er

Introduction of Graphs
t
ap
INTRODUCTION OF
1
C h

GRAPHS

➥ In this section, we shall revise some basic curves which are given as.

Polynomial

Rational
Algebraic Modulus
Irrational
Signum
Piecewise
Greatest integer function

Fractional part function

FUNCTIONS Least integer function

Trigonometric

Exponential

Logarithmic/Inverse of exponential
Transcendental
Geometrical curves

Inverse trigonometric curves

1.1 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

1. Polynomial Function
A function of the form:
f ( x ) = a 0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + … + a n x n ;
where n ∈ N and a 0, a1 , a 2,…, a n ∈ R.
Then, f is called a polynomial function. “f ( x) is also called polynomial in x”.
1
 Some of basic polynomial functions are y
(i) Identity function/Graph of f (x) = x y=x

A function f defined by f ( x) = x for all x ∈ R, is called the

Play with Graphs

identity function. 45°

x
Here, y = x clearly represents a straight line passing through O
the origin and inclined at an angle of 45° with x-axis shown as:
The domain and range of identity functions are both
equal to R.
Fig. 1.1
(ii) Graph of f (x) = x 2 y
y=x2
A function given by f ( x) = x 2 is called the square function.
The domain of square function is R and its range is R + ∪ { 0}
or [0, ∞)
Clearly y = x 2 , is a parabola. Since y = x 2 is an even x
O
function, so its graph is symmetrical about y-axis, shown as:

(iii) Graph of f (x) = x 3 Fig. 1.2

A function given by f ( x) = x 3 is called the cube function. y y = x3
The domain and range of cube are both equal to R.
Since, y = x 3 is an odd function, so its graph is symmetrical
about opposite quadrant, i.e., “origin”, shown as:
x
O

(iv) Graph of f (x) = x 2 n ; n ∈ N

If n ∈ N, then function f given by f ( x) = x 2n is an even function.
So, its graph is always symmetrical about y-axis. Fig. 1.3
Also, x 2 > x 4 > x 6 > x 8 > … for all x ∈ ( −1, 1)
and x 2 < x 4 < x 6 < x 8 < … for all x ∈ ( −∞, − 1) ∪ (1, ∞ )
Graphs of y = x 2 , y = x 4 , y = x 6 ,…, etc. are shown as:

y=x4 y=x6 y y = x6
y = x2
y = –x y=x

x
–1 O 1

Fig. 1.4

(v) Graph of f (x) = x 2 n −1; n ∈ N

If n ∈ N, then the function f given by f ( x) = x 2n −1 is an odd function. So, its graph is
symmetrical about origin or opposite quadrants.
2
 Here, comparison of values of x, x 3 , x 5 ,… y=x 5 y=x 3

Introduction of Graphs
y
y=x
for
x ∈ (1, ∞ ) x < x3 < x5 < …
x ∈ ( 0, 1) x > x3 > x5 > … x
–1 O 1
x ∈ ( −1, 0) x< x < x <…
3 5

x ∈ ( −∞, − 1) x > x3 > x5 > …

Graphs of f ( x) = x, f ( x) = x 3 , f ( x) = x 5 ,… are shown as in
Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.5

2. Rational Expression
A function obtained by dividing a polynomial by another polynomial is called a rational function.
P ( x)
⇒ f ( x) =
Q ( x)
Domain ∈ R − { x | Q( x) = 0}
i.e., domain ∈R except those points for which denominator = 0.
Graphs of some Simple Rational Functions
1
(i) Graph of f (x) = y
x
1
A function defined by f ( x) = is called the reciprocal (1,1)
x 1
function or rectangular hyperbola, with coordinate axis as x
1 –1 O 1
asymptotes. The domain and range of f ( x) = is R – { 0}. (–1,–1) –1
x
Since, f ( x) is odd function, so its graph is symmetrical
about opposite quadrants. Also, we observe
lim f ( x) = + ∞ and lim f ( x) = − ∞ . Fig. 1.6
x → 0+ x → 0–
and as x → ± ∞ ⇒ f ( x) → 0
1
Thus, f ( x) = could be shown as in Fig. 1.6.
x
1
(ii) Graph of f (x) = 2
x
1
Here, f ( x) = 2 is an even function, so its graph is symmetrical about y-axis.
x
Domain of f ( x) is R − { 0} and range is (0, ∞). y

Also, as y→∞ as lim f ( x) or lim f ( x) .

x → 0+ x → 0−

and y→0 as lim f ( x).

x→ ±∞ x
1 O
Thus, f ( x) = could be shown as in Fig. 1.7.
x2 Fig. 1.7
3
 1
(iii) Graph of f (x) = 2n − 1
; n∈N 1
x y=
x y =1
1 y x3
Here, f ( x) = is an odd function, so its graph is
x 2n – 1
Play with Graphs

symmetrical in opposite quadrants.

1 (1,1) A
Also, y → ∞ when lim f ( x) and
x→ 0+
x
O
y→−∞ when lim f ( x). –1
(–1,–1)
1
x → 0− –1
B
1 1
Thus, the graph for f ( x) = ; f ( x) = 5 , …, etc. will
x3 x
1
be similar to the graph of f ( x) = which has asymptotes
x
as coordinate axes, shown as in Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.8
1
(iv) Graph of f (x) = 2 n ; n ∈ N
x
1 1
We observe that the function f ( x) = 2n is an even y y = x2
x y = 14
x
function, so its graph is symmetrical about y-axis.
Also, y → ∞ as lim f ( x) or lim f ( x)
x → 0+ x → 0− (–1,–1) (1,1)
B 1 A
and y → 0 as lim f ( x) or lim f ( x).
x → −∞ x→ + ∞ x
–1 O 1
The values of y decrease as the values of x increase.
1 1
Thus, the graph of f ( x) = 2 ; f ( x) = 4 , … , etc. will be Fig. 1.9
x x
1
similar as the graph of f ( x) = 2 , which has asymptotes as coordinate axis. Shown as in Fig. 1.9.
x
3. Irrational Function
The algebraic function containing terms having non-integral rational powers of x are called
irrational functions.
Graphs of Some Simple Irrational Functions
(i) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 2
y
Here; f ( x) = x is the portion of the parabola y 2 = x, which y=x
lies above x-axis.
y= x
Domain of f ( x) ∈ R + ∪ { 0} or [ 0, ∞ )
(1, 1)
1
and range of f ( x) ∈ R + ∪ { 0} or [ 0, ∞ ).
Thus, the graph of f ( x) = x1/2 is shown as; O 1
x

Note If f (x) = x n and g (x) = x1/n , then f (x) and g (x) are inverse of
Fig. 1.10
each other.
∴ f (x) = x n and g (x) = x1/n is the mirror image about y = x.
4
(ii) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 3 y=x3

Introduction of Graphs
y y=x

As discussed above, if g( x) = x 3 . Then f ( x) = x1/3 y =x1/3

is image of g( x) about y = x. 1

where domain f ( x) ∈ R. x
–1 O 1
and range of f ( x) ∈ R.
–1
Thus, the graph of f ( x) = x1/ 3 is shown in Fig.
1.11;
Fig. 1.11
(iii) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 2 n ; n ∈ N y y=x4 y=x2
y=x
Here, f ( x) = x1/ 2n is defined for all x ∈ [ 0, ∞ ) and the values
taken by f ( x) are positive.
So, domain and range of f ( x) are [ 0, ∞ ). y = x1/2
1 y = x1/4
Here, the graph of f ( x) = x1/ 2n is the mirror image of the
graph of f ( x) = x 2n about the line y = x, when x ∈ [ 0, ∞ ).
Thus, f ( x) = x1/ 2 , f ( x) = x1/ 4 , … are shown as; O 1 x

Fig. 1.12
(iv) Graph of f (x) = x1/ 2 n −1 , when n ∈ N
Here, f ( x) = x1/ 2n −1 is defined for all x ∈ R. So, y y = x5 y=x3
y=x
domain of f ( x) ∈ R, and range of f ( x) ∈ R. Also the
graph of f ( x) = x1/ 2n −1 is the mirror image of the graph y =x1/3
y = x1/5
of f ( x) = x 2n −1 about the line y = x when x ∈ R. 1
Thus, f ( x) = x1/ 3 , f ( x) = x1/ 5 , …, are shown
as; O
x
–1 1

Note We have discussed some of the simple curves –1

for Polynomial, Rational and Irrational
functions. Graphs of the some more difficult
rational functions will be discussed in
chapter 3. Such as;
Fig. 1.13
x 1 x2 + x + 1
y= y= 2 , y= 2 ,… .
x+1 x −1 x −x+1

4. Piecewise Functions
As discussed piecewise functions are:
(a) Absolute value function (or modulus function), (b) Signum function.
(c) Greatest integer function. (d) Fractional part function.
(e) Least integer function.
(a) Absolute value function (or modulus function)
 x, x ≥ 0
y = |x|= 
− x , x < 0

5
 y = –x y y=x
“It is the numerical value of x”.
“It is symmetric about y-axis” where domain ∈R
and range ∈[0, ∞). 135°
45°
Play with Graphs

