REVIEWER

SHOOT SYSTEM - LEAVES

PART I: KEY CONCEPTS SUMMARY

Parts of a Leaf
Leaves are the keys to plant life and all terrestrial life. The primary role of leaves is to collect sunlight and make
food by photosynthesis.

Structure of a Typical Leaf

Each part of a leaf plays an important role in the plant's survival. The following are the main structural parts:

Leaf Blade or Lamina

Each leaf typically has a leaf blade called the lamina, which is also the widest part of the leaf. The blade is the
broad, flattened, and typically green part of the leaf. It is the main site of photosynthesis, where sunlight is
captured and converted into chemical energy. The leaf blade has a large surface area that maximizes the
absorption of sunlight.

Petiole
Some leaves are attached to the plant stem by a petiole. The petiole is a slender stalk that connects the blade to
the stem of the plant. It acts as a support structure for the leaf blade. Some leaves lack a petiole and are directly
attached to the stem, called sessile leaves. Leaves also have stipules, small green appendages usually found at
the base of the petiole.

Leaf Margin
The leaf margin refers to the outer edge of the leaf. It can be smooth, serrated (with small teeth-like projections),
lobed (with large, rounded divisions), or various other shapes. The leaf margin differs in different plant species,
which can help identify them.

Leaf Base
The leaf base is the part of the leaf where it attaches to the petiole or directly to the stem.

Leaf Apex (Tip)

The leaf apex is the pointed or rounded tip of the leaf. It can be sharp or rounded, depending on the plant species.

Midrib
Most leaves have a midrib, the central vein that runs along the length of the leaf, extending from the base to the
tip. It provides additional support to the leaf and serves as a pathway for vascular tissues. The edge of the leaf is
called the margin.

Vein
Veins within a leaf support and transport water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and sugars produced
during photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
Figure: Parts of a leaf — A leaf may seem simple in appearance, but it is a highly-efficient structure. Petioles,
stipules, veins, and a midrib are all essential structures of a leaf.

Types of Venation
Venation refers to the arrangement and pattern of veins within the leaf. There are two main types of venation
found in plants:

Parallel Venation
In parallel venation, the veins run parallel to each other from the base of the leaf to the tip without intersecting or
branching. This type of venation is commonly found in grasses, lilies, and banana plants. The veins in parallel
venation are usually straight and uniform in size.
(Parallel venation in Banana leaves. Observe that the veins do not intersect.)

Reticulate Venation
Reticulate venation, also known as netted venation, is characterized by a branching network of veins that form a
complex pattern throughout the leaf. The veins branch and intersect, creating a net-like appearance. This type of
venation is found in trees, shrubs, and flowering plants.
Monocots and dicots differ in their patterns of venation. Monocots have parallel venation in which the veins run in
straight lines across the length of the leaf without converging. In dicots, however, the veins of the leaf have a net-
like appearance, forming a pattern known as reticulate venation. Ginkgo biloba is an example of a plant with
dichotomous venation.

Leaf Arrangement
The arrangement of leaves on a stem is known as phyllotaxy. The number and placement of a plant's leaves will
vary depending on the species, with each species exhibiting a characteristic leaf arrangement. Leaves are
classified as either alternate, spiral, opposite, or whorled.
Plants that have only one leaf per node have leaves that are said to be either alternate or spiral. Alternate leaves
alternate on each side of the stem in a flat plane, and spiral leaves are arranged in a spiral along the stem. In an
opposite leaf arrangement, two leaves arise at the same point, with the leaves connecting opposite each other
along the branch. If there are three or more leaves connected at a node, the leaf arrangement is classified as
whorled.
Figure: Venation patterns — (a) Tulip (Tulipa), a monocot, has leaves with parallel venation. (b) The netlike
venation in this linden (Tilia cordata) leaf distinguishes it as a dicot. (c) The Ginkgo biloba tree has dichotomous
venation.

Leaves - Types of Leaf Forms

Learning Objectives
● Differentiate among the types of leaf forms

Leaf Form
There are two basic forms of leaves that can be described considering the way the blade (or lamina) is divided.
Leaves may be simple or compound.
Figure: Simple and compound leaves — Leaves may be simple or compound. In simple leaves, the lamina is
continuous. (a) The banana plant (Musa sp.) has simple leaves. In compound leaves, the lamina is separated into
leaflets. Compound leaves may be palmate or pinnate. (b) In palmately compound leaves, such as those of the
horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), the leaflets branch from the petiole. (c) In pinnately compound leaves,
the leaflets branch from the midrib, as on a scrub hickory (Carya floridana). (d) The honey locust has double
compound leaves, in which leaflets branch from the veins.

