DESIGN PHILOSOPHY (RCC)

 Object of RC design

 To achieve a structure that will result in a safe & economical solution.

 For a structural system, design problem has following steps:

o Idealization of structure for analyses

o Estimation of loads

o Analysis of idealized structured model to get Axial thrust, SF, BM and deflection

o Design of structural elements

o Detailed structural drawing & reinforcement schedule

 Design Philosophies

 3 design philosophies for design of RC, PSC and steel structure.

o (1) working stress method (1920-1960) - WSM

o (2) ultimate load method (1960-1970) - ULM

o (3) Limit state method (1970 onwards) - LSM

 IS:456-2000 - RC design code based on limit state design philosophy

 IS:1343-1980 PSC design code

 The elastic concept of WSM used for deflection computation

 uses elastic load not ultimate load.

 IS:456-2000, Cl.18.2.2 used only if not possible to adopt LSM.

 Design Philosophy is same for RC, PSC and steel design.

 Basis of design

 structures are designed such that (at least) at all sections, strength is equal to structural
effects of design loads & forces that occur during construction.

 structures / structural elements should fulfill requirements of design codes

 in RC/PSC structures, reinforcement & concrete constituents makes it highly non-

isotropic and non-homogeneous.
  Earlier days, it was difficult to formulate theories that simulate concrete behavior.

 They were designed by approximate methods based on experimental values/empirical

formulae/semi-empirical formulae.

 Structural design is based on:

o Principle of mechanics,

o recognized methods of design, and

o Sound engineering practice.

 Proper consideration should be given to effect of continuity on distribution of BM and SF

due to monolithic construction.

 Reasonable factor of safety must be taken in design.

 F.S=Actual force to which section is subjectedstrength of section of member at which it b

ecomes unserviceable

 Yield stress

F.S=Permissible stress /Yield stress

 (unserviceable = due to failure or because of excess deflection/cracking)

 Design Philosophy: WSM

 working stress method/modular ratio method/Elastic stress method/Elastic method

 Basis of WSM: in this method, it is assumed that

o Concrete is elastic

o Steel and concrete act together elastically

o Relationship bet'n loads & stresses is linear upto collapse of structure.

 Permissible stresses for concrete and steel due to worst combination of working loads
(anywhere in the structure) should never be exceeded.

 sections are designed based on elastic theory of bending

 Elastic theory assumes a linear variation of strain and stresses from 'zero' at neutral axis
to max value at extreme fiber assuming that both material obey Hook's law.

 Figure with labels: d, b, Ast, Section, D,

ϵc,el, σc,el, T, σst, ϵst, lever arm=jd, Strain, Stress

 Assumptions for WSM:

o Bernoulli's assumption - A section plane before bending remains plane after

bending.

o Within elastic limit of steel

o bond between steel & concrete is perfect.

 perfect displacement compatibility between steel & concrete

o Tensile strength of concrete is ignored.

o Concrete is elastic, stress varies from zero at neutral fiber to max at farthest fiber.

 modular ratio =m=Es/Es=280/3σbc

 Permissible stresses are prescribed by building codes to provide F.S to allow

uncertainties in working load estimation and properties of material variation.

 IS:456:2000, FS=3 - concrete for 28 days cube strength to resist bending strength

 =1.78 - steel for yield strength of steel in tension

  For properly designed structural element, Stresses computed under working loads <
elastic range

 in working stress method, MR > L

o M = Resistance of structural element

o L = working load on

 Drawbacks in WSM

o Concrete is not elastic - inelastic behaviour starts from very low stresses.

o Actual stress distribution is not triangular stress diagram.

o FS is on stresses under working load

o there is no way to account for diff degree of uncertainty associated with diff
types of loadings.

 in elastic theory, it is impossible to get actual FS, w.r.t Reality.

o it is difficult to account for shrinkage & Creep effect by WSM.

 Design philosophy - ULM

 working load are increased by suitable factors called Load factors to get ultimate loads.

 ULM uses non-linear stress-strain (Constitutive) behaviour of concrete.

 Load factor =

working load ultimate load/collapse load

 Load factor is more important than factors of safety/safety factor because designer is
able to predict the excess load beyond working load without collapse.

 The level of stress is immaterial.

 Several ultimate load theories have been in past.

 Diff. between them is idealized

σ−ϵ curve for concrete (constitutive relationship matrix)

 The final results in all theories are same.

 Most popular theory is WHITNEY'S Theory, due to its simplicity.