Properties of modulus functions x

O
(i) |x | ≤ a ⇒ − a ≤ x ≤ a ; ( a ≥ 0)
(ii) |x | ≥ a ⇒ x ≤ − a or x ≥ a ; ( a ≥ 0) Fig. 1.14
(iii) |x ± y| ≤ |x| + |y|
(iv) |x ± y| ≥ |x| − |y | .
(b) Signum function; y = Sgn(x) y-axis

It is defined by; 1
|x| x  +1, if x> 0
 or ; x≠0 
y = Sgn( x) =  x |x| =  −1, if x< 0 x-axis
O
 0 ; x = 0.  0, if x=0
–1
Here, Domain of f ( x) ∈ R.
and Range of f ( x) ∈ { −1, 0, 1}. Fig. 1.15
(c) Greatest integer function [x] = n
[x] indicates the integral part of x which is nearest and smaller
integer to x. It is also known as floor of x.
Thus, [ 2.3] = 2, [ 0.23] = 0, [ 2] = 2, [ −8.0725] = − 9, … . n n+1
In general; x
n ≤ x < n + 1 ( n ∈ Integer) ⇒ [ x] = n. Fig. 1.16
y-axis
Here, f ( x) = [ x] could be expressed graphically as;
3
x [x]
2
0≤ x< 1 0
1
1≤ x< 2 1
2≤ x< 3 2 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x-axis
–1
Thus, f ( x) = [ x] could be shown as; –2
Properties of greatest integer function
–3
(i) [ x] = x holds, if x is integer.
Fig. 1.17
(ii) [ x + I] = [ x] + I, if I is integer.
(iii) [ x + y ] ≥ [ x] + [ y ].
(iv) If [ φ ( x)] ≥ I, then φ ( x) ≥ I.
(v) If [ φ ( x)] ≤ I, then φ ( x) < I + 1.
(vi) [ − x] = − [ x], if x ∈ integer.
(vii) [ − x] = − [ x] − 1, if x ∉integer.
“It is also known as stepwise function/floor of x.”
6
 Introduction of Graphs
(d) Fractional part of function
Here, {.} denotes the fractional part of x. Thus, in y = { x}.
x = [ x] + { x} = I + f ; where I = [ x] and f = { x}
∴ y = { x} = x − [ x] , where 0 ≤ { x} < 1; shown as:
y
x {x}
0≤ x< 1 x
1
1≤ x< 2 x−1

3
x+

x+

x+

x–

x–

x–
x
2≤ x< 3 x−2 x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
−1 ≤ x < 0 x+1
−2 ≤ x < − 1 x+2 Fig. 1.18

Properties of fractional part of x

(i) { x} = x ; if 0≤ x< 1
(ii) { x} = 0 ; if x ∈ integer.
(iii) { − x} = 1 − { x} ; if x ∈ integer.
(e) Least integer function
y = ( x) = x ,
( x) or x indicates the integral part of x which is nearest and greatest integer to x.
It is known as ceiling of x.
[x ] = n (x) = x = n +1
Thus, 2.3023 = 3, ( 0.23) = 1, ( −8.0725) = − 8, ( −0.6) = 0
In general, n < x ≤ n + 1 ( n ∈ integer))
i. e., x or ( x) = n + 1 n x n+1
shown as;
Fig. 1.19
Here, f ( x) = ( x) = x, can be expressed graphically as:
y-axis

x x = ( x) 3
−1 < x ≤ 0 0 2

0< x≤ 1 1 1
x-axis
1< x≤ 2 2 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
–1
−2 < x ≤ − 1 −1
–2
−3 < x ≤ − 2 −2
–3

Properties of least integer function Fig. 1.20

(i) ( x) = x = x, if x is integer.
(ii) ( x + I) = x + I = ( x) + I ; if I ∈ integer.
(iii) Greatest integer converts x = I + f to [ x] = I while x converts to ( I + 1).

Note We shall discuss the curves:

y = {sin x} , y = {x3 } , y = {sin−1 (sin x)} y = [sin x] , etc. in chapter 2. (Curvature and
Transformations).
7
 1.2 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

1. Trigonometric Function
Play with Graphs

(a) Sine function

Here, f ( x) = sin x can be discussed in two ways i.e., Graph diagram and Circle diagram where
Domain of sine function is “R” and range is [–1, 1].
Graph diagram
y
(On x-axis and y-axis)
3π π, 1
f ( x) = sin x, increases – ,1
2 1 2 y =1
strictly from –1 to 1 as x increases B D
π π
from − to , decreases strictly h1 h1
2 2 x
π 2π 3π π π OA π π 3π 2π C
from 1 to –1 as x increases from
2 2 2 2 2
3π y = –1
to and so on. We have graph π , –1 –1 3π, –1
2 2 2
as;
Here, the height is same after Fig. 1.21
every interval of 2π. (i.e., In above figure, AB = CD after every interval of 2π).
∴ sin x is called periodic function with period 2π.
Circle diagram π/2 π ,1 5π , 1 …
=
(On trigonometric plane or using 2 2
quadrants). Let a circle of radius ‘1’, y=1 γ
i.e., unit circle.
a β
Then, sin α = ,
1 b 1 1
a
b α
sin β = ,
1 …, 5π, 3π, π y = 0 3π O 0=y x = 0, 2π, 4π ,…
c c 2
sin γ = − , d
1
d 2π–δ
sin δ = − , … , shown as.
1 y = –1
∴ sin x generates a circle of
radius ‘1’. 3π/2, 7π/2, …
Fig. 1.22
(b) Cosine function
Here, f ( x) = cos x
The domain of cosine function is R and the range is [–1, 1].
Graph diagram (on x-axis and y-axis)
y
As discussed, cos x decreases strictly
(–2π, 1) (0, 1) (2π, 1)
from 1 to –1 as x increases from 0 to π,
increases strictly from –1 to 1 as x
increases from π to 2 π and so on. Also,
x
cos x is periodic with period 2 π. –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π

(–π, –1) (π, –1)

8
Fig. 1.23
 y

Introduction of Graphs
Circle diagram
y=1
Let a circle of radius ‘1’, i.e., a unit circle.
a b
Then, cos α = , cos β = − , b 1 β1
1 1 a
δ α
c d y=0 y=0 x
cos γ = , cos δ = − O
1 1 d
1 γ c
1
∴ cos x generates a circle of radius ‘1’.
y = –1

(c) Tangent function

Fig. 1.24
f ( x) = tan x
y
The domain of the function y = tan x is;
 π 3π 5π 
R − ± , ± ,± ,…
 2 2 2 
 π  1
i. e., R − ( 2n + 1) 
 2
x
and Range ∈ R or ( −∞, ∞ ). –π π O π π
–
4 4
The function y = tan x increases strictly –1
from − ∞ to + ∞ as x increases from
π π π 3π 3π 5π
− to , to , to , … and so on.
2 2 2 2 2 2
x = –3π/2 x = –π/2 x = π/2 x = 3π/2
The graph is shown as :
Fig. 1.25

π 3π 5π
Note Here, the curve tends to meet at x = ± ,± ± , … but never meets or tends to
2 2 2
infinity.
π 3π 5π
∴ x=± , ± , ± … are asymptotes to y = tan x.
2 2 2

(d) Cosecant function

f ( x) = cosec x
y
y = cosec x y = cosec x y = cosec x

π ,1
2
1
y = sin x
x
–2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π

–1
–
π ,–1 3π ,–1
2 2

y = cosec x y = cosec x y = cosec x

Fig. 1.26 9
 Here, domain of y = cosec x is,
R − { 0, ± π, ± 2 π, ± 3 π, …}
i. e., R − { nπ| n ∈ z} and range ∈ R − ( − 1, 1).
Play with Graphs

as shown in Fig. 1.26.

The function y = cosec x is periodic with period 2 π.
(e) Secant function
f ( x) = sec x
 π 
Here, domain ∈ R − ( 2n + 1) n ∈ z
 2 
Range ∈ R − ( −1 , 1)
Shown as:
y
y = sec x y = sec x

(–2π, 1)
(0, 1 ) (2π, 1 )

1
x
–2π – 3π –π π O π π 3π 2π
–
2 2 2 2 y = cos x
–1
(–π, –1 ) (π, –1 )

Fig. 1.27

The function y = sec x is periodic with period 2 π .

Note (i) The curve y = cosec x tends to meet at x = 0 , ± π , ± 2 π , … at infinity.
∴ x = 0, ± π , ± 2π , …
or x = nπ , n ∈ integer are asymptote to y = cosec x.
π 3π
(ii) The curve y = sec x tends to meet at x = ± ± , … at infinity.
2 2
π 3π 5π π
∴x = ± , ± , ± , … or x = (2 n + 1) , n ∈ integer are asymptote to y = cosec x.
2 2 2 2
Here, we have used the notation of asymptotes of a curve in the context of special curves,
but we would have a detailed discussion in chapter 3.