Simple Leaf
In a simple leaf, such as the banana leaf, the blade is completely undivided. The leaf shape may also be formed
of lobes where the gaps between lobes do not reach to the main vein. An example of this type is the maple leaf.

Compound Leaf
In a compound leaf, the leaf blade is completely divided, forming leaflets, as in the locust tree. Compound leaves
are a characteristic of some families of higher plants. Each leaflet is attached to the rachis (middle vein), but may
have its own stalk.
A palmately compound leaf has its leaflets radiating outwards from the end of the petiole, like fingers off the palm
of a hand. Examples of plants with palmately compound leaves include poison ivy, the buckeye tree, or the
familiar house plant Schefflera sp. (commonly called "umbrella plant").
Pinnately compound leaves take their name from their feather-like appearance; the leaflets are arranged along
the middle vein, as in rose leaves or the leaves of hickory, pecan, ash, or walnut trees. In a pinnately compound
leaf, the middle vein is called the midrib.
Bipinnately compound (or double compound) leaves are twice divided; the leaflets are arranged along a
secondary vein, which is one of several veins branching off the middle vein. Each leaflet is called a "pinnule". The
pinnules on one secondary vein are called "pinna". The silk tree (Albizia) is an example of a plant with bipinnate
leaves.

Leaves - Leaf Structure, Function, and Adaptation

Learning Objectives
● Describe the internal structure and function of a leaf

Leaf Structure and Function

The outermost layer of the leaf is the epidermis. It consists of the upper and lower epidermis, which are present
on either side of the leaf. Botanists call the upper side the adaxial surface (or adaxis) and the lower side the
abaxial surface (or abaxis). The epidermis aids in the regulation of gas exchange. It contains stomata, which are
openings through which the exchange of gases takes place. Two guard cells surround each stoma, regulating its
opening and closing. Guard cells are the only epidermal cells to contain chloroplasts.

The epidermis is usually one cell layer thick. However, in plants that grow in very hot or very cold conditions, the
epidermis may be several layers thick to protect against excessive water loss from transpiration. A waxy layer
known as the cuticle covers the leaves of all plant species. The cuticle reduces the rate of water loss from the leaf
surface. Other leaves may have small hairs (trichomes) on the leaf surface. Trichomes help to avert herbivory by
restricting insect movements or by storing toxic or bad-tasting compounds. They can also reduce the rate of
transpiration by blocking air flow across the leaf surface.

Figure: Trichomes — Trichomes give leaves a fuzzy appearance as in this (a) sundew (Drosera sp.). Leaf
trichomes include (b) branched trichomes on the leaf of Arabidopsis lyrata and (c) multibranched trichomes on a
mature Quercus marilandica leaf.

Below the epidermis of dicot leaves are layers of cells known as the mesophyll, or "middle leaf." The mesophyll of
most leaves typically contains two arrangements of parenchyma cells: the palisade parenchyma and spongy
parenchyma. The palisade parenchyma (also called the palisade mesophyll) aids in photosynthesis and has
column-shaped, tightly-packed cells. It may be present in one, two, or three layers. Below the palisade
parenchyma are loosely-arranged cells of an irregular shape. These are the cells of the spongy parenchyma (or
spongy mesophyll). The air space found between the spongy parenchyma cells allows gaseous exchange
between the leaf and the outside atmosphere through the stomata. In aquatic plants, the intercellular spaces in
the spongy parenchyma help the leaf float. Both layers of the mesophyll contain many chloroplasts.

Figure: Mesophyll — (a) (top) The central mesophyll is sandwiched between an upper and lower epidermis. The
mesophyll has two layers: an upper palisade layer and a lower spongy layer. Stomata on the leaf underside allow
gas exchange. A waxy cuticle covers all aerial surfaces of land plants to minimize water loss. (b) (bottom) These
leaf layers are clearly visible in the scanning electron micrograph. The numerous small bumps in the palisade
parenchyma cells are chloroplasts. The bumps protruding from the lower surface of the leaf are glandular
trichomes.

