CHAPTER II

DECCA NAVIGATOR
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Decca is a hyperbolic navigation system of position fixing which measures
the phase difference between the continuous wave (C.W.) signals
transmitted by master and slave stations. This system is organised in
chains, each chain comprises of one master and usually three slave
stations known as red, green and purple. These four stations are arranged
in pairs i.e. master-red, master-green and master-purple. The phase
difference measurement is always carried out between master and slave
signals and to differentiate the hyperbolae produced by these pairs, each
has been assigned with a distinguishing colour i.e. red, green and purple.
These colours identify the decometers of the Decca receiver and the
Decca charts are superimposed with lattice of respective colour.

There are about 48 chains in different coastal regions all over the world,
each chain gives the navigational coverage of about 240 nautical miles
approx. from the master station and is used for coastal navigation.

PRINCIPLE
In the following figure, master and red slave stations transmit continuous
wave signals with a constant phase difference of 0°, in other words these
two signals are in phase.

Img

Figure 1
The lattice drawn between master and red slave combination.
These two signals will be received in phase by the Decca receiver on
board at point P on the centre line as the distance from these two stations
to point P is equal and hence phase difference is zero. When the ship
moves to point Q, the two signals received will have a phase difference
because the distance from master to Q increases while that from red
decreases. The phase difference keeps increasing as the ship moves
towards R and the phase difference will be 360° or 0° at R. Hence a
hyperbola with a phase difference of 0° can be drawn on the base line
where at any point on this hyperbola the phase difference measured
between master and red slave signals will be 0°. As the ship continues to
move further away from point R, the phase difference will again start
increasing till point S where it again becomes 360° or 0°.

Using this principle, successive hyperbolae with 0° phase difference

between master and red slave signals can be drawn on either side of
centre line as shown in figure 1.

Similarly using the above principle a number of hyperbolae can be drawn

having a phase difference of 0° between master and green-slave signals
as shown in figure 2.

Img

Figure 2
The lattice drawn between master and green slave combination.

The master and purple slave signals combination will give another set of
hyperbolae having 0° phase difference and these will be printed with
purple colour on the chart. The hyperbolae between master and purple
slave combinations with purple colour are not shown in this book.
These hyperbolae with each master and slave combination are drawn on
the Decca charts of a given chain with respective colours i.e. red, green
and purple which are used for fixing the ship's position.

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MASTER AND SLAVE SIGNALS

In a Decca chain, if master and slave stations transmit on same frequency
(say 340 kHz), these frequencies will be received by the receiving aerial
on board and since the frequency is same it will not be possible to
separate them to measure the phase difference. Phase difference
measurement between master and slave signals can be carried out only
when their frequencies are separated.

Img

Figure 3
The received frequencies are separated by different tuned circuits and processed
separately to get the comparison frequencies with the help of multiplier circuits.

To overcome this difficulty, a technique called Frequency Multiplexing is

used by which master and slave stations are made to transmit at different
frequencies, which are fixed multiples of a fundamental frequency f.

The master, red, green and purple always transmit 6f, 8f, 9f and 5f
respectively and the receiving aerial on board will receive these
frequencies. These frequencies can now be separated easily by different
tuned circuits and the receiver can easily distinguish the frequency from
master and slave stations. In order to measure the phase difference
between master and slave pair, they should have same comparison
frequency hence the received frequencies are processed separately to get
the comparison frequency using frequency multiplier circuits as shown in
figure 3. The comparison frequencies for master-red, master-green and
master-purple pairs are 24f, 18f and 30f respectively. These multiples of
transmission and comparison frequencies remain same for all the chains
but the fundamental frequency changes from chain to chain. The
fundamental frequency f will be selected between 14 kHz and 14.33 kHz
for any given chain.

PHASE SYNCHRONISATION
In Decca system Master and slave stations always transmit their signals
with a constant phase relationship which can be achieved by any of the
following two methods:

➢ Triggering method

In this method the signal from master is received by all the slave stations,
they convert it into a multiple frequency and then each slave station
transmits this signal with a constant phase difference with master signal
and thereby maintaining steady phase relationship.

Figure 4 shows the triggering method in which the master signal of 6f is

received by the red slave station, which converts it into the multiple
frequency and finally red slave station transmits 8f with a constant phase
difference with master signal. Similarly the green and purple slave
stations also receive the master signal 6f and convert this into multiple
frequency to get 9f and 5f respectively.