(f) Cotangent function

f ( x) = cot x
Here, domain ∈R − { nπ| n ∈ z} Range ∈ R.
which is periodic with period π, and has x = nπ, n ∈ z as asymptotes. As shown in Fig. 1.28;

10
 y y = cot x

Introduction of Graphs
x
–2π 3π –π π O π π 3π 2π
– –
2 2 2 2

asymptotes
Fig. 1.28

2. Exponential Function
Here, f ( x) = a x, a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x ∈ R, where domain ∈R,
Range ∈ ( 0, ∞ ).
Case I. a > 1
Here, f ( x) = y = a x increase with the increase in x, i.e., f ( x) is increasing function on R.
y
y = a x, a > 1

(0,1)
x
O

Fig. 1.29 4x
y-axis
3x
For example;
2x
y = 2 x , y = 3 x , y = 4 x ,… have;
2x < 3x < 4x < … for x > 1 (0,1)
and 2 > 3 > 4 > … for 0 < x < 1.
x x x
O
x-axis

and they can be shown as;

Fig. 1.30
y=ax y-axis
Case II. 0 < a < 1
Here, f ( x) = a x decrease with the increase in x, i.e., f ( x) is 0<a<1
decreasing function on R. (0,1)
“In general, exponential function increases or
x-axis
decreases as ( a > 1) or ( 0 < a < 1) respectively”. O

3. Logarithmic Function
Fig. 1.31
(Inverse of Exponential)
The function f ( x) = log a x; ( x , a > 0) and a ≠ 1 is a logarithmic function.
Thus, the domain of logarithmic function is all real positive numbers and their range is the set R
of all real numbers.
We have seen that y = a x is strictly increasing when a > 1 and strictly decreasing when 0 < a < 1.

11
 Thus, the function is invertible. The If 0 < a < 1 If a > 1
y-axis y-axis
inverse of this function is denoted by log a x,
we write
y = a x ⇒ x = log a y ;
Play with Graphs

where x ∈ R and y ∈( 0, ∞ ) (1,0)

x-axis x-axis
O O (1,0)
writing y = log a x in place of x = log a y ,
we have the graph of y = log a x .
Thus, logarithmic function is also
known as inverse of exponential function. Fig. 1.32
Properties of logarithmic function
1. log e ( ab) = log e a + log e b { a, b > 0}
 a
2. log e   = log e a − log e b { a, b > 0}
 b
3. log e a m = m log e a {a > 0 and m ∈ R}
4. log a a = 1 {a > 0 and a ≠ 1}
1
5. log
bm
a= log b a { a, b > 0, b ≠ 1 and m ∈ R}
m
1
6. log b a = { a, b > 0 and a, b ≠ 1}
log a b
log m a
7. log b a = { a, b > 0 ≠ {1} and m > 0}
log m b
8. a loga m
=m { a, m > 0 and a ≠ 1}
9. a logc b = b logc a { a, b, c > 0 and c ≠ 1}
 x > y , if m>1 { m, x, y , > 0 and m ≠ 1}
10. If log m x > log m y ⇒
 x < y , if 0< m < 1
which could be graphically shown as;
If m > 1 (Graph of log m a) Again if 0 < m < 1. (Graph of log m a)

logm x logm a
logm x
logm y
logm y

O 1 y x O x y1

Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1.34

⇒ log m x > log m y when x > y and m > 1. ⇒ log m x > log m y ; when x < y and 0 < m < 1.
11. log m a = b ⇒ a=m b
{ a, m > 0 ; m ≠ 1 ; b ∈ R}
 a > m ; if m > 1
b
12. log m a > b ⇒ 
 a < m ; if 0 < m < 1
b

 a < m b ; if m > 1
13. log m a < b ⇒  .
 a > m ; if 0 < m < 1
b

12
 Introduction of Graphs
4. Geometrical Curves y
(a) Straight line
ax + by + c = 0 (represents general equation of straight line). We
0, – c
know, b
c c
y =– when x = 0 – ,0
a
b x
c O
and x=− when y = 0
a
joining above points we get required straight line. Fig. 1.35
(b) Circle
We know,
(i) x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is circle with centre ( 0, 0) (ii) ( x − a) 2 + ( y − b) 2 = r 2 , circle with
and radius r. centre (a, b) and radius r.
y y

(a, b)
x C r
C (0, 0) (r, 0)

Fig. 1.36 Fig. 1.37

(iii) x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ; (iv) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x 2 ) + ( y − y 1 ) ( y − y 2 ) = 0;

centre ( −g, − f ); radius g 2 + f 2 − c .
End points of diameter are ( x1 , y 1) and
y ( x 2 , y 2).

O
r A B
C (x1, y1) (x2, y2)
(–g, –f )
x
O
Fig. 1.39
Fig. 1.38

(c) Parabola

(i) y 2 = 4 ax (ii) y 2 = – 4 ax
Vertex : (0, 0) Vertex : (0, 0)
Focus : (a, 0) Focus : (– a, 0)
Axis : x-axis or y = 0 Axis : x-axis or y = 0
Directrix : x=−a Directrix : x=a

13
 y y
y 2= – 4ax

F
Play with Graphs

x x
V (a, 0) Focus V (0, 0)
Directrix

(–a, 0)
Vertex

y 2 = 4ax
x=a
x = –a
Fig. 1.40 Fig. 1.41

(iii) x 2 = 4 ay (iv) x 2 = − 4 ay
Vextex : ( 0, 0) Vertex : ( 0, 0)
Focus : ( 0, a) Focus : ( 0, − a)
Axis : y-axis or x = 0 Axis : y-axis or x = 0
Directrix : y =−a Directrix : y =a
y x 2 = 4ay y
y=a
F (0, a)
V (0, 0)
x
x
V (0, 0)
y = –a F (0, –a)
Directrix
x 2 = –4ay
Fig. 1.42 Fig. 1.43

(v) (y − k) 2 = 4a (x − h)

Vertex : ( h, k ) y=k
Focus : ( h + a, k ) V (h, k) F (h + a, k)
Axis : x=h
Directrix : x=h−a

x = h–a x = h
directrix

(d) Ellipse Fig. 1.44

x2 y2
(i) 2 + 2 = 1 (a 2 > b 2 )
a b a 2> b 2
Centre : (0, 0)
b
Focus : ( ±ae, 0)
Vertex : ( ±a, 0) –a O a
b2
Eccentricity : e = 1 − –b
a2
a x = –a/e x = a/e
Directrix : x=±
e Fig. 1.45

14
 Introduction of Graphs
x2 y2 (x − h) 2 (y − k) 2
(ii) + 2 =1 (a 2 < b 2 ) (iii) + = 1 (a 2 > b 2 )
a2 b a2 b2
y y
b2> a2
y = b/e
(0, b) (h, k +b)
y=k A′ (a+h, k)
(a–h, k) (h,k) A
x
(–a, 0) O (a, 0) (h, k–b)
O x

(0,–b)
x=h
y = –b/e
directrix

Fig. 1.46 Fig. 1.47

(e) Hyperbola y
x2 y2 b
(i) 2 − 2 = 1 y =– x
a
te
b
y= x
a
a b pto
ym
Centre : (0, 0) as
Focus : ( ±ae, 0)
Vertices : ( ±a, 0) x
(–ae,0) (–a, 0) O (a, 0) (ae, 0)
2
b
Eccentricity : e = 1 +
a2 as
ym
a p tot
Directrix : x= ± x = –a/e x = a/e e
e
b Fig. 1.48
In above figure asymptotes are y = ± x.
a

x2 y2 (x − h) 2 (y − k) 2
(ii) − + 2 =1 (iii) − =1
a2 b a2 b2

y y
te
pto
ym
(0, b) as
y=k
(h, k)
O x
x
as

(0, –b)
ym
pt
ot
e

x=h
Fig. 1.49 Fig. 1.50

15
 (iv) x 2 − y 2 = a 2 (Rectangular hyperbola) (v) xy = c 2
As asymptotes are perpendicular. Therefore, Here, the asymptotes are x-axis and y-axis.
called rectangular hyperbola.
Play with Graphs

asymptote
y=x
to te
ymp
as (c, c)

x
O O asymptote
as (–c, –c)
ym
pto
te
y = –x
Fig. 1.51
Fig. 1.52

Note In above curves we have used the name asymptotes for its complete definition see
chapter 3.

Inverse Trigonometric Curves

As we know trigonometric functions are many one in their domain, hence, they are not
invertible.
But their inverse can be obtained by restricting the domain so as to make invertible.
Note Every inverse trigonometric is been converted to a function by shortening the domain.

