CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The main aim of the study is to assess the impact of corruption of the procurement
performance in state owned enterprises in Zimbabwe. This research area and aim will
therefore serve as a guideline to find the most appropriate research methodology for the
current study. To achieve the purpose of this study and to be able to provide the answers to
the research questions identified in the previous chapter, the research methodology that
underpin this study will be discussed in this chapter including the rationale for research
design, approach, data collection procedures and techniques, sampling methods, data analysis
approach and research ethics that were considered during the collection of data.
3.2. RESEARCH PARADIGM
Saunders et al (2019) described research philosophy as systematic beliefs and assumptions
concerning the development of knowledge. A research paradigm is “the set of common
beliefs and agreements shared between scientists about how problems should be understood
and addressed” (Rahi, 2017). Kivunja and Kuyini (2017) highlights the importance of
research paradigms in that they are the source of opinions and dictates, which, for researchers
in any discipline, affect what should be researched, how the study should be conducted, and
how the study results will be interpreted. Saunders et al. (2019) state that there are four major
different research philosophical branches from the research onion’s outermost layer which
includes; the positivism, realism, pragmatism and interpretivism.
The research adopted the pragmatism research paradigm. According to Chege and Otieno
(2020) pragmatism does not belong to any philosophical system and reality. Researchers have
freedom of choice. They are “free” to choose the methods, techniques, and procedures that
best meet their needs and scientific research aims. Pragmatists believe that reality is not static
but changes at every turn of events, similarly the has become so dynamic and has changed
through actions and actions is the way to change existence (Byrne, 2022). Positivism
typically supports quantitative methods and deductive reasoning, whereas Interpretivism
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emphasizes qualitative approaches and inductive reasoning. However, pragmatism embraces
the two and offer a flexible approach to research design (Ganesha and Aithal, 2022).
From the interpretivism perspective, corruption is more of human action within business
processes. In this regard, it is of paramount important to understand the meaning of actions
from the actor’s point of view which is a subjective process of these key actors. By treating
human actors as subjects, rather than the objects of research observations, interpretivist takes
a qualitative approach with the view that humans have an internal subjective logic, which
must be understood in order to explain the current state of affairs (Mojeed, 2019). Hence, it is
essential to understand why social actors behave and act in a certain way. This view was used
to ascertain the factors that influence corruption in public procurement process. In some
cases, the positivist who uses quantitative research approach alone can show the change in a
phenomenon or variables, but is unable to explain why or how it has changed (Alakwe,
2017).
From the positivist perspective, researchers share the standard view that social reality is
singular, external and objective (Zukauskas, Vveinhardt and Andriukaitiene, 2018). This
indicates that researchers are capable of studying the objects without influencing them or
being influenced by them. Hence, the positivist advocates using a scientific approach to
generate numerical measures and produce adequate knowledge and that is the reason why the
positivist paradigm have been most commonly linked with quantitative data collection and
analysis (Mojeed, 2019. The study aims to assess the impact of corruption of the procurement
performance in state owned enterprises in Zimbabwe. To achieve this objective, statistical,
logical and mathematical technique were employed to produce research findings that can be
generalised to other cases or the whole population.
3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH
3.3.1. Mixed research methods
According to Mehrad and Zangeneh (2019) mixed research methods is a research design that
combines both the qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Dawadi, Shrestha and
Giri (2021) states that the mixed research methods are guided by pragmatism research
paradigm which also combines the assumptions of positivism and interpretivism research
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paradigm. Although the mixed research methods seem to employ incompatible approach, the
pragmatist argues that, the research is at liberty to choose those research methods or
strategies that can best answer their research questions (Wilkinson and Staley, 2019).
a. Qualitative approach
According to Mohajan (2018), qualitative research approach is a form of social action that
concentrate on how the social reality of people can be understood through their interpretation
and experience. Borgstede and Scholz (2021) advocates that qualitative research works with
the universe of meanings, motives, aspirations, beliefs, values and attitudes, which
corresponds to a deeper space of relationships, processes and phenomena that cannot be
reduced to the operationalization of variables. The study aims to identify the techniques used
to misappropriate funds within the procurement process state owned enterprises and ascertain
the factors that influence corruption in public procurement process. This can only be obtained
from understanding of participants’ experience, perspectives and reflections. Hence, the study
will employee the qualitative approach to gain an in-depth understanding of human
behaviour, experience, attitude, intentions and motivations of corruption in procurement that
cannot be experienced in numerical data. It can provide a comprehensive range of
information as there are opportunities for further clarification such as the use of interviews,
open-ended questions and focus group discussions (Dawadi, Shrestha and Giri 2021).