Img
 Figure 4
The signals from master received by red slave, converted to 8f and transmitted
in phase with master station.

➢ Synchronisation method

In this method the master and slave stations are equipped with atomic
clocks which are perfectly time synchronised and transmit the signal with
constant phase difference.

Img

Figure 5
The atomic clocks are perfectly synchronized, thereby master and slave signals
are transmitted in phase.

LANE
The area between two adjacent hyperbolae with a phase difference of zero
degree is called Lane. Each lane is divided into hundred parts known as
centilanes. The width of a lane on the base line is half the wavelength of
the comparison frequency. The width of a lane is different for different
colours and can be determined as follows.

Assuming the fundamental frequency f for a given chain is 14.1666 kHz,

then the comparison frequency for master-red pair will be 24f equals to
340 kHz.

Lane width for red slave is calculated as follow

λ=v/f where λ is wavelength in meters

v is the velocity of radio waves and
f is the frequency in Hertz.
λ=v/f

= 300 × 10⁶ / 340 × 10³ meters

= 882.35 meters

Therefore, lane width λ/2 = 441.175 meters.

Similarly, comparison frequency, wave length and lane-width of master-

green and master-purple pairs can be worked out.

ZONE
A set of lanes is referred to as a zone. The number of lanes in a zone
depends on the master-slave combination being used. One zone of the
master-red slave has 24 lanes numbered 0 to 23. Similarly one zone of the
master-green slave has 18 lanes numbered 30 to 47 and master-purple
has 30 lanes numbered 50 to 79.

The zones are named A to J and these letters may be repeated as

required. The distance between two similar zone letters is far apart to
cause any ambiguity. The zones are named from master towards the slave
station.

The width of a zone is half the wavelength of the fundamental frequency f.

For a given chain the zone width is same for all the colours.

The width of a zone on the base line is determined as follows

λ=v/f

= 300 × 10⁶ / 14.166 × 10³ meters.

= 21,177 meters approximately.

and λ/2 = 10,588 meters approximately.

Therefore, zone width = 5.72 nautical miles.

The other method of finding the zone width on the base line is by taking
the product of lane width of any colour on the base line and the number of
lanes in one zone for that colour e.g. the zone width on the base line for
red colour is 24 × 441.175 meters equals 10,588 meters approximately.

Similarly you can determine the zone width for green and purple slaves
which will be same as that of red.

We are considering chain no. 5B i.e. English Chain whose fundamental

frequency f is 14.166 kHz and the Master station transmits 6f = 85 kHz.

Details of frequencies, lane and zone width etc for each of the pairs is as
follows.
Data Red Green Purple

8f =
9f = 127.5 5f = 70.83
Frequency transmitted 113.33
kHz kHz
kHz

Comparison frequency (Master- 24f = 340 18f = 255 30f = 425

Slave stations) kHz kHz kHz

441.17 588.23 352.9

Lane width on base line
meters meters meters

Zone width on the base line 5.72 Nm 5.72 Nm 5.72 Nm

Total number of lanes 24 lanes 18 lanes 30 lanes

Lane number marked on chart

0 to 23 30 to 47 50 to 79
and decometers

Zone letters A–J A–J A–J

DECOMETER
The Decca receiver is measuring the phase difference between the master
and slave station signals. This phase difference is indicated in terms of
centilanes on the decometer. The area between the two adjacent
hyperbolae is divided into 100 centilanes, it is also equal to phase
difference of 360°, hence one centilane equals 3.6° of phase difference.

The decometer consists of a centilane pointer, lane and zone indicator.

The lane numbers and zone letters are indicated through window. Lane
indicator is mechanically coupled to the electrically driven centilane
pointer. When the ship is on a particular lane, the phase difference
between the master and slave signals will be zero and at that instant the
centilane pointer will be indicating 0 centilane. As the ship moves away
from the lane, there will be a phase difference between the master and
slave signals, which will cause the centilane pointer to move. When the
ship reaches the adjacent lane, the centilane pointer completes one circle
and since the lane indicator is mechanically coupled to it, the lane number
increases or decreases accordingly. The centilane pointer will move
clockwise or anti-clockwise depending upon whether the ship is moving
away or towards the master station and the lane number increases as we
go away from master towards slave station.
Img

Figure 6
The decometers showing the zone lane and centilane reading for each colour

The zone indicator is mechanically coupled to the lane indicator and when
the lane indicator crosses the number of lanes in the respective master-
slave pair, the zone letter will change from one to another.