  Assumptions in Whitney theory:

o ultimate strain in concrete is 0.3%.

o compressive stress at extreme edge of section corresponds to the ultimate strain.

o Whitney replaced the actual parabolic stress diagram by a rectangular diagram

such that

o area of both parabola & rectangular curves are the same

 Average stress of rectangular stress diagram =

 Figure with labels: D, ECU, Lever arm,

σsy, C, T, b, d, Section, Strain, Actual Stress block, Whitney's Stress block

 a = depth of rectangular block (stress block)

o =0.537d (whitney)

o =0.43d (IS:456-1964)

 Xu,max = depth of neutral axis at failure

 x = lever arm

 σcu = Ultimate compressive strength of 28 days concrete cubes.

 kσcu = Average stress

o =0.81σcu (whitney)

o =0.41σcu (IS:456-1964)

 σcu′′ = ultimate compressive strength of 28 days concrete cylinder

  σy = steel yield stress

 ϵcu = ultimate strain in concrete

 ϵsy = yield strain in steel.

 Assumptions in ULM IS:456-1964:

o A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending

o At ultimate strength, stresses-strains are not proportional (constitutive law)

o Compressive stress distribution is non-linear in a section subjected to bending.

o Compressive stress diagram may be assumed as rectangular, trapezoid, parabola

or any other that gives reasonable ultimate strength with experimental data.

o max. fibre strength in concrete =

0.68σcu

o As per Whitney theory, actual stress diagram replaced by a rectangular stress

block with a=0.43d and Avg. Stress

0.55σcu.

o Tensile concrete strength is ignored in sections subjected to bending.

 ULM is expressed as R> λL

λ=load factors>1

 Requirement of IS:456-1964

 every member should be designed to carry without failure the effect of following load
combinations:

o neglecting wind & EQ forces:

U=1.5D+2.2L

o Considering wind/EQ forces:

U=1.5D+2.2L+0.5W

 U=Ultimate load, D=dead load, L=live load, W=wind/EQ load

 coefficients of D, L, W are load factors

 Advantages of ULM
 o Total safety factor of a structure is near to its actual value

o ULM requires less reinforcement than WSM

 Disadvantages of ULM

o not effective for control against excessive deflection

o Load factor is used on working load

o hence there is no way to account for diff. degree of uncertainty associated with
material stress variation.

 Design Philosophy - LSM

 LSM has originated from ULM

 Objective of LS design:

o To achieve acceptable probability that a structure will not become unserviceable

in its life time for the use for which it is intended

o i.e. structure will not reach a limit state.

 A structure with appropriate degrees of reliability should resist safely all loads that are
liable to act on it throughout its life and should satisfy serviceability requirements.

 i.e. limitations on deflections and cracking.

 structure should be able to maintain the required structural integrity during and after
accidents like fire, explosions and local failure.

 All relevant limit states must be considered in design to ensure adequate degree of
safety and serviceability.
 (a) Limit state of collapse

o The limit state corresponds to max. load carrying capacity.

o Violation of this limit state implies failure

o Limit state of structural usefulness is exceeded.

o But it does not mean a complete collapse.

o The limit state corresponds to: Flexure, Compression, Shear, Torsion

 (b) Limit state of serviceability

o The limit state corresponds to development of excessive deformation.

o used for checking members where magnitude of deformation restricts the use of
structure or its components.

o The limit state corresponds to: deflection, Cracking, Vibration

 (c) Limit state of Durability

o relates to durability of structure against actions & forces of nature such as fire,
floods, rain, accident, weathering, chemical action, water, earthquake, thermal
changes, humidity changes etc.

 Limit state of fire resistance

 Limit state of resistance to chemical & environmental actions

 Limit state of resistance to accidents & catastrophic collapse

 Examples:

o for crack control, retaining structure, dam, jetty, daily plank, abutment, shore-
underwater structures, domes, walls of sewage purification tank, dams

o Example: Cracking

o storing inflammable materials, fuel oil tanks

o hence in columns, concrete overstress more than beams, as column failure is

brittle failure.

o Example: large span bridges, large span balcony, girders, bodies of vehicles,
aircrafts, ships, monumental structures, structures of national prestige
  choice of degrees of reliability should take into account the possible consequences of
exceeding the limit state of collapse which may be classified according to:

o (i) risk to life negligible and economic consequences negligible.

o (ii) risk to life exists and/or economic consequences considerable.

o (iii) risk to life great and for economic consequences also great.

 Like WSM & ULM, LSM does not include a particular structural theory.