Similar to the stem, the leaf contains vascular bundles composed of xylem and phloem. The xylem consists of
tracheids and vessels, which transport water and minerals to the leaves. The phloem transports the
photosynthetic products from the leaf to the other parts of the plant. A single vascular bundle, no matter how large
or small, always contains both xylem and phloem tissues.
Figure: Xylem and phloem — This scanning electron micrograph shows xylem and phloem in the leaf vascular
bundle.

Leaf Adaptations
Coniferous plant species that thrive in cold environments, such as spruce, fir, and pine, have leaves that are
reduced in size and needle-like in appearance. These needle-like leaves have sunken stomata and a smaller
surface area, two attributes that aid in reducing water loss. In hot climates, plants such as cacti have succulent
leaves that help to conserve water. Many aquatic plants have leaves with wide lamina that can float on the
surface of the water; a thick waxy cuticle on the leaf surface that repels water.

Transpiration
Transpiration is water movement through the plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, especially leaves. Water
is necessary for plants, but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism.
The remaining 97-99.5% is lost by transpiration. Transpiration occurs because plants take in more water than they
need at a given time. It is a way of getting rid of excess water. Transpiration generates a force that pulls up water
absorbed by the roots from the soil to reach the stem and leaves.
PART II: KEY TERMS GLOSSARY
Review the following important terms and their definitions.

TERM DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION
Lamina (Leaf Blade) The broad, flattened, typically green part of the
leaf; the main site of photosynthesis.
Petiole A slender stalk that connects the leaf blade to
the stem of the plant.
Sessile Leaves Leaves that lack a petiole and are directly
attached to the stem.
Stipules Small green appendages usually found at the
base of the petiole.
Leaf Margin The outer edge of the leaf; can be smooth,
serrated, lobed, or other shapes.
Leaf Base The part of the leaf where it attaches to the
petiole or directly to the stem.
Leaf Apex The pointed or rounded tip of the leaf.
Midrib The central vein running along the length of the
leaf from base to tip; supports the leaf and
serves as a vascular pathway.
Vein Structures within a leaf that support it and
transport water, minerals, and sugars.
Venation The arrangement and pattern of veins within the
leaf.
Parallel Venation Veins run parallel to each other from base to tip
without intersecting; found in monocots like
grasses, lilies, and banana plants.
Reticulate Venation Also known as netted venation; a branching
network of veins forming a complex, net-like
pattern; found in dicots.
Phyllotaxy The arrangement of leaves on a stem.
Alternate Leaves Leaves that alternate on each side of the stem in
a flat plane.
Spiral Leaves Leaves arranged in a spiral along the stem.
Opposite Leaves Two leaves that arise at the same point,
connecting opposite each other along the
branch.
Whorled Leaves Three or more leaves connected at a node.
Simple Leaf A leaf where the blade is completely undivided.
Compound Leaf A leaf where the blade is completely divided,
forming leaflets.
Rachis The middle vein in a compound leaf to which the
leaflets are attached.
Palmately Compound Leaf Leaflets radiate outwards from the end of the
petiole, like fingers off the palm of a hand.
Pinnately Compound Leaf Leaflets arranged along the middle vein in a
feather-like pattern.
Bipinnately Compound Leaf Twice divided; leaflets arranged along a
secondary vein.
Pinnule Each leaflet in a bipinnately compound leaf.
Pinna The pinnules on one secondary vein.
Epidermis The outermost layer of the leaf; aids in regulation
of gas exchange.
Adaxial Surface The upper side of the leaf (adaxis).
Abaxial Surface The lower side of the leaf (abaxis).
Stomata Openings in the epidermis through which gas
exchange takes place.
Guard Cells Two cells surrounding each stoma that regulate
its opening and closing; the only epidermal cells
containing chloroplasts.
Cuticle A waxy layer covering the leaves of all plant
species; reduces the rate of water loss.
Trichomes Small hairs on the leaf surface that help avert
herbivory and reduce transpiration.
Mesophyll Layers of cells below the epidermis in dicot
leaves; also called "middle leaf."
Palisade Parenchyma Column-shaped, tightly-packed cells that aid in
photosynthesis; located in the upper mesophyll.
Spongy Parenchyma Loosely-arranged cells of irregular shape below
the palisade layer; allows gaseous exchange.
Vascular Bundle Composed of xylem and phloem; always
contains both tissues no matter how large or
small.
Xylem Consists of tracheids and vessels; transports
water and minerals to the leaves.
Phloem Transports photosynthetic products from the leaf
to other parts of the plant.
Transpiration Water movement through the plant and its
evaporation from aerial parts, especially leaves.
PART III: REVIEW QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Study each question and its answer carefully.