For example: Let f ( x) = sin x

We know, sin x is not invertible for x ∈ R.
In order to get the inverse we have to define domain as:
 π π
x ∈ − , 
 2 2
 π π
∴ If f : − ,  → [ −1, 1] defined by f ( x) = sin x is invertible and inverse can be represented
 2 2
by:
 π −1 π
y = sin −1 x.  − ≤ sin x ≤ 
 2 2
Similarly,
y = cos x becomes invertible when f : [ 0, π] → [ −1, 1]
 π π
y = tan x ; becomes invertible when f :  − ,  → ( − ∞, ∞ )
 2 2

y = cot x ; becomes invertible when f : ( 0, π ) → ( − ∞, ∞ )

 π
y = sec x; becomes invertible when f : [ 0, π] –   → R − ( −1, 1)
 2
 π π
y = cosec x; becomes invertible when f : – ,  – { 0} → R – (–1, 1)
 2 2
16
 y
(i) Graph of y = sin −1 x ;

Introduction of Graphs
y = sin–1x y=x
where, π/2

1 f (x) = sin x
x ∈ [ −1, 1]
 π π x
and y ∈ − ,  (–π, 0) (–π/2,0) (–1,0) O (1,0) (π/2,0) (π, 0)
 2 2
–1
As the graph of f −1 ( x) is mirror image of
f ( x) about y = x. –π/2

Fig. 1.53
y
(ii) Graph of y = cos −1 x ; y = cos–1x
π y=x
Here,
π/2
domain ∈ [ −1, 1] 1
π/2
Range ∈ [ 0, π] –1 O 1 π
x

f (x) = cos x
(iii) Graph of y = tan −1 x ;
Fig. 1.54
 π π
Here, domain ∈R, Range ∈  − ,  .
 2 2
y y = tan x y

y = π/2
y= tan–1x

x x
O O

y = –π/2

x = –π/2 x = π/2
Fig. 1.55

As we have discussed earlier, “graph of inverse function is image of f ( x) about y = x” or “by

interchanging the coordinate axes”.
(iv) Graph of y = cot −1 x ;
We know that the function f : ( 0, π ) → R, given by f(θ) = cot θ is invertible.
∴ Thus, domain of cot –1 x ∈ R and Range ∈ ( 0, π ).
y
y = cot x y

(0, π) y=π

π/2
O (π,0) x y = cot –1x
(π/2,0)
x
O

x=π
Fig. 1.56 17
 (v) Graph for y = sec −1 x;
 π
The function f : [ 0, π] −   → ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) given by f(θ) = sec θ is invertible.
 2
−1  π
Play with Graphs

∴ y = sec x, has domain ∈ R − ( −1, 1) and range ∈[ 0, π] −   : shown as

 2
y y

y=π
1 –1
y = sec x
(0, 1)
x-axis y = π/2
O π/2 π
–1 (π,–1)
x
–1 O 1

x = π/2 x = π
y = sec x y = sec–1 x
Fig. 1.57

(vi) Graph for y = cosec −1x;

 π π
As we know, f : − ,  − { 0} → R − ( −1, 1) is invertible given by f(θ) = cos θ.
 2 2
∴ y = cosec −1 x ; domain ∈ R − ( −1, 1)
 π π
Range ∈ − ,  − { 0}.
 2 2
y y

y = π/2

x –1 O 1 x

–1

y = – π/2

x = – π/2 x = π/2 x = –1 x=1

y = cosec x y = cosec –1x

Fig. 1.58

Note If no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is mentioned, then it means the principal
value branch of that function.
In case no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is mentioned, it will mean the
principal value branch of that function. (i.e.,)

18
 Introduction of Graphs
Function Domain Range Principal value branch
1. sin −1 x [ −1, 1]  π π π π
− ≤ y ≤ , where y = sin −1 x
− 2 , 2 2 2
2. cos −1 x [ −1, – 1] [ 0, π] 0 ≤ y ≤ π, where y = cos −1 x
3. tan −1 x R  π π π π
− ,  − < y < , where y = tan −1 x
 2 2 2 2
4. cosec –1 x ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) − π , π  – {0} π π
− ≤ y ≤ ; y ≠ 0, where y = cosec −1 x
 2 2 2 2
5. sec –1 x ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) [ 0, π] −  π   π
0 ≤ y ≤ π ; y ≠   , where y = sec −1 x
 
 2  2
6. cot −1 x R ( 0, π ) 0 < y < π ; where y = cot −1 x.

1.3 TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES

To solve trigonometric inequalities including trigonometric functions, it is good to practice

periodicity and monotonicity of functions.
Thus, first solve the inequality for the periodicity and then get the set of all solutions by adding
numbers of the form 2nπ ; n ∈ z, to each of the solutions obtained on that interval.

1
EXAMPLE 1 Solve the inequality; sin x > − .
2
SOLUTION As the function sin x has least positive period 2 π. {That is why it is sufficient to solve
inequality of the form sin x > a, sin x ≥ a, sin x < a, sin x ≤ a first on the interval of length 2 π,
and then get the solution set by adding numbers of the form 2 πn, n ∈ z, to each of the solutions
 π 3π 
obtained on that interval}. Thus, let us solve this inequality on the interval − , , where
 2 2 
1
graph of y = sin x and y = − are taken two curves on x-y plane.
2
y
sin x > 1
1 2

π π π x
O π 7π 3π
2 6 2 6 2
–1/2 1
y=–
–1 2
y = sin x
2π

Fig. 1.59

1
y = sin x and y =−
2

19
 1 π 7π
From above figure, sin x > − when − < x < .
2 6 6
Thus, on generalising above solution;
π 7π
2nπ − < x < 2nπ + ; n ∈ z.
Play with Graphs

6 6
which implies that those and only those values of x each of which satisfies these two inequalities
for a certain n ∈z can serve as solutions to the original inequality.

1
EXAMPLE 2 Solve the inequality:cos x ≤ − .
2
SOLUTION As discussed in previous y
example, cos x is periodic with period 2 π .
1
So, to check the solution in [ 0 , 2 π].
1
It is clear from figure, cos x ≤ − when; 1/2
2
2π 4π π O π 2π π 4π 3π
≤ x≤ . 2 2 3 3 2
2π x
3 3 –1/2 y = –1/2
On generalising above solution;
–1 1
2π 4π cos x –
2nπ + ≤ x ≤ 2nπ + ; n ∈z 2
3 3
Fig. 1.60
1
∴ Solution of cos x ≤ −
2
 2π 4 π
⇒ x ∈ 2nπ + , 2nπ + ; n ∈ z.
 3 3 

EXAMPLE 3 Solve the inequality:tan x < 2 .

SOLUTION We know tan x is periodic with period π . y
 π π
So, to check the solution on the interval  − ,  .
 2 2 y=2
π (t an–1 2, 2)
It is clear from figure, tan x < 2 when; 1,
4
1
π π
− < x < tan −1 2 or − < x < arc tan 2 x
2 2 –π/2 –π/4 O π/4 π/2
⇒ General solution –1
π
2nπ − < x < 2nπ + tan −1 2 tan x < 2
2
 π 
⇒ n ∈  2nπ − , 2nπ + arc tan 2 x = –π/2 x = π/2
 2 
x = tan–12 = arc tan 2
Fig. 1.61

 3x π 1
EXAMPLE 4 sin 
Solve the inequality: + < .
 2 12 2
 3x π 1 3x π
SOLUTION Here, sin  + < ; put + =t
 2 12 2 2 12

20
 1 y

Introduction of Graphs
∴ sin t < , now sin t is periodic
2 y = sin t
with period 2π, thus to check on 1
1 y= 1
 π 5π   π 3π 
 2 , 2  or − , 2 2
 2 2  O π 3π 3π 2π 9π 5π t
π =t
2 4 2 4 2
From figure,
–1
1 3π 9π sin t <
1
sin t < , when < t< . 2
2 4 4
t = 3π/4 t = 9π/4
∴ generalsolution
3π 9π Fig. 1.62
2nπ + < t < 2nπ + ; n ∈z
4 4
3x π
Substituting t = +
2 12
3π 3x π 9π
2nπ + < + < 2nπ +
4 2 12 4
4 4 13 4
⇒ π + πn < x < π + nπ ; n ∈ z.
9 3 9 3

EXAMPLE 5 Solve the inequality : cos 2x − sin 2x ≥ 0.

SOLUTION Here, cos 2x − sin 2x can be reduced to,

 1 1   π π 
2 cos 2x − sin 2x ⇒ 2  cos cos 2x − sin sin 2x
 2 2   4 4 
π 
⇒ 2 cos  + 2x
4 
π  π
∴ cos 2x − sin 2x ≥ 0 or cos  + 2x ≥0 ; put 2x + =t
4  4
∴ cos ( t ) ≥ 0, solving graphically, y
π π
Clearly; − ≤ t≤
2 2 1 cos t ≥0
π π
or 2nπ − < t < 2nπ +
2 2
π π π
y =0
where t = 2n + –π t= O =t π=t 3π
=t 2π= t
4 2 2 2
π π π
∴ 2nπ − ≤ 2n + ≤ 2nπ + –1
2 4 2 y = cos t
3π π
nπ – ≤ n ≤ nπ + ; n ∈ z. Fig. 1.63
8 8

3
EXAMPLE 6 If A + B + C = π , then prove that; cos A + cos B + cos C < ; where A , B, C
2
are distinct.
SOLUTION Here, we have the three trigonometric functions as cos A , cos B and cos C.
∴ let f ( x) = cos x ; which can be plotted as;
21
 y

