, the diploid primary oocyte
completes
meiosis I, producing two haploid (n) cells of unequal size—each with 23
chromosomes.
▪The smaller cell produced by meiosis I, called the rst polar body, is essentially a
packet
of discarded nuclear material.
▪The larger cell, known as the secondary oocyte, receives most of the cytoplasm.
▪Once a secondary oocyte is formed, it begins meiosis II but then stops in metaphase.
▪The mature (graa an) follicle soon ruptures and releases its secondary oocyte, a
process known as ovulation.
fi
fi
fi
▪At ovulation, the secondary oocyte is expelled into the
pelvic cavity together with the rst polar body and corona
radiata.
▪Normally these cells are swept into the uterine tube.
▪If fertilization does not occur, the cells degenerate.
▪If sperm are present in the uterine tube and one penetrates
the secondary oocyte, however, meiosis II resumes.
▪The secondary oocyte splits into two haploid cells, again
of unequal size. fi
▪At ovulation, the secondary oocyte is expelled into the
pelvic cavity together with the rst polar body and corona
radiata.
▪Normally these cells are swept into the uterine tube.
▪If fertilization does not occur, the cells degenerate.
▪If sperm are present in the uterine tube and one penetrates
the secondary oocyte, however, meiosis II resumes.
▪The secondary oocyte splits into two haploid cells, again
of unequal size. fi
PROCESS OF REPRODUCTION
▪Reproduction occurs due to the activity of the essential sex
organs of the male and female.
▪They are the testes in males and the ovaries in the females.
▪The testes and ovaries are also called gonads, testes being the
male gonad and ovaries being the female gonad.
▪These gonads produce sex cells. These produce the male sex
cells spermatozoon and female sex cells called ova.
▪The union of the ovum and the spermatozoon is called as
fertilization.
FERTILIZATION
▪After a sexual intercourse, the union of spermatozoon and ovum (fertilization) normally
takes place in the fallopian tube.
▪On a sexual intercourse, a number of spermatozoa are deposited in the vagina.
▪These spermatozoa are propelled by the activity of their tails towards the fallopian tube.
▪Only one spermatozoon is required for fertilization.
▪The spermatozoon penetrates the ovum and unites with it and thus fertilization occurs.
▪The fertilized ovum (conceptus) travels down the fallopian tube towards the uterus. As it
progresses, it divides into a number of small cells.
▪After reaching the uterus, the conceptus digests a small part of the endometrium and
gets embedded.
▪This is called implantation. It normally occurs in the upper part of the body of the uterus
near the opening of the fallopian tube.
▪But it may occur on any part of the endometrium.
PREGNANCY
■ When the ovum is fertilized, pregnancy ensues.
■ It proceeds for 280 days or nine months and ten days to terminate
into parturition resulting in the birth of a baby.
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING PREGNANCY
▪Uterus, its placenta, ovaries and breasts enlarge.
▪Vagina widens and pelvic ligaments relax.
▪Blood volume increases.
▪Cardiac output is increased and blood pressure is decreased.
▪Digestive system: morning sickness- nausea-vomiting occurs and constipation
develops.
▪Respiration is increased and vital capacity is also increased.
▪Endocrine glands are stimulated. Thyroid, para-thyroid and adrenal cortex are enlarged.
▪Carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism are stimulated and result in glycosuria,
lipidemia and water retention.
▪Excretory system- sometimes sugar appears in urine. Estrogen, progesterone and
gonadotrophic hormone of placenta are also excreted in the urine.
EXAMINATION OF THE FOETUS
▪Amniocentesis- Method to examine foetus.
▪After 12th week of pregnancy- a sterile needle is inserted through woman’s
abdomen into amniotic sac that holds the uid surrounding the foetus.
▪A small amount of uid is withdrawn to be examined.
▪By examining the chromosomal structures and enzyme components of the cells in
the uid, one can identify various types of inherited defects.
▪Sometimes, this uid is also utilized to determine the sex of the child based on its
chromosomal set up.
▪Ultrasonography- employs sound waves to produce a two dimensional image of a
foetus.
▪Pregnancy tests- Detection of placental gonadotrophin is a sensitive test to detect
early pregnancy.
fl
fl
fl
fl
PARTURITION
▪ It means child birth/ labor.
▪ 1st stage- series of involuntary contractions of the muscular walls of the uterus and gradual dilatation
of the cervix.
▪ 2nd stage- cervix fully dilated to 10cm diameterstrong contraction of the uterus and active pushing
by motherexpels the baby.
▪ 3rd stage- after birth, further contractions expel the placenta, amniotic sac and the remaining portion
of the umbilical cord within few minutes.
▪ Major hormones involved are-
• – Estrogen- induces changes in the uterus and cervix
• – Progesterone- supports pregnancy and prevent parturition before time.
• – Relaxin- dilatation of the cervix.
• – Oxytocin- contraction of the uterus
• – Cortisol- Cervical ripening and uterine contraction
• – Endorphin- calming and pain relieving effects.
DETERMINATION OF SEX
▪It depends on sex chromosomes.
▪The total number of chromosomes in man are 46.
▪Of these, 44 chromosomes (22 pairs) are ordinary chromosomes and these are called
autosomes.
▪The remaining two chromosomes (one pair) are the sex chromosomes.
▪In the female, the sex chromosomes are the same and are called XX.
▪In the male they are different and are called XY chromosome.
▪One chromosome from each pair determines the sex of the child.
▪If the child has X chromosome from the mother and the X chromosome from the
father, it is a female (X-X).
▪If the child has X chromosome from the mother and Y chromosome from the father is
a male (X-Y).
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS
▪ After implantation in the endometrium, the conceptus derives nutrition from the maternal blood.
▪ Organs get differentiated during the rst 10 weeks of this period.
▪ The embryo is now enclosed within two membranes:
• – An inner membrane called amnion
• – An outer membrane called chorion.
▪ The space between these two membranes is called the amniotic sac.
▪ The space is lled with a uid called liquor amnii. This uid protects the foetus from the injury.
▪ During the rst 8 weeks of development, the chorion is in direct contact with maternal blood.
▪ Its surface area is increased by the development of villi.
▪ The chorionic villi continue to develop towards the endometrium and form the placenta.
▪ The amniotic sac expands and obliterates the cavity of the uterus.
▪ Formation of all the organs is complete by about 12 weeks and the foetus grows during later months.
▪ Movements of the foetus can be noticed by 17 weeks. growth of the foetus is complete by 28 weeks
but the baby is ready to be born at 40 weeks.
fi
fi
fl
fi
fl
PLACENTA
▪ Placenta is formed by about 8th week of pregnancy.
▪ It is formed from the part of the conceptus which is in direct contact with
endometrium.
▪ The foetus remains rmly attached to placenta till the birth of the baby.
▪ The functions of placenta are:
• – It provides nourishment from maternal blood to the foetus.
• – It provides oxygenation of foetal blood and removes waste products. Thus it
carries the function of lungs.
• – It acts as a barrier which prevents the entry of certain drugs and microorganisms
reaching the foetus.
• – It produces a hormone called chorionic gonadotrophin. This hormone has a growth
promoting effect and also helps in the development of glandular tissue of breast.
fi
UMBELICAL CORD
▪It is a exible structure which connects the foetus at the umbilicus
to placenta.
▪It contains blood vessels, a pair of umbilical arteries and one
umbilical vein.
▪These blood vessels carry blood between the foetus and placenta.
▪When the baby is born, the umbelical cord is ligatured. The
remnants of the cord dries up and falls from the baby a few days
later.
▪This leaves a scar called umbilicus or naval marking the site of
attachment of the umbilical cord.
fl