 Different theories are applicable to different limit states and types of construction.

 Elastic theory is applicable for serviceability limit state

 and Plastic theory for ultimate limit state, fatigue & stability analysis for overturning.

 Limit state design applies to all kinds of failure i.e. collapse, overturning, vibration, to all
types of material & construction.

 It provides an unified rational basis for design of building structure of all materials.

 Limit state concept of design of RC structures considers the statistical and structural
variation in material properties, in material properties, loads and safety factors.

 Limit state of collapse can be expressed as:

o μR>∑i=1nλiLi

o L.H.S (i.e.

μR) Resistance/capacity of the structure.

o R.H.S (i.e.

∑λiLi) characterizes the load acting on the structure.

o Summation sign in RHS denotes the combination of load effects from diff. load
sources (e.g. DL, LL, WL/EQ Load).

o Li denotes types of loads.

o R: Randomness of in the resistance 'R' of a structural element occurs due to

variation in material properties, workmanship & assumptions made in the
theories underlying the design definition of material strength.

o μ = safety factor < 1 (reflects uncertainties associated with R)

  Li = Randomness in the evaluation of diff. loads arise due to non-availability of sufficient
data.

 λi = Load factor > 1, reflects uncertainty associated with diff types of loads.

 in limit state concept of design of RC structures, there are partial safety factors.

 Figure with labels: b, D, d, Ast,

ϵcu, kσck, 0.2%, Xu, C, σck (characteristic concrete strength), x = safety factor, Lever arm, σy, T,
Stress, Section, ϵsy, Strain

 Limit state of serviceability can be expressed by the inequality:

o S/L ≥ 1/ α

o S = deflection

o L = length / weight / span of structural element

o α = non-dimensional number.

 while calculating deformations service loads are used because load factors are not used.

 deformations are significant under service loads than at collapse.

 LSM VS WSM

o WSM is referred to as deterministic because RC design of structural components

involves knowledge of loads, material property & factor of safety.
 o it is presumed that loads, permissible stresses & factor of safety are known.

o these parameters are not always known & analysis is based on predictions.

o Predictions are based on experience, knowledge & field data.

o Physically, structural design depends on how closely the actual situation is

predicted accurately.

o parameters involved the element of prediction are referred to as Non-

deterministic.

o Hence no guarantee is there for their occurrence which forms basis of LSM.

 In LSD method, these parameters are determined based on observations over a period
of time.

 Parameters are influenced by chance/random effect over a period of time.

 Such process is referred to as STOCHASTIC PROCESS.

 A stochastic process is a phenomenon which varies to some degree over a period of time
unpredictably.

 Hence stochastic process is referred to as a RANDOM PROCESS.

 in LSM, elemental stresses are obtained from design loads including partial safety factors
and compared with design strength including safety factors.

 in WSM, elemental stresses are obtained from working loads and compared with
permissible stresses.

 in LSM, member is considered in its limit state.

 in WSM, it's considered in its working state.

 Hence stringent conditions required that for loading conditions to lead to collapse.

 and factors of safety & partial safety factor is determined accurately in LSD.

 in WSM, permissible stresses are found with a factor of safety regardless of different
working conditions & load combinations which had different safety margins.

 LSM is based on physical parameters.

 The partial safety factors are based on statistical & probabilistic grounds, which can be
controlled.

 Hence LS design method has a more scientific approach in RC design of structures.

  Deterministic vs Non-deterministic

 Working stress method vs Limit state method

 based on scientific approach vs based on non-scientific approach.

 Limit State

 It is the load state beyond which a structure no longer satisfies design requirements.

 There are two main limit states.

 Collapse limit state:

o To satisfy this limit state, strength must be adequate to carry the loads.

o But stability should be taken into consideration.

 Serviceability limit state:

o To satisfy this limit state, deflection, vibration & cracking must not be excessive.

 violation of a limit state does not mean that the structure has failed/collapsed.

 violation of any limit state means a clearly defined limit state of structural usefulness is
exceeded.

 ϕSn≥γQQd

 ϕ→ strength reduction factor

 Sn→ nominal strength

 γQ→ load factor

 Qd→ load

 γd = factor somewhat >1

 γL = larger load factor.

 When a combination of diff. loads act (DL, LL, WL, etc...), reduced probability that when
DL, LL & WL act at peak simultaneously which is incorporated by including a factor

ϕ less than 1 such that ϕ(r1ϕ(γd)+γL2+γwW+...)