UNIT-02

Steps for designing a digital circuit:

1. Problem Definition and Specification
[Link] Type of Circuit and number of input and required output variable
3. Derive the truth table
4. Obtain simplified Boolean Expression
5. Draw Logic Circuit Diagram
6. Verification and Implementation of circuit

HALF ADDERS
A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is called half adder. This circuit
needs two binary inputs, augend (X) and addend(Y) and two binary output, SUM and CARRY.

FULL ADDERS
A combinational circuit that performs addition on three bits is called Full adder. This circuit
consists of three input variable, augend, addend and Carry(in) which is generated from
previous lower significant bit position and two binary output SUM and CARRY.
Implementation Using Two Half Adders
A Full Adder can be constructed using two Half Adders and one OR gate.
Step 1:

• First Half Adder adds A and B.

• Produces S1 and C1.
Step 2:

• Second Half Adder adds S1 and Cin.

• Produces final Sum and C2.
Step 3:
• OR gate combines C1 and C2 to produce Cout.

HALF SUBTRACTORS
Half subtractor is a combinational circuit which is used to perform subtraction of two bits. It
has two inputs, X(minuend) and Y(subtrahend) and two output variables D(difference) and
(borrow).

FULL SUBTRACTORS
A full subtractor is a combinational circuit which performs subtraction between 2 bits taking
into account that 1 may have been borrowed by a lower significant stage. Thus it have three
inputs and two output.

LOOK AHEAD CARRY GENERATOR

A Look Ahead Carry Generator (LACG) is a combinational logic circuit used in digital adders
to reduce carry propagation delay by computing carry signals in advance using logic
expressions instead of waiting for carries to ripple through each stage.
Basic Idea of Carry Look-Ahead
Instead of waiting for carry to propagate, we define two signals:
(A) Generate (G)
𝐺𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐵𝑖
Carry is generated at stage i when both inputs are 1.
(B) Propagate (P)

𝑃𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 ⊕ 𝐵𝑖
Carry is propagated when exactly one input is 1.
These signals allow carry calculation without waiting.
Carry Equations
For a full adder:
𝐶𝑖+1 = 𝐺𝑖 + 𝑃𝑖 𝐶𝑖
Now expand for multiple bits.

BCD ADDERS
A BCD Adder is a combinational digital circuit used to add two BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
numbers and produce a correct BCD result.
Basic Components of BCD Adder
A BCD adder consists of:
1. First 4-bit binary adder
2. Correction logic circuit
3. Second 4-bit binary adder
MUX
Multiplexing means transforming large number of information over a smaller number of
channels or lines.
It is a combinational circuit that selects binary information from one of many input lines and
directs it to a single output line. The selection of a particular line is controlled by a set of
selection lines.
Generally there are 2n input lines and n selection lines whose bit combinations determines
which input line is to be selected.
1. Data Selection and Routing
The primary function of a MUX is to select one data input among many and route it to a
single output line.
In digital systems such as microprocessors and communication systems, multiple data
sources may exist. Instead of connecting separate wires for each data source, a multiplexer is
used to select the required signal.
This reduces wiring complexity and improves system organization.
Implementation of Boolean Functions
A multiplexer can be used to implement any Boolean function.
By properly assigning logic 0, logic 1, or input variables to the data inputs, and using select
lines as variables, complex logical expressions can be realized using a single MUX.
This reduces the need for multiple logic gates.
ALU and Processor Design
In microprocessors and Arithmetic Logic Units (ALU), multiplexers are used to select:
• Different arithmetic results
• Different data paths
• Register outputs
This allows flexible operation and controlled data flow.
Bus Control and Memory Selection
In memory systems, MUX is used to select:
• Specific memory locations
• Specific data lines
This ensures correct data transfer between memory and processor.
 DECODER
A Decoder is a combinational digital circuit that converts an n-bit binary input code into 2ⁿ
distinct output lines, such that only one output line becomes active for a given input
combination while all other outputs remain inactive.
It is called a decoder because it decodes binary information into a recognizable output form.
The main principle behind a decoder is:
Each output corresponds to one unique combination of input variables.
For any input combination, only the corresponding output line becomes HIGH (1), while all
others remain LOW (0).
This property makes decoders extremely useful in selection and control operations.

Simple Design
Decoder circuit is simple to design using AND and NOT gates.

Fast Operation
Since it is a combinational circuit, output depends only on present inputs, so response time
is very small.

Unique Output Selection

For every input combination, only one output becomes active. This avoids confusion in
selection.

Easy Expansion
Large decoders (like 4-to-16) can be constructed using smaller decoders (like 2-to-4 or 3-to-
8).

Useful in Digital Systems

Widely used in memory systems and processor architecture.
Disadvantages of Decoder

Large Hardware Requirement for Large n

As number of inputs increases, number of outputs increases exponentially (2ⁿ), which
increases hardware.

High Power Consumption (for Large Decoders)

More output lines and gates increase power consumption.

Limited to One Active Output

Only one output is active at a time, so it cannot perform data selection like MUX.

Wiring Complexity
For higher input decoders, wiring becomes complex
Applications of Decoder

Memory Address Decoding

Used to select specific memory location in RAM or ROM.

Instruction Decoding in CPU

Used in control unit to decode machine instructions.

Seven Segment Display

BCD to 7-segment decoder is used to display decimal numbers.

Data Routing
Used to activate one device among many devices.

Demultiplexing
Decoder can act as demultiplexer when enable input is used.

I/O Device Selection

Used to select one output port among many.

ENCODER
An Encoder is a combinational digital circuit that converts 2ⁿ input lines into n output lines,
by producing a binary code corresponding to the active input.
In simple words, an encoder performs the reverse operation of a decoder.
While a decoder expands binary inputs into many outputs, an encoder compresses many
inputs into fewer output bits.