There is a dot and dash symbol marked below the window in which zone
letters and lane numbers are marked. On the zone windows, when two
letters appear then the correct letter will be the one positioned over the
same symbol as that displayed under the lane number e.g. the correct
reading on the red decometer as shown in fig. 6 will be F 3.30, while that
of green and purple will be J 44.57 and C 57.40 respectively.

Each Decca receiver has three decometers, one for each colour i.e. red,
green and purple to indicate three LOPs, which are used for fixing the
position of the ship.

LANE SLIP
The lane indicator is mechanically coupled to the electrically driven
centilane pointer and when the ship crosses one lane, the centilane
pointer completes one revolution and the lane reading changes
accordingly. Due to various factors, there is a possibility that the lane
indicator does not show the correct reading and this error in the lane
reading is known as Lane Slip.

Lane slip is possible when ground and sky wave signals are received
simultaneously and if these two signals are equal in amplitude but 180
degrees out of phase, they cancel out each other and no signal will be
given to the receiver. Suppose this happens when the red decometer
indicates A 15.16 and the ship is still moving but the centilane pointer will
remain at 16 centilanes. After some time when normal signal is received,
at this instant the ship is on 94 centilanes within the same lane, therefore,
the correct reading should have been A 15.94. The centilane pointer will
now move from 16 centilanes to 94 centilanes through the shortest path
i.e. backwards via zero and the reading obtained from the decometer will
be showing A 14.94, instead of A 15.94. Thus an error in the lane reading
of the decometer occurs, called lane slip. There are many other factors,
which can also cause lane slip.

Following are some of the factors which can cause lane slip

➢ Mal-functioning in the Decca chain

➢ Other stations transmitting on Decca frequencies

➢ Simultaneous reception of sky wave and ground wave

➢ Man made noise and strong static

➢ Function switch left at Ref. position for long time

➢ Variation in supply voltage

➢ Hold button is pressed for long time during inter chain fixing

The lane slip can be detected by any of the following methods

➢ compare the position with other position fixing methods available

➢ continuous plotting of Decca positions at regular intervals

➢ by referring to lane identification

LANE IDENTIFICATION
The decometer by itself cannot determine in which lane the ship is, but
within the lane it always gives the correct position, hence initially the
ship's position is plotted on the Decca chart by some other available
means and the reading obtained for zone letter and lane number for each
colour are manually fed to the respective decometers. The lane number
will keep changing as the ship crosses from one lane to another. However
due to various factors the lane slip may take place and the decometer
may not indicate the correct lane. The Lane Identification circuit is
introduced to check for lane slip and also for initial fixing of the position.

The width of the lane on the base line is half the wavelength of the
comparison frequency and if the comparison frequency is reduced then
the wavelength and hence the lane width will increase.
Since we know that the width of one zone on the base line is equal to half
the wavelength of the fundamental frequency f and if phase comparison
between master and slave is measured at the fundamental frequency f,
then the width of the lane will be equal to a zone. Now since we have
made the zone as a lane and if there is a separate decometer, then the
centilane pointer will make one revolution when the ship crosses one zone
(i.e. 24 lanes in case of red slave). This centilane pointer could now be
used to identify in which lane the ship is in e.g. if the centilane pointer of
this decometer shows 40 centilanes, it would mean that ship is on lane
number 9 (i.e. 0.4 × 24 = 9.6, hence ship is in 9th lane). Since there is no
such decometer, this calculation is done internally by the receiver and the
reading is indicated on the Lane Identification indicator.

Img

Figure 7
Sequence of three Lane identification multi pulse transmission pattern

In order to obtain the fundamental frequency f, the Lane Identification

signals are transmitted by all the stations three times in a minute and
each station transmits on all the four frequencies i.e. 5f, 6f, 8f and 9f for
first half second during the specified 2.5 seconds interval. This type of
transmission is known as multi pulse transmission.

When the master transmits all the four frequencies for half second, all the
other stations cease to transmit. These frequencies are received on board
and from these frequencies the fundamental frequency f is obtained.
During the normal transmission of the master, the 6f fly-wheel oscillator
circuit acquires phase and frequency of the master signal. This frequency
is divided by 6 to obtain the fundamental frequency f which is used for
phase comparison with f obtained during multi pulse transmission to
achieve lane identification.