Q: What is the primary role of leaves?

A: The primary role of leaves is to collect sunlight and make food by photosynthesis.

Q: What is the lamina?

A: The lamina, also called the leaf blade, is the widest and most important part of the leaf. It is the
broad, flattened, typically green part of the leaf and the main site of photosynthesis, where sunlight is
captured and converted into chemical energy.

Q: What is the function of the petiole?

A: The petiole is a slender stalk that connects the blade to the stem of the plant. It acts as a support
structure for the leaf blade.

Q: What are sessile leaves?

A: Sessile leaves are leaves that lack a petiole and are directly attached to the stem.

Q: What are stipules?

A: Stipules are small green appendages usually found at the base of the petiole.

Q: What is the leaf margin?

A: The leaf margin refers to the outer edge of the leaf. It can be smooth, serrated (with small teeth-like
projections), lobed (with large, rounded divisions), or various other shapes. It differs in different plant
species and can help identify them.

Q: What is the midrib?

A: The midrib is the central vein that runs along the length of the leaf, extending from the base to the
tip. It provides additional support to the leaf and serves as a pathway for vascular tissues.

Q: What do veins do in a leaf?

A: Veins support the leaf and transport water and minerals from the roots to the leaves, and transport
sugars produced during photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Q: What is venation?
A: Venation refers to the arrangement and pattern of veins within the leaf.

Q: What is parallel venation?

A: In parallel venation, the veins run parallel to each other from the base of the leaf to the tip without
intersecting or branching. This type is commonly found in grasses, lilies, and banana plants. The veins
are usually straight and uniform in size.

Q: What is reticulate venation?

A: Reticulate venation, also known as netted venation, is characterized by a branching network of
veins that form a complex pattern throughout the leaf. The veins branch and intersect, creating a net-
like appearance. Found in trees, shrubs, and flowering plants.

Q: How do monocots and dicots differ in venation?

A: Monocots have parallel venation in which the veins run in straight lines across the length of the leaf
without converging. In dicots, the veins of the leaf have a net-like appearance, forming a pattern
known as reticulate venation. Ginkgo biloba is an example of a plant with dichotomous venation.

Q: What is phyllotaxy?
A: Phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on a stem.

Q: What are the types of leaf arrangements?

A: Leaves are classified as either alternate, spiral, opposite, or whorled. Alternate leaves alternate on
each side of the stem in a flat plane. Spiral leaves are arranged in a spiral along the stem. In opposite
arrangement, two leaves arise at the same point opposite each other. Whorled arrangement has three
or more leaves connected at a node.

Q: What are the two basic leaf forms?

A: Leaves may be simple or compound. In a simple leaf, the blade is completely undivided. In a
compound leaf, the blade is completely divided, forming leaflets.

Q: What is a palmately compound leaf?

A: A palmately compound leaf has its leaflets radiating outwards from the end of the petiole, like
fingers off the palm of a hand. Examples include poison ivy, the buckeye tree, and the house plant
Schefflera sp. (umbrella plant).

Q: What is a pinnately compound leaf?

A: Pinnately compound leaves have leaflets arranged along the middle vein in a feather-like pattern,
as in rose leaves or the leaves of hickory, pecan, ash, or walnut trees. The middle vein in this type is
called the midrib.

Q: What are bipinnately compound leaves?

A: Bipinnately compound (or double compound) leaves are twice divided; the leaflets are arranged
along a secondary vein. Each leaflet is called a pinnule. The pinnules on one secondary vein are
called pinna. The silk tree (Albizia) is an example.

Q: What is the epidermis of a leaf?

A: The epidermis is the outermost layer of the leaf. It consists of the upper and lower epidermis on
either side of the leaf. Botanists call the upper side the adaxial surface and the lower side the abaxial
surface. The epidermis aids in the regulation of gas exchange.

Q: What are stomata and guard cells?