b. Quantitative approach
Quantitative research approach is a means for testing hypotheses and theories by examining
the relationship between research variables (Rahman, 2017). Mehrad and Zangeneh (2019)
states that quantitative research is used to establish cause and effect relationship between two
or more variables by using mathematical, computational and statistical methods. Using this
approach, the study established the impact of corruption on procurement process. Corruption
was measured using the consumer perception index (CPI) from a scale of 1 to 10, although
there is a lack of agreement on operational dimensions on which variables should be used to
measure corruption. Nevertheless, Rohwer (2019) argues that perception measures like the
corruption perception index may reflect the realities of corruption better than objective
measures if the surveys used are carefully constructed. Procurement performance was
measured using an average score from six variables as given by ACCA (2018) which include;
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timeliness of delivery, quality of products, effectiveness controls, fairness, integrity,
transparency, non-diversion of products.
3.4. RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is a systematic strategy and plan for selecting, rationalizing, and organizing
the sequence of procedures for collecting and handling the evidence on the basis of the
research questions or the research problem which are to be answered or solved (Kang and
Evans, 2020). There are different types of research designs and these include descriptive
research, explanatory research and exploratory research. Since a mixed research approach
was adopted, this study employed a sequential explanatory research design.
According to Creswell (2016), sequential explanatory research design may begin with
quantitative followed by qualitative on implementation and the stage of integration is the
interpretation phase. In this two-phase design a predominantly quantitative approach was
followed. Findings of the first phase were integrated and used in the beginning of the second
phase. For example, the data collected in the first phase using a questionnaire served as the
foundation for the development of the measuring instrument used in this study. The findings
of both phases were considered during the interpretation phase. The overall research design is
given in figure 3-1 below;
PHASE 1 PHASE 2
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Interpretation
Quantitative Quantitative Integrate Qualitative
Qualitative
Data Data Qualitative Data
Data
collection analysis findings analysis
collection
Figure 3-1: Overall research design Source: Researcher (2023)
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3.5. POPULATION
A population is the total collection of elements or participants about which the researcher
makes some inferences (Cooper and Schindler, 2014). Population consists of all the units on
which the findings of research can be applied. The study population in this study comprised
of all state owned entities in Zimbabwe. A target population consists of a total number of
elements or units from or about whom survey information is collected. To draw a sample, one
needs to select a specific population. The targeted population of the study are all procurement
departments of state owned entities in Bulawayo Metropolitan.
3.6. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
3.5.1. Sample
A sample is a set of individuals selected from a population and intended to represent the
population under study. Samples are drawn because it would be impractical to investigate all
members of a large target population (Shukla, 2020). A sample of 34 respondents were
selected from state owned entities
Table 3-1: Sample size
Instrument Respondents Codes
Interview Head of procurement HP1 to HP 4 4
Questionnaire Procurement department P1 to P72 72
Total 76
3.5.2. Sampling the research sites
The study used convenience sampling techniques to select Bulawayo Metropolitan as a case
study from all cities that have state owned entities in Zimbabwe. Convenience sampling is
characterized by selecting participants based upon their proximity to the researcher in which
the researcher recruits from an opportune sampling frame (Casteel and Bridier, 2021). The
site was selected because of convenience to the researcher in terms of researcher’s area of
residence, language, familiarity with some of public officers in local governments and other
state owned institutions and the availability of data for the research work.
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3.5.3. Sampling of institutions
The study used stratified sampling to select government institutions. Taherdoost (2020) states
that where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be
organized by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled with
different sampling approaches, potentially enabling researchers to use the approach best
suited (or most cost-effective) for each identified subgroup within the population. The
government institutions include ministries, state corporations, local authorities and tertiary
institutions which have distinct characteristics. According to Casteel and Bridier (2021),
stratified random sampling is typically used by the researcher to ensure that specific
subgroups of respondents are adequately represented within the sample. The study used
purposive sampling technique to select each representative from each stratum. It was
judgemental rather than a probability technique and the most practicable in the
circumstances, given the time and finance constraint. The researcher purposefully selected
the ministry of transport, NRZ, BCC and NUST from the four stratums.
3.5.4. Sampling of respondents
The study used census sampling technique to select respondents of the study. According to
Mohinder (2021), census sampling is a type of purposive sampling technique that involves
examining the entire target population that have a particular set of characteristics such as;
specific attributes or traits, experience, knowledge, skills, exposure to an event, among
others. The study assessed the impact of corruption on procurement performance, hence the
procurement department personnel were chosen to form a target population of the study
because of their vast knowledge and experience of procurement processes than other
employees. Etikan, Musa and Alkassim (2016) argued that cost and time considerations may
make census sampling impossible for large populations, it is therefore more attractive for
small populations. The target population consist of 76 population units from four selected
entities; hence the study involves all members within the population to get deep insights
about the procurement processes. Thomas (2022) also added that census sampling is applied
for intensive investigations or when the number of members in the population is not large.