The phase comparison is now carried out between the frequency f

obtained during the LI transmission from the master and the frequency f
obtained during normal transmission of the master. The LI indicator should
show one of these readings i.e. 23.8, 23.9, 00.0, 00.1 or 00.2 and LI zero
has to be depressed, if any one of the above reading is not indicated.

Img

Figure 8
Block diagram of Lane Identification
Subsequent to the LI transmission of the master station and after an
interval of 2 sec. the red slave transmits the LI signals i.e. all the four
frequencies for half second during the specified 2.5 seconds interval.
During this transmission all the other stations including the master will
cease to transmit. From these four frequencies, the fundamental
frequency f is worked out. The phase comparison is carried out between
frequency f of the master and the frequency f obtained from the red slave.
The lane number of the red slave achieved by this method is indicated on
the LI indicator.

Comparison is displayed on the LI indicator. Similarly lane numbers for

green and purple slaves are obtained during their respective LI
transmissions.

There is only one LI indicator and hence the lane numbers for all the
colours will be displayed on the same indicator sequentially i.e. red, green
and purple in that order, but the sequence will always start with master
reading first followed by the other colour. This sequence is repeated after
every 20 seconds. The LI indicator will show the centilanes also along with
the lane number, but only in tens and this is not accurate.

The advantage of multipulse transmission is that the phase of frequency f

obtained during the LI transmission from the four frequencies will not be
affected even if any one of these frequencies has sky wave interference.

DECCA CHARTS
These are normal navigational charts, superimposed with Decca lattice for
the particular chain with respective colours of master-slave combinations.
The number on the British Admiralty charts is preceded by "L" (D and the
number of the chain) for e.g. L (D5) 1610 stands for admiralty chart
number 1610 on which the Decca lattice of chain 5 (English chain) are
shown. The complete information of the chain is printed in the bottom left
hand of the chart for e.g. 5B/MPL (D5) 1610 indicating that chain 5B is
using Multi Pulse transmission. Charts over printed with lattice of two
adjoining chains are also available and these are used for interchain
fixing.

Similarly the charts published by other Hydrographic offices of various

countries may also be superimposed with the relevant Decca lattice and
these charts will be similarly marked.

CONTROLS
➢ Chain selector switch

With the help of this switch the required chain can be selected.
➢ Function switch has five positions
 Off

In this position the set is off.

 Lock 1

In this position the receiver initially tries to lock on to the incoming signals
and once the signal is locked on, centilane pointers of all the decometers
stops flickering. The lock lamp glows when the master signal is locked on.

 Ref

In this position all the centilane pointers should read zero, if not it can be
set to zero by the respective zero control knob.

 Lock 2

It has a similar function as that of lock 1 and is required because in

reference position the aerial gets disconnected to check the phase drift-
taking place within the receiver.

 Op

In this position the normal operation of the receiver is carried out.

➢ Decometer

There are three decometers provided one for each colour to indicate the
zone, lane and centilane reading.

Img
 Figure 9
Mark 21 Decca receiver

➢ Reset

Each decometer has been equipped with a reset knob to set the zone and
the lane reading manually. This is done at the time of initialization, when
correct zone letter and lane number are manually selected by the
navigator for each colour to the respective decometers.

➢ Zero Control knob

In Ref position, all the centilane pointer of the decometers should read
zero and if any one of the centilane pointer is not showing zero, it can be
set to zero with zero control knob. Each decometer has a respective zero
control knob.

➢ Hold Push Button

When this is depressed the centilane pointers of all the decometers should
read 12 centilanes and lane and zone indicator freeze on the present
reading.

➢ LI indicator

This indicator flashes the lane number for respective colours sequentially
every after 20 seconds. In the beginning of the cycle it should indicate
23.8, 23.9, 00.0, 00.1 or 00.2.

➢ LI zero

This knob has to be pressed when in the beginning of the sequence of the
LI indicator is not showing the above mentioned readings.

➢ LI brilliance

The brilliance of the LI indicator can be controlled with this knob.

INITIALIZATION
➢ Fix the position of the ship on the Decca chart by some other available
means.

➢ Note down the zone and lane reading of each colour.

➢ Select the chain for the respective area.

➢ Set the function switch to Lock 1 position, wait till all the centilane
pointers become stationary and the lock lamp glows steadily.

➢ Set the function switch to Ref, confirm that all the centilane pointers are
indicating zero.

➢ If any one of the centilane pointers is not indicating zero, it can be set
to zero manually by respective zero control knob.

➢ Set the function switch to Lock 2 position and wait till all the centilane
pointers become stationary.