1
cos x
Play with Graphs

x
–π –π/2 O π/2 π

–1

Fig. 1.64

Now, let us suppose any three points x = A , x = B, x = C on f ( x) = cos x. So that A + B + C = π or

on the interval of length π. y
where G, be centroid of ∆ given by A + B + C, cos A + B + C
 A + B + C cos A + cos B + cos C  1
3 3
 ,  P
 3 3  ( B,cos B)
Thus, from figure points Q, G, P are G
collinear, (A,cos A)
(C,cos C)
where; ordinate of GQ < ordinate of PQ. x
x =A O Q x= B x= C π/2 π
–π –π/2
cos A + cos B + cos C  A + B + C
< cos  
3  3 
x =A+B+C
3
 π
⇒ cos A + cos B + cos C < 3 cos   f (x) = cos x
 3
Fig. 1.65
3
⇒ cos A + cos B + cos C <
2

Note Here, a particular case arises when A = B = C (i.e., when A, B, C are non-distinct)
cos A = cos B = cos C and A + B + C = π
⇒ A+ A+ A= π or A = π /3.
1
∴ cos A = cos B = cos C =
2
3
∴ cos A + cos B + cos C = (only when A = B = C)
2

1
EXAMPLE 7 Solve the inequality: sin x cos x + tan x ≥ 1.
2
π
SOLUTION Here; left hand side is defined for all x, except x = nπ + , where n ∈ z.
2
∴ 2 sin x cos x + tan x ≥ 2
2 tan x
⇒ + tan x ≥ 2 [Let, tan x = y ]
1 + tan 2 x
2y
⇒ +y ≥2
1 + y2
22
 2y + y (1 + y 2 ) − 2 (1 + y 2 )

Introduction of Graphs
⇒ ≥0 {Q 1 + y 2 ≥ 0}
(1 + y 2 )
∴ 2y + y (1 + y 2 ) − 2 (1 + y 2 ) ≥ 0
⇒ y 3 − 2y 2 + 3y − 2 ≥ 0
⇒ y 2 ( y − 1) − y ( y − 1) + 2 ( y − 1) ≥ 0
or ( y − 1) ( y 2 − y + 2) ≥ 0
⇒ y − 1≥ 0 y tan x ≥ 1
2
 1 7
{Q y 2 − y + 2 =  y −  + > 0, for all y}
 2 4
∴ tan x ≥ 1, shown as: y=1

from given figure; O π/4

x
π π
≤ x<
4 2
π π
or nπ + ≤ x < nπ + ; n ∈z
4 2 x = –π/2 x = π/2
 π π 
∴ x ∈ nπ + , n π +  ; n ∈ z
Fig. 1.66
 4 2

EXAMPLE 8 If A + B + C = π, then prove that

A B C
tan 2 + tan 2 + tan 2 > 1.
2 2 2
A B C
SOLUTION Here, tan 2 , tan 2 and tan 2 are three same function. So consider
2 2 2
x y
f ( x) = tan 2 , whose period is 2 π.
2
x
∴ plotting tan 2 for x ∈ ( − π, π ). R T
2
In given curve let us consider any three points G
1
A , B, C such that
A + B + C = π. S M
x
Now, centroid of ∆RST; x=A x= B O x=C
 2 A B C
 A + B + C tan + tan 2 + tan 2 
G , 2 2 2 x= –π x= π
 3 3  Fig. 1.67
 
A + B + C  A + B + C 
also, M , tan 2   where; GN > MN.
 3  2( 3)  
A B C
tan 2 + tan 2 + tan 2
⇒ 2 2 2 > tan 2  A + B + C  A B C
⇒ tan 2 + tan 2 + tan 2 > 1.
 
3  6  2 2 2

23
 1.4 SOLVING EQUATIONS GRAPHICALLY

Here, we sketch both left hand and right hand side of equality and the numbers of intersections
Play with Graphs

are required solutions.

x
EXAMPLE 9 Find the number of solutions of; sin x = .
10
x
SOLUTION Here, let f ( x) = sin x and g( x) =
10
also we know; –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
x
∴ ≤1 −1 ≤ ⇒ − 10 ≤ x ≤ 10
10
Thus, to sketch both curves when x ∈ [ −10, 10]
y
3π
2π
(3π, 10 ) (10,1) x
1 (2π, 10 ) g (x ) =
π 10
(π, 10)
O
–10 –3π –2π –π (0,0) π/2 π 2π 3π 10 3π/2

x –1
g(x) = f (x) = sin x
10
Fig. 1.68

x
From above figure f ( x) = sin x and g( x) = intersect at 7 points. So, numbers of solutions
10
are 7.

EXAMPLE 10 Find the least positive value of x, satisfying tan x = x + 1 lies in the interval.
SOLUTION Let; f ( x) = tan x and g( x) = x + 1; which could be shown as:
y g(x) =x +1

Least +ve(x)
1

π x
3π –1 O π π 3π
2 2 4 2 2

Fig. 1.69
From the above figure tan x = x + 1 has infinitly many solutions but the least positive value of
 π π
x ∈ ,  .
 4 2
24
 Introduction of Graphs
EXAMPLE 11 Find the number of solutions of the equation,
sin x = x 2 + x + 1.
2
 1 3
SOLUTION Let; f ( x) = sin x and g( x) = x 2 + x + 1 =  x +  +
 2 4
which could be shown as;
y
g (x) = x 2+ x + 1
1
f (x) = sin x
1 3
– ,
2 4
x
–1/2 O π

Fig. 1.70

which do not intersect at any point, therefore no solution.

EXAMPLE 12 Find the number of solutions of: e x = x 4 .

SOLUTION Let; f ( x) = e x and g( x) = x 4 , which could be shown as;

y x4 ex

Fig. 1.71

From the figure, it is clear they intersect at two points, therefore two solutions.

EXAMPLE 13 Find the number of solutions of; log 10 x = x.

SOLUTION Let; f ( x) = log 10 x and g( x) = x; which could be shown as;

y

f (x) = log10x
1
x
O 1 10
–1

g (x) = x
Fig. 1.72
From above figure, it is clear they intersect at one points, therefore 1 solution.

25
Play with Graphs

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the graph for y = sin −1 ( sin x).

SOLUTION As, y = sin −1 (sin x) is periodic with period 2 π.
∴ to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 π and repeat for entire
values of x.
 π π
x ; − ≤ x≤
As we know; −1
sin (sin x) =  2 2
π π  π 3π 
( π − x) ; − ≤ π − x <  i. e., ≤ x ≤ 
 2 2  2 2

 π π
x , − ≤ x≤
−1 2 2
or sin (sin x) = 
π 3π
π − x , ≤ x≤ ,
 2 2
which is defined for the interval of length 2 π, plotted as;
y

Repeated Curve Main Curve Repeated Curve

π/2 y = π/2
y=

2π
2π

x–
y=
x+

y=

π–

y=

x or y = 0
π π π 3π
y=

O
y=

–π

3π
–

2
–

2 2
x

y = –π/2
–π/2

Fig. 1.73

Thus, the graph for y = sin −1 (sin x), is a straight line up and a straight line down with slopes 1
 π π
and –1 respectively lying between − ,  .
 2 2
Note : Students are adviced to learn the definition of sin –1 (sin x) as,
 5π 3π
 x + 2π ; –
2
≤ x≤ –
2
 3π π
– π – x ; – ≤ x≤ –
 2 2
 π π
y = sin –1 (sin x) =  x ; – ≤ x≤
 2 2
π–x π 3π
; ≤ x≤
 2 2
 x – 2π 3π 5π
; ≤ x≤ ... and so on
 2 2

26
 Sketch the graph for y = cos −1 ( cos x).

Introduction of Graphs
EXAMPLE 2
SOLUTION As, y = cos −1 (cos x) is periodic with period 2 π.

∴ to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 π and repeat for entire
values of x of length 2 π.
As we know;
 x; 0≤ x≤ π
cos −1 (cos x) = 
 2 π − x; 0 ≤ 2 π − x ≤ π,
x ; 0≤ x≤ π
or cos −1 (cos x) = 
 2 π − x ; π ≤ x ≤ 2 π.
Thus, it has been defined for 0 < x < 2 π that has length 2 π. So, its graph could be plotted as;
y

(π, π)
y=π
2π
–2

2π
2π
4π

4π
–
π

–x x

x–

–
x
x+
–
x+

x
x

x or y = 0
O π 2π 3π 4π

Fig. 1.74

Thus, the curve y = cos –1 (cos x).

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph for y = tan −1 ( tan x).

SOLUTION As y = tan −1 (tan x) is periodic with period π.

∴ to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length π and repeat for entire
values of x.
 π π
As we know; tan −1 (tan x) =  x ; − < x < 
 2 2
π π
Thus, it has been defined for − < x < that has length π. So, its graph could be plotted as;
2 2
y

y = π/2
x
x
–3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2
y = –π/2

Fig. 1.75
π
Thus, the curve for y = tan −1 (tan x), where y is not defined for x ∈ ( 2n + 1) .
2

27
 EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the graph for y = cosec −1 ( cosec x) .

SOLUTION As y = cosec −1 ( cosec x) is periodic with period 2 π.