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1.6. DATA COLLECTION AND INSTRUMENTS PROCEDURES
1.6.1. Research instruments
This is a mixed methods research study of the variables related to corruption and its impact
on the procurement process. Given this focus, literature reviews, questionnaires and
interviews were used to collect data.
a. Questionnaire
In order to address research objectives, a standard questionnaire was designed for participants
in the sample to ensure comparability of results. Each questionnaire had an authorised
research permission from the research institution and an explanation to the respondents the
purpose of the study to reduce their fear and bias as they respond to questions. The
questionnaire was divided into 7 sections. The first section was used to gather demographic
information about the respondents, while other sections used to elicit information from
respondents on their assessment on the impact of corruption of the procurement performance
in state owned enterprises in Zimbabwe. The researcher used closed-ended questions in clear
and simple language for easy understanding. These questions had multiple-choice with the
use of Likert scale from 1 to 5 on which the respondents had to tick the answer they feel is
appropriate. Control questions were also included in the questionnaire to check some
consistency in the information provided by the respondents.
b. Interview
The researcher supplemented the data from questionnaires through telephone interviews. The
content of which was grounded in the quantitative results from the first phase of data
collection. Because the goal of the second, qualitative, phase was to explore and elaborate on
the results from the first, quantitative, phase of the study the study used interviews. It allowed
the researcher to probe deeper into the initial responses of the respondents to gain a more
detailed and clear answer to the research questions. Interview questions were paraphrased to
suit different situations. This was done to allow expression of individual viewpoints,
increasing cooperation with the respondents, provision of first-hand information and uncover
7
issues that were not previously considered important under the first wave of data collection
using a questionnaire. The interview was mainly used for head of procurement department.
c. Literature review
This study focuses on variables related to corruption as it impacts procurement performance.
For this purpose, an extensive and relevant literature review was conducted in an attempt to
provide a theoretical foundation for the study. The literature review provided scientific
explanations for the research question(s), and enabled the researcher to verify the findings
and to compare these with the work of other scholars in the field of corruption in procurement
process. Further, the study augmented the discussion by citing related literature, reflecting
both quantitative and qualitative published studies on the topic.
1.6.2. Data collection procedure
Qualitative and quantitative methods were implemented for the data collection. The different
data collection methods used by the researcher were aligned to the research design and were
applied in two waves. During the first wave of data collection, quantitative data was collected
from 72 procurement personnel with the standard questionnaire. These questionnaires were
distributed electronically by means of e-mail. This data set was harnessed as the main source
of information to assess the impact of corruption on procurement performance. During the
second and final wave, in-depth interviews were conducted with head of procurement to
gather qualitative information regarding the techniques used to misappropriate funds within
the procurement process state owned enterprises and the factors that influence corruption in
public procurement process. The rationale for this approach is that the quantitative data and
their subsequent analysis provide a general understanding of the research problem. The
qualitative data and their analysis refine and explain those statistical results by exploring
participants’ views in more depth.
1.7. DATA ANALYSIS
1.7.1. Qualitative data analysis
For data collected from interviews, the researcher listened to all the responses of the
interviewees that were taped a few of times to develop a holistic understanding of concepts
8
involved. The second step in the data analysis involved categorizing the data. This included
breaking down the semi-structured interviews into units of analysis. Thirdly, the content
(words, statements and views) of the units of analysis were extracted from the data to
understand the impact of corruption on procurement performance and the factors that
influence corruption in state owned entities. Fourthly, the common themes were integrated
into relevant constructs that were used to attain the research objectives. The results were
integrated with the results of the quantitative and qualitative phases during the discussion of
the outcomes of the entire study.
1.7.2. Quantitative data analysis
Upon receipt of the questionnaires, each questionnaire was edited to identify omissions,
ambiguities and errors in the responses. Illegible or missing answers were coded as ‘missing’.
This simplified the data analysis, but does not distort any interpretations of the data. The
response values were originally captured on an Excel spreadsheet and later exported into the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows (Version 21.0) to generate
the diagnostic information. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed to
analyse the data. This included statistical applications and calculations such as factor
analysis, correlation, comparing means, multivariate analysis of variance and strength of
relationship.
1.8. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
1.8.1. Validity
Validity is concerned with the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure (Duckett, 2021). Validity is an essential criterion for evaluating the quality and
acceptability of research. Generally, researchers use different instruments to collect data.