➢ The zone and lane reading of each colour as noted above are fed
manually to the respective decometers by reset knob.

➢ Set the function switch to Operation and compare the lane number of
the decometers with the lane number indicated by the LI indicator. If the
two readings are not matching reset the respective decometer lane
number to read the one indicated by the LI indicator.

➢ The set will now be working normally and fixes can be plotted as per the
readings obtained from the decometer.

ERRORS
There are two errors in this system

➢ Fixed or Systematic error and

➢ Variable or Random error

Fixed or Systematic error

The lattice-line printed on the Decca charts for each master-slave pairs
are based on the velocity of the radio waves being constant. In fact the
velocity of radio waves vary depending upon the conductivity of the
medium it is passing through. This is not taken into consideration while
plotting the lattice line on the chart and an error occurs if the propagation
velocity differs from the value used to plot the lattice line. In certain areas
some small distortion in the radio waves do occur due to the terrain over
which the radio waves pass through and this distortion varies from place
to place. These can be corrected either by adding or subtracting a small
correction in terms of centilanes to the decometer readings before the
LOPs are plotted on the chart. In certain areas observations for fixed errors
are not carried out and this does not imply that the correction is nil in that
area, hence if fix obtained may not be accurate. If the corrections are
given on either side of the position, interpolated values may be used.
Values for fixed error correction is given in Decca data sheet for each
colour and for each chain. If the correction is within the circle, it has to be
subtracted and if not in the circle has to be added to the decometer
reading.

For example referring to chain 5B in DR Latitude 52° 58' N and Longitude

001° 20' E, the fixed error corrections obtained from attached sheets are
applied as follows

Errors - Red chain 05, Green chain 05 and Purple chain 10

Red decometer reading D 22.48

correction + .05
reading to be plotted D 22.53

Green decometer reading F 42.87

correction - .05
reading to be plotted F 42.82

Purple decometer reading A 65.46

correction - .10
reading to be plotted A 65.36

Some of the Decca charts have this correction incorporated while plotting
the lattice and on such charts this correction is not to be applied.
Indication to this effect is given in notices to mariners and in chain data
sheets.

Variable or Random error

This error is caused due to simultaneous reception of ground and sky
waves and as the distance of the ship from the transmitting station
increases, the chances of sky wave interference is more. The magnitude
of this error depends on the time of the day/night, season and
atmospheric conditions. Since all these conditions are variable, it is very
difficult to predict the value of this error, hence due allowance should be
given to this error. The estimated value of this error is given in Decca data
sheets based on 68% probability of accuracy, whereas ALRS Volume II
gives 95% probability. Higher the probability, lower the accuracy of the fix.

Considering the same position as above for fixed errors i.e. Latitude 52°
50' N and Longitude 001° 20' E, in area of chain 5B, the predicted
coverage and accuracy diagram (68% probability level) for times other
than full day-light coverage (refer Decca data sheet 6) shows that the ship
is in contour b and if we consider midnight of 24th May then time and
seasons factor diagram (refer Decca data sheet 7) indicates the condition
prevailing is summer night. With this information, refer to the random
fixing errors at sea level in nautical miles (refer Decca data sheet 8) at
68% probability level which indicates error to be 0.13 nautical mile.

Having plotted the position, after applying the correction for fixed errors,
the variable error of 0.13 nautical mile has to be allowed for. This is
achieved by drawing two parallel lines at a distance of 0.13 nautical mile
on either side of the two LOPs as shown in figure 10.

Img

Figure 10
Variable errors allowed for as diamond of errors

The resultant area is diamond shaped and there is 68% probability that
the ship is within this diamond i.e. there are 32% chances that the ship is
outside this diamond. This is also referred to as diamond of errors. For
the same area in daytime i.e. at say 1000 hrs, the full day light coverage
and accuracy diagram (refer data sheet 5) shows an error of 50 meters
only and this can be neglected.

POSITION FIXING
The readings obtained from the decometers are the Lines of Position,
referred to as LOPs and to fix the position of the ship minimum two LOPs
are required. On the basis of the angle of cut, the two most suitable LOPs
are chosen for position fixing, which can be obtained from Decca data
sheet 1 or if the lattice of only two colours are printed on the chart then
the decometer reading of only those two colours are taken e.g. the
reading of decometers are red F3.30, green J 44.57 and purple C 57.40.
The lattice printed on the chart is only those of green and purple, hence J
44.37 and C 57.40 readings will be taken for fixing the position. The fixed
error corrections are to be applied to each of the decometer readings
before plotting them on the chart. The point of intersection of these two
LOPs is at point P on the chart as shown in figure 11 and this gives ship’s
position at sea.