∴ to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 π and repeat for entire
Play with Graphs

values of x.
As we know;
 π π
 x ; − ≤ x< 0 or 0 < x ≤
cosec −1 ( cosec x) =  2 2
π π
 π − x ; − ≤ π – x < 0 or 0 < π − x ≤
 2 2
  π   π
 x ; x ∈ − , 0 ∪  0, 
−1  2   2
or cosec ( cosec x) = 
 π − x ; x ∈  π , π ∪  π, 3π 
  2   2 
 π 3π 
Thus, it has been defined for − , − { 0, π} that has length 2 π. So, its graph could be
 2 2 
plotted as
y

y = π/2
x π–x y = cosec–1(cosec x)
x
–2π 3π –π –π/2 O π 3π 2π
2 2
y = –π/2

Fig. 1.76

EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the graph for y = sec −1 ( sec x).

SOLUTION As y = sec −1 ( sec x) is periodic with period 2π .
∴to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length 2 π and repeat for entire
values of x.
As we know;
  π π 
 x ; x ∈ 0,  ∪  , π
−1  2  2 
sec ( sec x) = 
 π  π 
 2 π − x ; 2 π − x ∈ 0,  ∪  , π
  2  2 

 π π
x ; 0≤ x< or < x≤ π
−1 2 2
or sec ( sec x) =  .
3π 3π
 2π − x ; π ≤ x < or < x ≤ 2π
 2 2
 π 3π 
Thus, it has been defined for[ 0, 2 π] −  ,  that has length 2 π. So, its graph could be plotted
2 2 
as;
28
 y

Introduction of Graphs
(–π,π/2) (π, π/2)
y = π/2
y = –x (2π–x)
x

x
–5π/2 –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2

Fig. 1.77

Thus, the curve for y = sec −1 ( sec x).

EXAMPLE 6 Sketch the graph for y = cot −1 ( cot x).

SOLUTION As, y = cot −1 (cot x) is periodic with period π.
∴ to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval of length π and repeat for entire
values of x.
As we know
cot –1 (cot x) = { x ; 0 < x < π}
which is defined for length π, i.e., x ∈ ( 0, π ) and x ∉{ nπ, n ∈ z}.
So, its graph could be plotted as;
y

y=π
π x π
+π
–
x +2 x y= =x y= π
π, π y
y= y= π/2 2
2 2
x
–2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π

Fig. 1.78

Thus, the curve for y = cot −1(cot x ).

EXAMPLE 7 Sketch the graph for:

(i) sin ( sin −1 x) (ii) cos ( cos −1 x) (iii) tan ( tan −1 x)
(iv) cosec ( cosec −1 x) (v) sec ( sec −1 x) (vi) cot ( cot −1 x)
SOLUTION As we know, all the above mentioned six curves are non-periodic, but have
restricted domain and range.
So, we shall first define each curve for its domain and range and then sketch these curves.
(i) Sketch for y = sin (sin −1 x )
We know; domain, x ∈ [ −1, 1] (i.e., −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
and range y = x ⇒ y ∈ [ −1, 1]
29
 Hence, we should sketch y = sin (sin −1 x) only when x ∈ [ −1, 1] and y = x. So, its graph could
be plotted as shown in figure.
y
Play with Graphs

y=1
1 –1 x )
n
(si
sin
y= x
–1 O 1

y = –1
–1

x = –1 x=1
Fig. 1.79
Thus, the graph for y = sin (sin −1 x).

(ii) Sketch for the curve y = cos (cos −1 x ).

We know, domain, x ∈ [ −1, 1] (i.e., −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
and range y = x ⇒ y ∈ [ −1, 1]
Hence, we should sketch y = cos (cos −1 x) = x only when x ∈ [ −1, 1]. So, its graph could be
plotted as shown in Fig. 1.80.
y

–1 x
) y=1
1 s
o
s(c
co
y= x
–1 O 1

y = –1
–1

x = –1 x=1
Fig. 1.80
Thus, the graph for y = cos(cos −1 x).

(iii) Sketch for the curve y = tan (tan −1 x )

We know, y
–1 x)
domain, x ∈ R (i.e., −∞ < x < ∞) and (ta
n
n
1 ta
=
Range y = x ⇒ y ∈ R. y

Hence, we should sketch

–1 (0, 0) 1 x
y = tan (tan −1 x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R.
–1
So, its graph could be plotted as shown;
Thus, the graph for y = tan (tan −1 x).
Fig. 1.81
30
 (iv) Sketch for y = cosec (cosec −1x )

Introduction of Graphs
y =x
–1 x)
We know; ec
s
domain ∈ R − ( −1, 1) c(c
o
se
co
(i.e., – ∞ < x ≤ − 1 or 1 ≤ x < ∞) y= y=1
1
and range y = x ⇒ y ∈ R − ( −1, 1).
x
Hence, we should sketch –1 O 1

y = cosec ( cosec −1 x) = x only when y = –1

x ∈ ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ). 1 x)
= x –1
–
e c
So, its graph could be plotted as os
(c
shown in Fig. 1.82; s ec
co
Thus, the graph for y= x = –1 x=1

y = cosec ( cosec −1 x). Fig 1.82

(v) Sketch for y = sec ( sec −1 x)

y =x
–1 x)
We know, domain ∈ R − ( −1, 1) c
se
c(
(i.e., −∞ < x ≤ − 1 or 1 ≤ x < ∞) se
y= y=1
and range y = x ⇒ y ∈ R − ( −1, 1). (1, 1)

Hence, we should sketch x

O
y = sec ( sec −1 x) = x,
only when x ∈ ( − ∞, – 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) y = –1
=x (–1, –1)
So, its graph could be plotted as shown –1 x)
ec
in Fig. 1.83. c(s
se x = –1 x=1
Thus, the graph for y=

y = sec ( sec −1 x) = x Fig. 1.83

(vi) Sketch for y = cot (cot −1x ) –1 x)
y ot
t(c
We know; Domain ∈ R (i. e., – ∞ < x < ∞) co or y = x
y=
and Range y = x ⇒ y = R. 1
Hence, we should sketch
x
O
y = cot (cot –1 x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R. –1 1
–1
Shown as in Fig. 1.84.
Thus, the graph for y = cot (cot −1 x ).
Fig. 1.84

Note From previous discussions, we learn that if:

(i) The function is periodic then find period and trace the curve.
(ii) If non-periodic, then define for their domain and find range to trace the curve.
Now, before going ahead you must revise previous curves of inverse trigonometry as;
y = sin−1 x, y = cos−1 x, y = tan−1 x, y = cot −1 x, y = cosec−1x, y = sec−1x
with their domain and range.
31
 EXAMPLE 8 Sketch the graph for:
 2x  1 − x 2   2x 
(i) sin −1   (ii) cos −1   (iii) tan −1  
1 + x 2
1 + x 2  1 − x 2 
 3x − x 3 
Play with Graphs

(iv) tan −1   (v) sin −1 ( 3x − 4x 3 ) (vi) cos −1 ( 4x 3 − 3x).

 1 − 3x 2 
SOLUTION As we know, all the above mentioned six curves are non-periodic, but have
Restricted domain and Range.
So, we shall first define each curve for its domain and range and then sketch these curves.
 2x 
(i) Sketch for y = sin −1  .
1 + x 2 
2x
Here, for domain ≤1
1 + x2
⇒ 2 |x| ≤ 1 + x 2 {Q 1 + x 2 > 0 for all x}
⇒ |x|2 − 2 |x| + 1 ≥ 0 {Q x 2 = |x|2 }
⇒ (|x|2 − 1) 2 ≥ 0
⇒ x ∈ R.
 2x 
For range: y = sin −1  
1 + x 2 
 π π  −1  π π 
⇒ y ∈ − ,   as ; y = sin θ ⇒ y ∈ − , 
 2 2   2 2
Defining the curve: Let, x = tan θ
 π
π − 2θ ; 2θ >
2
 π π
⇒ y = sin −1 (sin 2 θ) =  2 θ ; − ≤ 2θ ≤ {See Ex. 1}
 2 2
− π π
− 2θ ; 2θ < −
 2
 −1 π
 π − 2 tan x ; tan −1 x >
4
 π π
or y =  2 tan −1 x ; − ≤ tan x ≤−1
{Q tan θ = x ⇒ θ = tan −1 x}
 4 4
 − π − 2 tan −1 x ; π
tan −1 x < −
 4
 π − 2 tan −1 x ; x>1

or y =  2 tan −1 x ; −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 …(i)
 − π − 2 tan −1 x ; x< −1

 2x   π π
Thus, y = sin −1   is defined for x ∈ R, where y ∈ − ,  , so the graph for Eq. (i)
1 + x 
2
 2 2
could be shown as in Fig. 1.85.

32
 y

Introduction of Graphs
π/2 (1, π/2)
y = π/2

x
–1
y=π

n
–2ta

ta
n –1x

2
y=
x
–1 O 1
y = –π–2tan–1x

π
y = –π/2
(–1, ) –π/2
2

x = –1 x=1
Fig. 1.85

 2x 
Thus, the graph for y = sin −1  .
1 + x 2 

Note As in later section (i.e., chapter 2) we shall discuss that functions having sharp edges and
gaps are not differentiable at that point.
 2x 
So, in previous curve y = sin−1   , we know it has sharp edge at x = − 1 and x = 1.
2
1 + x 
So, not differentiable.