A: Stomata are openings in the epidermis through which the exchange of gases takes place. Two
guard cells surround each stoma, regulating its opening and closing. Guard cells are the only
epidermal cells to contain chloroplasts.

Q: What is the function of the cuticle?

A: The cuticle is a waxy layer that covers the leaves of all plant species. It reduces the rate of water
loss from the leaf surface.

Q: What are trichomes?

A: Trichomes are small hairs on the leaf surface. They help avert herbivory by restricting insect
movements or by storing toxic or bad-tasting compounds. They can also reduce the rate of
transpiration by blocking air flow across the leaf surface.

Q: What is the mesophyll?

A: The mesophyll is the layer of cells below the epidermis in dicot leaves, also called the "middle leaf."
It typically contains two arrangements of parenchyma cells: the palisade parenchyma and spongy
parenchyma. Both layers contain many chloroplasts.

Q: What is the function of palisade parenchyma?

A: The palisade parenchyma (also called the palisade mesophyll) aids in photosynthesis. It has
column-shaped, tightly-packed cells and may be present in one, two, or three layers.

Q: What is the function of spongy parenchyma?

A: The spongy parenchyma consists of loosely-arranged cells of an irregular shape. The air space
between the spongy parenchyma cells allows gaseous exchange between the leaf and the outside
atmosphere through the stomata. In aquatic plants, the intercellular spaces help the leaf float.

Q: What are vascular bundles in leaves?

A: The leaf contains vascular bundles composed of xylem and phloem. The xylem consists of
tracheids and vessels, which transport water and minerals to the leaves. The phloem transports the
photosynthetic products from the leaf to the other parts of the plant. A single vascular bundle always
contains both xylem and phloem tissues.

Q: What are some leaf adaptations in different environments?

A: Coniferous plants (spruce, fir, pine) in cold environments have needle-like leaves with sunken
stomata and smaller surface area to reduce water loss. In hot climates, cacti have succulent leaves to
conserve water. Many aquatic plants have leaves with wide lamina that can float on water, with a thick
waxy cuticle that repels water.
Q: What is transpiration?
A: Transpiration is water movement through the plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, especially
leaves. Only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism; the
remaining 97-99.5% is lost by transpiration. Transpiration generates a force that pulls up water
absorbed by the roots from the soil to reach the stem and leaves.
PART IV: FILL IN THE BLANKS
Complete each sentence with the correct term. Answers are provided for self-checking.

The primary role of leaves is to collect sunlight and make food by Answer: photosynthesis
______.

The leaf blade is also called the ______, which is the widest part of Answer: lamina
the leaf.

The slender stalk that connects the blade to the stem is called the Answer: petiole
______.

Leaves that lack a petiole and are directly attached to the stem are Answer: sessile
called ______ leaves.

Small green appendages found at the base of the petiole are called Answer: stipules
______.

The outer edge of the leaf is called the leaf ______. Answer: margin

The ______ is the central vein that runs along the length of the leaf Answer: midrib
from base to tip.

The arrangement and pattern of veins within a leaf is called ______. Answer: venation

In ______ venation, veins run parallel to each other without Answer: parallel
intersecting; found in monocots.

______ venation, also known as netted venation, is characterized by Answer: Reticulate

a branching network of veins; found in dicots.

______ is an example of a plant with dichotomous venation. Answer: Ginkgo biloba

The arrangement of leaves on a stem is known as ______. Answer: phyllotaxy

When three or more leaves are connected at a node, the leaf Answer: whorled
arrangement is classified as ______.

A leaf where the blade is completely undivided is called a ______ Answer: simple
leaf.
A leaf where the blade is completely divided, forming leaflets, is Answer: compound
called a ______ leaf.

The middle vein in a compound leaf to which leaflets are attached is Answer: rachis
called the ______.

Leaflets radiating outwards from the end of the petiole like fingers is Answer: palmately
characteristic of ______ compound leaves.

The silk tree (Albizia) is an example of a plant with ______ leaves. Answer: bipinnate

Each leaflet in a bipinnately compound leaf is called a ______. Answer: pinnule

The outermost layer of the leaf is the ______. Answer: epidermis

Botanists call the upper side of the leaf the ______ surface. Answer: adaxial

Openings in the epidermis through which gas exchange takes place Answer: stomata
are called ______.

______ are the only epidermal cells to contain chloroplasts. Answer: Guard cells

A waxy layer known as the ______ covers the leaves of all plant Answer: cuticle
species.