Img

Figure 11
Position fixing using 2 colours i.e. green and purple

NOTE
The accuracy of the fix is subjected to variable error and hence it is
necessary to allow for this error which can be obtained from Decca data
sheets. To plot the position special Decca charts are required. Alternatively
modern day receivers convert the position to latitude and longitude and in
such cases no special Decca charts are required and the correction for
fixed errors are fed into the receivers, but variable errors have to be
considered.

INTERCHAIN FIXING
In the fringe area of Decca coverage of a particular chain, the angle of cut
between the two LOPs will be small and the fix obtained will not be
accurate. In order to improve the accuracy of the fix, interchain fixing is
adopted where the LOP of one chain and that of the adjoining chain are
used for fixing the position. This will give a better angle of cut between
the two LOPs. This technique can be used only when the LI circuit is
operational in Decca receiver. In addition to the normal Decca charts
separate interchain fixing charts are also available.

Img

Figure 12 A Figure 12 B
Figure 12 C
Interchain fixing

As shown in figure 12 A and B, the angle of cut between the red and
purple LOPs of chain 1 and that between the red and green LOPs of chain
2 is small and the fix obtained using either of the two chains will not be
accurate. Hence the red LOP of chain 1 and green LOP of chain 2 are used
for fixing the position as the angle of cut of these two LOPs is better as
shown in figure 12 C.

PROCEDURE FOR INTERCHAIN FIXING

➢ Note down the decometer readings of the chain in use.

➢ Depress the Hold button and select the adjacent chain.

➢ Wait for lock lamp to glow steadily and the LI indicator should indicate
23.8, 23.9, 00.0, 00.1 or 00.2, if not press LI zero.

➢ Note down the lane readings of all the three colours from the LI
indicators.

➢ Select the original chain in use and follow procedure laid down in 3
above.

➢ Note down the lane reading of all the three colours for the chain in use.

➢ Release the hold button.

➢ Compare the lane reading of all the decometers with the lane reading
shown by LI indicator.

➢ The lane readings shown by the decometers and LI indicator should be

same, otherwise set the respective decometer reading with reset knob.

DATA SHEETS
Attached are data sheets for chain 5B English Chain.

➢ Sheet no. 1 has three circles. In the inner circle, choice of colours for
best angle of cut and hence positions fix is obvious. Between the inner
and the middle circle, the colour pairs for the best position fix are given
in sectors, while between the middle and outer circle, only single colour
giving the best position line are indicated and this colour may be used
for interchain fixing.

➢ Sheet no. 2, 3 and 4 gives the correction in centilanes to fixed errors in

this chain coverage for red, green and purple colours respectively.
Figures encircled to be subtracted and not encircled to be added to the
LOP readings before plotting them.

➢ Sheet no. 5 gives the variable error for full day light coverage at 68%
probability basis.

➢ Sheet no. 6 indicates the contour applicable for times other than full
day light coverage at 68% probability basis.

➢ Sheet no. 7 is the time season factor diagram.

➢ Sheet no. 8 shows the variable error depending on the contour and
prevailing season at 68% probability basis.
Img
 DATA SHEET No 1
Chart showing Decca lattice colours to be used for obtaining a good angle of cut
in Decca coverage area of chain - 5B

img
 DATA SHEET No 2
Chart showing the fixed error corrections for Red LOPs – chain 5B

img
 DATA SHEET No 3
Chart showing the fixed error corrections for Green LOPs – chain 5B
 DATA SHEET No 4
Chart showing the fixed error corrections for Purple LOPs – chain 5B

img
 DATA SHEET No 5
Chart showing predicted coverage & Accuracy based on 68% probability during
full day light time – chain 5B

The bold full line enclose areas within which the fix-repeatability error does not
exceed the figures shown on 68% of occasions

img
 DATA SHEET No 6
Chart showing predicted coverage & Accuracy based on 68% probability during
times other than full day light time – chain 5B

Img

DATA SHEET No 7
TIME AND SEASON FACTOR DIAGRAM CHAIN - 5B

Img

DATA SHEET No 8
RANDOM FIXING ERRORS AT SEA LEVEL IN NAUTICAL MILES 68% PROBABILITY
LEVEL – CHAIN - 5B