1 – x 2 
(ii) Sketch for y = cos –1  
1 + x 2 

1 – x2
Here, for domain ≤1
1 + x2

⇒ |1 – x 2| ≤ 1 + x 2 {Q 1 + x 2 > 0, ∀ x ∈ R}
which is true for all x; as 1 + x 2 > 1 – x 2
∴ x ∈R
1 – x  2
For range: y = cos –1   ⇒ y ∈ ( 0, π )
1 + x 2 

Define the curve : Let, x = tan θ

 1 – tan 2 θ
∴ y = cos –1   = cos –1 (cos 2 θ)
 1 + tan θ
2

 2θ; 2θ ≥ 0
= . {See Example 2}
 – 2θ; 2θ < 0
 2 tan –1 x; tan –1 x ≥ 0
⇒ y = {Q tan θ = x ⇒ θ = tan –1 x}
 – 2 tan –1 x; tan –1
x< 0

33
  1 – x 2   2 tan –1 x; x≥ 0
So, the graph of y = cos –1   = is shown as:
 1 + x 2   – 2 tan –1 x; x < 0,
y
Play with Graphs

y=
–2 y=π
tan –1 –1 x, x > 0
x, x
<0 y = 2 tan
(–1,π/2) (1,π/2)

x
–1 O 1

Fig. 1.86

 1 – x 2   2 tan –1 x, x ≥ 0
Thus, the graph for y = cos –1   = .
 1 + x 2   – 2 tan –1 x, x < 0
1 – x 2 
From above figure it is clear y = cos –1   is not differentiable at x = 0.
1 + x 2 
 2x 
(iii) Sketch for y = tan –1  
1 – x 2 
2x
Here, for domain ∈ R except; 1 – x 2 = 0
1 – x2
i.e., x ≠ ±1 or x ∈ R – {1, – 1}
 2x 
For range y = tan –1  
1 – x 2 
 π π   π π
⇒ y ∈ – ,   as y = tan θ ⇒ y ∈  – ,  
–1
 2 2  2 2 
Defining the curve
Let x = tan θ
 π
 π + 2θ; 2θ < –
2

–1  2 tan θ   π π
⇒ y = tan   = tan (tan 2 θ) =  2θ;
–1
– < 2θ < {See Example 3}
 1 – tan 2 θ  2 2
 – π + 2θ; π
2θ >
 2
 π
 π + 2 tan x; tan –1 x < –
–1
4

 π π
=  2 tan x;–1
– < tan x <–1
{as tan θ = x ⇒ θ = tan –1 x}
 4 4
 – π + 2 tan –1 x; π
tan x >
–1
 4

34
  π + 2 tan –1 x; x< −1

Introduction of Graphs

=  2 tan x;
–1
– 1< x< 1

 – π + 2 tan x; x>1
–1

So, the graph of;

 π + 2 tan –1 x; x< – 1
 2x  
y = tan 
–1
 =  2 tan x;
–1
– 1 < x < 1 is shown as;
1 – x 2  
 – π + 2 tan x; x>1
–1

y = π/2

x
1
–1 x
an –
n
2 ta
2t

π+
y=

x
–1 O 1
–1 x
tan
π+2
y=–
y = –π/2

Fig. 1.87

 π + 2 tan –1 x, x < – 1
 2x  
Thus, the graph for y = tan –1   =  2 tan –1 x; – 1 < x < 1
1 – x 2  
 – π + 2 tan x, x>1
–1

which is neither continuous nor differentiable at x = {– 1, 1}.

 3x – x 3 
(v) Sketch for the curve y = tan –1  .
 1 – 3x 2 

 3x – x 3 
Here, for domain y = tan –1  
 1 – 3x 2 
1
⇒ x ∈ R except 1 – 3x 2 = 0 ⇒ x≠±
3
 1 
∴ x ∈ R – ± 
 3

 3x – x 3 
For range y = tan –1  
 1 – 3x 2 

 π π   π π
⇒ y ∈ – ,   as y = tan θ ⇒ y ∈  – ,  
–1
 2 2  2 2 

Defining the curve: Let; x = tan θ

35
  π  π
 π + 3θ; 3θ < – 2  π + 3 tan x; tan x < – 6
–1 –1

 
 π π  π π
⇒ y = tan –1 (tan 3θ) =  3θ; – < 3θ < =  3 tan x; – < tan x <
–1 –1

 2 2  6 6
Play with Graphs

 – π + 3θ; 3θ > π  – π + 3 tan –1 x; tan –1 x > π

 2  6
 1
 π + 3 tan x; x< –
–1

 3
 1 1
=  3 tan –1 x; – < x<
 3 3
 1
 – π + 3 tan x; x>
–1

 3
 1
 π + 3 tan x; x< –
–1

3

 3x – x 3   1 1
So, the graph of; y = tan –1   = –1
 3 tan x; – < x<
 1 – 3x  
2
3 3
 1
 – π + 3 tan x; x>
–1

 3
y

y = π/2
–1 x –1 x
x
1

n
an –

an 3 ta
3t –π
+
3t

π+ y=
y=

y= x
1 O 1 √3
√3
√3 √3

y = –π/2

x = –1/√3 x = 1/√3
Fig. 1.88

 1
 π + 3 tan x, x < –
–1

 3
–1  3x – x 
3
 1 1
Thus, the curve for y = tan   =  3 tan –1 x, – < x<
 1 – 3x 2   3 3
 1
 – π + 3 tan x; x>
–1

 3
 1 
which is neither continuous nor differentiable for x =  ± .
 3
(v) Sketch the curve y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 )
Defining the curve: Let x = sin θ,
36
  π 3π  π π

Introduction of Graphs
 π – 3 θ; ≤ 3θ ≤  π – 3 sin x; ≤ sin –1 x ≤
–1
2 2 6 2
 
 π π  π π
⇒ y = sin (sin 3 θ) =  3 θ;
–1
– ≤ 3θ ≤ = –1
 3 sin x; – ≤ sin x ≤–1

 2 2  6 6
 – π – 3 θ; – 3π ≤ 3 θ ≤ – π  – π – 3 sin –1 x; – π ≤ sin –1 x ≤ – π
 2 2  2 6
 1
 π – 3 sin x; ≤ x≤1
–1
2

 1 1
∴ y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 ) =  3 sin –1 x; – ≤ x≤
 2 2
 – π – 3 sin –1 x; – 1 ≤ x ≤ – 1
 2
For domain y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 ) ⇒ x ∈[– 1, 1]
 π π
For range y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 ) ⇒ y ∈ – , 
 2 2
 1
 π – 3 sin x; ≤ x≤1
–1
2

 1 1
So, the graph of; y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3 ) =  3 sin –1 x; – ≤ x≤
 2 2
 – π – 3 sin –1 x; – 1≤ x≤ –
1
 2
is shown as:
y

y = π/2
y=
x
–1

π–
in
y=–

3s

3si
y=
π–3

n
–1 x

x
–1 3 O 1 3 1
sin

2 2 2
–1 x

y = –π/2

x = –1 x = –1/2 x = 1/2 x=1

Fig. 1.89

Thus, the curve for y = sin –1 ( 3x – 4x 3)

 1
which is not differentiable at x = ± .
 2
(vi) Sketch the curve y = cos –1 ( 4x 3 – 3x )
Here, domain ∈[– 1, 1] range ∈[ 0, π]
Now, defining the curve
Let x = cos θ
37
  π 2π
 2 π – 3 cos x; 3 ≤ cos x ≤ 3
–1 –1

 2 π – 3 θ; π ≤ 3θ ≤ 2 π 
  π
⇒ y = cos –1 (cos 3 θ) =  3 θ; 0 ≤ 3 θ ≤ π =  3 cos –1 x; 0 ≤ cos –1 x ≤
 –2 π + 3 θ; – π ≤ 3 θ ≤ 0  3
Play with Graphs

  – 2 π + 3 cos –1 x; – π ≤ cos –1 x ≤ 0
 3
 1 1
 2 π – 3 cos x; – ≤ x≤
–1
2 2

 1
=  3 cos –1 x; ≤ x≤1
 2
 –2 π + 3 cos –1 x; – 1 ≤ x ≤ – 1
 2
π π 1
{Q If 0 ≤ θ ≤ ⇒ cos ≤ cos θ ≤ cos 0 or ≤ cosθ ≤ 1. Here, the interval changed
3 3 2
since, cos x is decreasing in [ 0, π]}
 1 1
 2 π – 3 cos x; – ≤ x≤
–1
2 2

 1
So, the graph of; y = cos ( 4x – 3x) =  3 cos x;
–1 3 –1
≤ x≤1
 2
 –2 π + 3 cos –1 x; –1≤ x≤ – ,
1
 2
is shown as;
y

(1/2, π)
y=π
y=

x
y=

–1
s
3c

co
–2π

–3
os

π
2 y = π/2
–1 x
+ 3c

y = (0, π/2)
os
–1 x

x
3 (– 1 ,0) 3
2 2 2
x = –1 x = –1/2 x = 1/2 x=1
Fig. 1.90

Thus, the curve for y = cos –1 ( 4x 3 – 3x),

 1
which is not differentiable at x = ± .
 2

EXAMPLE 9 Sketch the graph for:

(i) sin x. cosec x (ii) cos x ⋅ sec x (iii) tan x ⋅ cot x
SOLUTION As we know for the above curves each is equal to 1, but for different domain as;
(i) y = sin x ⋅ cosec x = 1; ∀ x ∈ R – { nπ; n ∈ z}
38
  π 

Introduction of Graphs
(ii) y = cos x ⋅ sec x = 1; x ∈ R – ( 2n + 1) ; n ∈ z
 2 
 π 
(iii) y = tan x ⋅ cot x = 1; x ∈ R –  nπ, nπ + ; n ∈ z .
 2 
Thus, they could be plotted as:
y y

1 y=1 1 y=1

x x
–π O π 2π 3π π O π 3π
2 2 2 2

y = sin [Link] x y = cos [Link] x

1
y=1

π O π x
3π –π π 3π
2 2 2 2

y = tan [Link] x

Fig. 1.91

Note From above example it becomes clear that y = sin x ⋅ cosec x = 1, y = cos x ⋅ sec x = 1,
y = tan x ⋅ cot x = 1 but they are not equal, as their domains are different.
∴ Equal functions : Those functions which have same domain and range are equal
functions.