Therefore, the quality of these instruments is very critical because the conclusions researchers
draw are based on the information they obtain using these instrument (Sürücü and Maslakçi,
2020).
c. Content Validity of quantitative data
9
Clark and Watson (2019) states that content validity is related to a type of validity in which
different elements, skills and behaviours are adequately and effectively measured. To this
end, the research instruments and the data might be reviewed by the experts in the field of
research. Duckett (2021) added that based on the reviewers’ comments the unclear and
obscure questions can be revised and the complex items reworded. Also, the ineffective and
non-functioning questions can be discarded altogether. In addition, the questions could be
face validated by these persons. To ensure validity of the questionnaire used for the study, the
draft questionnaire was presented to research supervisor with vast experience in research for
the supervisor’s independent review on its factorial, criterion and content. Based on the
supervisor’s comments and suggestions, necessary adjustments were done on the draft
questionnaire.
d. Internal Validity of quantitative data
Mainly, internal validity is concerned with the congruence of the research findings with the
reality. Also, it deals with the degree to which the researcher observes and measures what is
supposed to be measured (Mohan and Ahmad, 2022). Zettersten, Pomper and Saffran (2022)
suggested that to strengthen the validity of evaluation data and findings, the investigator
should try to collect data through several sources such as questionnaires, interviews and
observations. Gathering data through one technique can be questionable, biased and weak
(Havron, 2022). However, collecting information from a variety of sources and with a variety
of techniques can confirm findings. To ensure internal validity, the researcher used
triangulation technique by employing the mixed-methods so that qualitative and quantitative
data is obtained to corroborate the research findings.
e. External Validity of quantitative data
The study also considered is the external validity. External validity is concerned with the
applicability of the findings in other settings or with other subjects. As Dönmez, İlknur and
Yılmaz (2022, p. 214,) puts emphasis on the research design and states that “Is the research
design such that we can generalize beyond the subjects under investigation to a wider
population”. The study used mixed research methods and According to Maxwell (2016), the
mixed method allows a logical and flexible methodology that can be used to gain an in-depth
understanding of large population. In other words, mixed research methods enable the
10
researcher to collect and analyse data to produce research findings that can be generalised to
other cases or the whole population.
1.8.2. Reliability of quantitative data
Reliability deals with the consistency, dependability and replicability of the results obtained
from a piece of research (Revelle and Condon, 2019). Obtaining the similar results in
quantitative research is rather straightforward because our data are in numerical form.
However, in qualitative approaches to research achieving the identical results are fairly
demanding and difficult (Revelle and Condon, 2019). It is because the data are in narrative
form and subjective. To this end, Campos, Oliveira, Feitoza and Cattuzzo (2017) point out
that instead of obtaining the same results, it is better to think about the dependability and
consistency of the data. The researcher used different procedures such as questionnaires,
interviews, document analysis and literature review to collect data. Also, this information was
obtained through different sources such as procurement personnel of different positions from
four different institutions. Fusch, Fusch and Ness (2018) affirms that collecting varied types
of information through different sources can enhance the reliability of the data and the
results. In this way the replication of the study can be carried out fairly easily.
1.8.3. Credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative data
To increase the overall quality of the research, the findings are reported in a transparent
manner, and the validity of qualitative data is ensured by avoiding personal interpretation of
the responses from interviewed members of the case company since there was interaction
with respondents during the interview process. The researcher employed the strategy of
reflexivity by making a distinction between the personal observations and the information
obtained through the interviews in order not to impact the validity of the results. Another
method of ensuring data validity was through data triangulation (Fusch et al., 2018).
Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative data was used to increase the validity, reliability,
credibility, and dependability of the research. The quantitative findings are confirmed by the
qualitative interviews conducted with the procurement teams of different institutions. The
data obtained was also triangulated by seeking multiple references from literature reviewed
for the same claim. Theory triangulation was employed in this research to assess the
evolution of the concepts as well as ensure the validity of the concepts.
11
1.9. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The researcher was guided by the ethical principles on research with employees as
participants set out by National University of Science and Technology. The research
instruments were scrutinised by the research committee of the university. Employees from
the institutions under the sample frame are under the oath of secrecy and revelling some
information about their organisations was considered as the most profound ethical
implication. For this reason, researcher was granted permission by the organisations to
conduct interviews with the management, distribute questionnaires and inspect financial and
management reports. The respondents consented to participate in the interview process, and
were firstly informed about the purpose of the survey and the intended use of the data to be
collected. They were also assured confidentiality of their responses, protection of their
privacy rights and that they could withdraw from the survey without questions asked.
Information was reported as given by respondents on all methodologies and was assessed by
colleagues and academic supervisors to increase public confidence and reliability.
1.10. CHAPTER SUMMARY
The chapter outlined the purpose of the research in general and described the methods and
techniques that were employed by the researcher to collect, summarise, present, analyse and
interpret data in a bid to answer research questions and achieve research objectives. The next
chapter addresses the empirical findings and discussion of the study. Included in the next
chapter is also data presentations, analysis and interpretation of findings.
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