Small hairs on the leaf surface that help avert herbivory are called Answer: trichomes
______.

The layer of cells below the epidermis in dicot leaves is called the Answer: mesophyll
______, or "middle leaf."

The ______ parenchyma has column-shaped, tightly-packed cells Answer: palisade

that aid in photosynthesis.

The ______ parenchyma has loosely-arranged cells that allow Answer: spongy
gaseous exchange through the stomata.

Leaf vascular bundles are composed of ______ and phloem. Answer: xylem

The ______ consists of tracheids and vessels, which transport water Answer: xylem
and minerals to the leaves.

The ______ transports photosynthetic products from the leaf to other Answer: phloem
parts of the plant.

The remaining ______% of water taken up by roots is lost by Answer: 97-99.5

transpiration.
PART V: TRUE OR FALSE
Write TRUE if the statement is correct, and FALSE if it is not. Answers are provided for self-checking.

TERM DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION
The primary role of leaves is to collect TRUE
sunlight and make food by photosynthesis.
The petiole is the widest part of the leaf. FALSE — The lamina (leaf blade) is the widest
part.
Sessile leaves lack a petiole and are directly TRUE
attached to the stem.
The leaf margin refers to the central vein of FALSE — The leaf margin is the outer edge of
the leaf. the leaf.
Parallel venation is found in monocots such TRUE
as grasses, lilies, and banana plants.
Reticulate venation is also known as netted TRUE
venation.
Ginkgo biloba is an example of a plant with FALSE — Ginkgo biloba has dichotomous
parallel venation. venation.
Phyllotaxy refers to the arrangement of TRUE
leaves on a stem.
In an opposite leaf arrangement, three or FALSE — When three or more leaves are at a
more leaves are connected at a node. node, it is whorled; opposite has two.
In a simple leaf, the blade is completely TRUE
undivided.
In a compound leaf, the middle vein is called TRUE
the rachis.
A palmately compound leaf has leaflets FALSE — That describes pinnately compound
arranged along the middle vein in a feather- leaves.
like pattern.
The epidermis is the innermost layer of the FALSE — The epidermis is the outermost layer.
leaf.
Guard cells are the only epidermal cells to TRUE
contain chloroplasts.
The cuticle increases the rate of water loss FALSE — The cuticle reduces the rate of water
from the leaf surface. loss.
Trichomes can reduce the rate of TRUE
transpiration by blocking air flow across the
leaf surface.
The palisade parenchyma has loosely- FALSE — That describes the spongy
arranged cells of an irregular shape. parenchyma.
A single vascular bundle always contains TRUE
both xylem and phloem tissues.
The phloem transports water and minerals to FALSE — The xylem transports water and
the leaves. minerals; the phloem transports photosynthetic
products.
Transpiration is a way of getting rid of excess TRUE
water in plants.
PART VI: COMPARISON CHARTS

Types of Venation
Feature Parallel Venation Reticulate Venation
Vein Pattern Veins run parallel, do not intersect Branching network; veins intersect
Found In Monocots (grasses, lilies, banana Dicots (trees, shrubs, flowering
plants) plants)
Vein Size Usually straight and uniform in size Vary in size; form net-like pattern

Simple vs. Compound Leaves

Feature Simple Leaf Compound Leaf
Blade Completely undivided Completely divided into leaflets
Example Banana leaf, Maple leaf Locust tree, poison ivy, rose
Subtypes N/A (may have lobes) Palmate, Pinnate, Bipinnate

Layers of the Leaf (Internal Structure)

Layer / Structure Function / Description
Epidermis Outermost layer; aids gas exchange regulation; usually one cell layer
thick
Cuticle Waxy layer covering all plant leaves; reduces rate of water loss
Stomata Openings in the epidermis for gas exchange; regulated by guard cells
Palisade Mesophyll Column-shaped, tightly-packed cells; aids photosynthesis; in upper
mesophyll
Spongy Mesophyll Loosely-arranged cells; air spaces allow gaseous exchange; helps
aquatic plant leaves float
Vascular Bundle (Xylem) Tracheids and vessels; transports water and minerals to the leaves
Vascular Bundle (Phloem) Transports photosynthetic products from the leaf to other parts of the
plant

— End of Reviewer: Shoot System - Leaves —