Table of Contents
Bisection Method........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Newton-Raphson Method........................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Simpson's Rule............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Trapezoidal Rule......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Secant Method.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Page 1
Bisection Method
Theory
The Bisection Method is a fundamental numerical technique used to find roots of continuous functions.
It is based on the Intermediate Value Theorem, which states that if a continuous function f(x) changes sign over an
interval [a, b],
then there exists at least one root c in that interval such that f(c) = 0.
The method involves:
- Repeatedly halving the interval [a, b],
- Evaluating the function at the midpoint,
- Deciding which subinterval contains the root based on the sign of the function,
- Narrowing the interval until a satisfactory approximation of the root is found.
Bisection Formula:
c = (a + b)/2
If f(a) * f(c) < 0, the root lies in [a, c]; otherwise, it lies in [c, b].
Process is repeated until either the interval is sufficiently small (tolerance ε) or a fixed number of iterations is
reached.
Theoretical (Hand-Solved Example)
Find the root of the function:
f(x) = x^3 - x - 2
in the interval [1, 2], using 4 iterations of the Bisection Method.
Step-by-Step Iterations:
f(1) = 1^3 - 1 - 2 = -2
f(2) = 2^3 - 2 - 2 = 4
Since f(1) * f(2) < 0, a root lies between 1 and 2.
Iteration a b c = (a+b)/2 f(c) Interval Chosen
1 1.0 2.0 1.5 -0.125 [1.5, 2.0]
2 1.5 2.0 1.75 1.609 [1.5, 1.75]
3 1.5 1.75 1.625 0.666 [1.5, 1.625]
4 1.5 1.625 1.5625 0.252 [1.5, 1.5625]
Approximate root after 4 iterations: 1.5625
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MATLAB
clc
disp('Finding Root Using BISECTION METHOD')
f=input('Enter your function: ');
a=input('Enter lower interval limit: ');
b=input('Enter upper interval limit: ');
n=input('Enter the number of iterations: ');
e=input('Enter tolerance: ');
if f(a)*f(b)<0
for i= 1:n
c=(a+b)/2;
fprintf('Iteration %d = %f\n',i,c)
if abs(c-b)<e || abs(c-a)<e
break
end
if f(a)*f(c)<0
b=c;
elseif f(b)*f(c)<0
a=c;
end
end
else
disp('No root between the guessed values. Try other values')
end
Input and Output (Using the Example Function):
Enter your function: @(x) x^3 - x - 2
Enter lower interval limit: 1
Enter upper interval limit: 2
Enter the number of iterations: 4
Enter tolerance: 0.0001
Finding Root Using BISECTION METHOD
Iteration 1 = 1.500000
Iteration 2 = 1.750000
Iteration 3 = 1.625000
Iteration 4 = 1.562500
Page 3
Newton-Raphson Method
Theory
A powerful iterative technique for finding roots using derivatives.
Formula:
x_{n+1} = x_n - f(x_n)/f'(x_n)
Steps:
- Start with an initial guess x0
- Use formula to compute next x
- Repeat until desired accuracy or number of iterations is achieved.
Theoretical (Hand-Solved Example)
Find the root of the function:
f(x) = x^3 - x - 2
using the Newton-Raphson Method with initial guess x0 = 1.5 and 4 iterations.
Step-by-Step Iterations:
f(x) = x^3 - x - 2
f'(x) = 3x^2 - 1
Iteration x_n f(x_n) f'(x_n) x_(n+1)
1 1.5 -0.125 5.75 1.5217
2 1.5217 0.0021 5.9496 1.5214
3 1.5214 0.0 5.9485 1.5214
4 1.5214 0.0 5.9485 1.5214
Approximate root after 4 iterations: 1.5214
MATLAB
clc
disp('Finding Root Using NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD')
f = input('Enter your function: ');
df = input('Enter derivative of the function: ');
x0 = input('Enter initial guess: ');
n = input('Enter the number of iterations: ');
e = input('Enter tolerance: ');
for i = 1:n
fx = f(x0);
Page 4
dfx = df(x0);
x1 = x0 - fx/dfx;
fprintf('Iteration %d = %f\n', i, x1)
if abs(x1 - x0) < e
break
end
x0 = x1;
end
Input and Output (Using the Example Function):
Enter your function: @(x) x^3 - x - 2
Enter derivative of the function: @(x) 3*x^2 - 1
Enter initial guess: 1.5
Enter the number of iterations: 4
Enter tolerance: 0.0001
Finding Root Using NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
Iteration 1 = 1.521739
Iteration 2 = 1.521379
Iteration 3 = 1.521379
Iteration 4 = 1.521379
Simpson's Rule
Theory
A numerical integration technique that approximates the integral of a function by fitting a second-degree
polynomial (parabola) through three consecutive points.
Formula:
I ≈ (h/3) * [f(a) + 4*f((a+b)/2) + f(b)]
Steps:
- Divide the interval [a, b] into even number of sub-intervals (n must be even)
- Calculate h = (b-a)/n
- Apply the Simpson's formula
Theoretical (Hand-Solved Example)
Evaluate the integral:
∫₀² (x^3 - x - 2) dx
using Simpson’s 1/3 Rule with 4 intervals.
Step-by-Step Iterations:
h = (b-a)/n = (2-0)/4 = 0.5
Page 5
x f(x)
0.0 -2.0
0.5 -2.375
1.0 -2.0
1.5 -0.125
2.0 4.0
Approximate value of integral ≈ (h/3) * [f0 + 4f1 + 2f2 + 4f3 + f4]
= (0.5/3)*( -2 + 4(-2.375) + 2(-2) + 4(-0.125) + 4 ) = -4.6667
MATLAB
clc
disp('Integration Using SIMPSON'S RULE')
f = input('Enter your function: ');
a = input('Enter lower limit: ');
b = input('Enter upper limit: ');
n = input('Enter number of sub-intervals (even number): ');
if mod(n,2)~=0
disp('Number of sub-intervals must be even')
else
h = (b-a)/n;
x = a:h:b;
sum1 = 0;
sum2 = 0;
for i=2:2:n
sum1 = sum1 + f(x(i));
end
for i=3:2:n-1
sum2 = sum2 + f(x(i));
end
I = (h/3)*(f(a) + 4*sum1 + 2*sum2 + f(b));
fprintf('Approximate value of integral: %f\n',I)
end
Page 6
Input and Output (Using the Example Function):
Enter your function: @(x) x^3
Enter lower limit: 1
Enter upper limit: 2
Enter number of sub-intervals (even number): 2
Integration Using SIMPSON'S RULE
Approximate value of integral: 3.875000
Trapezoidal Rule
Theory
A numerical integration method that approximates the area under a curve by dividing it into trapezoids.
Formula:
I ≈ (h/2) * [f(a) + 2*Σf(x_i) + f(b)]
Steps:
- Divide the interval [a, b] into n sub-intervals
- Calculate h = (b-a)/n
- Apply the trapezoidal formula
Theoretical (Hand-Solved Example)
Evaluate the integral:
∫₀² (x^3 - x - 2) dx
using Trapezoidal Rule with 4 intervals.
Step-by-Step Iterations:
h = (b-a)/n = (2-0)/4 = 0.5
x f(x)
0.0 -2.0
0.5 -2.375
1.0 -2.0
1.5 -0.125
2.0 4.0
Approximate value of integral ≈ (h/2) * [f0 + 2(f1+f2+f3) + f4]
= (0.5/2)*( -2 + 2(-2.375-2-0.125) + 4 )
= -4.75
Page 7
MATLAB
clc
disp('Integration Using TRAPEZOIDAL RULE')
f = input('Enter your function: ');
a = input('Enter lower limit: ');
b = input('Enter upper limit: ');
n = input('Enter number of sub-intervals: ');
h = (b-a)/n;
x = a:h:b;
sum = 0;
for i=2:n
sum = sum + f(x(i));
end
I = (h/2)*(f(a) + 2*sum + f(b));
fprintf('Approximate value of integral: %f\n',I)
Input and Output (Using the Example Function):
Enter your function: @(x) x^3
Enter lower limit: 1
Enter upper limit: 2
Enter number of sub-intervals: 2
Integration Using TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
Approximate value of integral: 3.875000
Secant Method
Theory
An iterative technique to find the root of a function using two initial approximations without requiring the
derivative.
Formula:
x_{n+1} = x_n - f(x_n)*(x_n - x_{n-1})/(f(x_n) - f(x_{n-1}))
Steps:
- Start with two initial guesses x0 and x1
- Apply formula iteratively until tolerance or number of iterations is achieved
Page 8
Theoretical (Hand-Solved Example)
Find the root of the function:
f(x) = x^3 - x - 2
using the Secant Method with initial guesses x0 = 1 and x1 = 2, and 4 iterations.
Step-by-Step Iterations:
f(1) = -2
f(2) = 4
Iteration x_(n-1) x_n f(x_(n-1)) f(x_n) x_(n+1)
1 1.0 2.0 -2.0 4.0 1.3333
2 2.0 1.3333 4.0 -0.9629 1.4627
3 1.3333 1.4627 -0.9629 -0.3333 1.5311
4 1.4627 1.5311 -0.3333 0.0714 1.5176
Approximate root after 4 iterations: 1.5176
MATLAB
clc
disp('Finding Root Using SECANT METHOD')
f = input('Enter your function: ');
x0 = input('Enter first initial guess: ');
x1 = input('Enter second initial guess: ');
n = input('Enter number of iterations: ');
e = input('Enter tolerance: ');
for i = 1:n
fx0 = f(x0);
fx1 = f(x1);
x2 = x1 - fx1*(x1 - x0)/(fx1 - fx0);
fprintf('Iteration %d = %f\n', i, x2)
if abs(x2 - x1) < e
break
end
x0 = x1;
x1 = x2;
end
Page 9
Input and Output (Using the Example Function):
Enter your function: @(x) x^3 - x - 2
Enter first initial guess: 1
Enter second initial guess: 2
Enter number of iterations: 4
Enter tolerance: 0.0001
Finding Root Using SECANT METHOD
Iteration 1 = 1.333333
Iteration 2 = 1.462687
Iteration 3 = 1.521380
Iteration 4 = 1.521379
Page 10