EXAMPLE 10 Sketch the graph for:

|sin x| |cos x| 1 + x 2 
(i) (ii) (iii) sin –1  
sin x cos x  2x 
 1 1
(iv) log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 (16x 2 – 8x + 1)
 4 2
(v) 1 + 3 ( log|sin x| + log |cosec x|) (vi) 1 + 3 ( log sin x + log cosec x)
SOLUTION As we know, to plot above curves we must check periodicity domain and range;
| sin x |
(i) y =
sin x
1; sin x > 0
Here, y =
 – 1; sin x < 0

39
 1; 2nπ < x < ( 2n + 1) π; n ∈z
y =
 –1; ( 2n + 1)π < x < ( 2n + 2) π; n ∈ z
y
So, from above,
Play with Graphs

1
domain ∈ R – { n π; n ∈ z}
 1; 2nπ < x < ( 2n + 1) π –3π –2π –π O π 2π 3π
x
Range ∈  4π
 – 1; ( 2n + 1) π < x < ( 2n + 2) π
–1
∴ it could be plotted as shown in
Fig. 1.92. y = Isin xI
sin x
Fig. 1.92
| cos x |
(ii) Sketch for y =
cos x
 π π
 1; 2nπ – < x < 2nπ +
 1; cos x > 0 2 2
Here, y = ⇒ y =
 –1; cos x < 0  –1; π
2nπ + < x < 2nπ +
3π
 2 2
So, it could be plotted as:
y

–5π/2 –3π/2 –π/2 O π/2 3π/2 5π/2 x

–1

I cos x I
y=
cos x
Fig. 1.93

1 + x 2 
(iii) Sketch for y = sin –1  
 2x 
1 + x 2 
Here y = sin –1   is defined;
 2x 
1 + x2
when; ≤1 {as; sin –1 x is defined when |x| ≤ 1}
2x
⇒ 1 + x 2 ≤ 2 |x| {as; 1 + x 2 > 0}
⇒ x 2 – 2 |x| + 1 ≤ 0 {as; x 2 = |x|2 }
⇒ |x|2 – 2 |x| + 1 ≤ 0
⇒ (|x| – 1) 2 ≤ 0
⇒ (|x| – 1) 2 = 0 {as; (|x| – 1) 2 < 0 is not possible}
40
 ⇒ x=±1

Introduction of Graphs
∴ Domain ∈ { ± 1}
1 + x 2 
∴ For range y = sin –1   , where x = + 1, – 1
 2x 
∴ y = sin –1 (1) and y = sin –1 (–1)
π
⇒ y =±
2 y
 π
∴ Range ∈  ±  A (1, π/2)
 2
1 + x 2  x
Hence, the graph for y = sin –1   is only two O
 2x 
points. Shown as: B
(–1,–π/2)
1 + x 2  2
Thus, the sketch for y = sin –1   is only two Graph for sin–1 1 + x
2x
 2x 
Fig. 1.94
points A and B.
 1 1
(iv) Sketch for y = log 1/ 4 x –  + log 4 (16x 2 – 8x + 1)
 4 2
 1 1
Here, y = log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 ( 4x – 1) 2
 4 2
2
 1 1 1  1
⇒ y = log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 16 + log 4  x – 
 4 2 2  4
 1 1 2  1  m 
or y = – log 4  x –  + log 4 4 2 + log 4  x –   as; log b n a =
m
log b a
 4 2 2  4  n 
 1  1 2
⇒ y = – log 4  x –  + log 4  x –  + log 4 4
 4  4 2
 1
⇒ y = 1, whenever;  x –  > 0 {as; log a x exists only when a, x > 0 and a ≠ 1}
 4
y
 1 1
Thus, y = log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 ( 4x – 1) 2
 4 2
1
1 
⇒ Domain ∈  , ∞
4 
Range ∈{1}
O 1 x
Thus, the graph is shown as: 4

Thus, the graph for

Fig. 1.95
 1 1
y = log 1/ 4  x –  + log 4 ( 4x – 1) 2 .
 4 2
(v) Sketch for y = 1 + 3 (log | sin x | + log | cosec x | )
Here y = 1 + 3 [log(|sin x|⋅|cosec x|)]
41
 whenever |sin x| ≠ 0 and |cosec x| ≠ 0
i.e., y = 1 + 3 (log 1); whenever x ∉ nπ; n ∈ z.

⇒ y =1 {as; log 1 = 0}
Play with Graphs

∴ Domain ∈ R – { nπ; n ∈ z}
Range ∈{1}
∴ it could be plotted as:
y

x
–4π –3π –2π –π O π 2π 3π 4π

Fig. 1.96

Thus, the curve for y = 1 + 3 (log|sin x| + log|cosec x|).

(vi) Sketch for y = 1 + 3 (log sin x + log cosec x )
Here y = 1 + 3 (log sin x ⋅ cosec x) whenever sin x > 0 and cosec x > 0
⇒ y = 1 + 3 log 1; x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1) π )
or y = 1; whenever x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1)π )
∴ y = 1 + 3 (log sin x + log cosec x) = {1; 2nπ < x < ( 2n + 1) π is shown as;
y

x
–4π –3π –2π –π O π 2π 3π

Fig. 1.97

Thus, the curve for y = 1 + 3 (log sin x + log cosec x)

E X A M P L E 11 Sketch the curve for cos y = cos x.

SOLUTION Here, cos y = cos x ⇒ y = 2nπ ± x; n ∈ z

∴ cos y = cos x, represents two straight lines;
 x + 2nπ; n ∈z
y =
 – x + 2nπ; n ∈z
42
 Introduction of Graphs
i.e., two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines which could be shown as:
y = x + 4π ; n = –2
y
y = x + 2π ; n = –1

4π y = x ;n = 0
y = x – 2π ; n = 1
2π y = x – 4π ; n = 2

O x
–4π –2π 2π

–2π
y = – x + 4π ; n = 2
y = –x + 2π ; n =1
y = –x ; n = 0
y = –x – 2π ; n = –1
y = –x – 4π ; n = –2

Fig. 1.98
Thus, graph for cos y = cos x; represents two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines which have
infinite number of points of intersections; (So, if asked number of solutions then they are infinite).

EXAMPLE 12 Sketch the curve for sin y = sin x.

SOLUTION Here sin y = sin x ⇒ y = nπ + (– 1) n x; n ∈ z
∴ sin y = sin x; represent two straight lines;
 nπ + x; n even integer
y =
 nπ – x; n odd integer
y y = x + 4π ; n = 4
5π y = x + 2π ; n = 2

4π y = x ;n = 0

3π y = x – 2π ; n = –2

2π y = x – 4π ; n = –4

–5π –4π –3π –2π –π 0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π x

–π

y = 5π – x ; n = 5
–2π
–3π y = 3π – x ; n = 3

–4π y = π– x ;n = 1

–5π y = –π – x ; n = –1

y = –3π – x ; n = –3
Fig. 1.99 43
 i.e., two infinite set of perpendicular straight lines as shown in Fig. 1.99:
Thus, the graph for sin y = sin x.

πx 99x
EXAMPLE 13 Find the number of solutions for; sin = .
Play with Graphs

2 500
πx 99x
SOLUTION Let f ( x) = sin
and g( x) = ,
2 500
to find number of solutions; we shall plot both the curves as;
y
g(x) = 99x
500
1
πx = f (x)
sin
2
0 x
–8 –6 –4 –2 1 2 4 6

–1

Fig. 1.100
Clearly, from the above figure, the number of solutions are 7.

EXAMPLE 14 Find the number of solutions for; cos x = x

SOLUTION As, cos x = x y
∴ to plot the curve for y=x
y = cos x; y = x and find the π/2
point of intersection as to 1 y = cos x
obtain number of solutions. A
Here, the two curves intersect x
at a point A. –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
So, cos x = x has only one –1
solution. –π/2

Fig. 1.101

EXAMPLE 15 Find the number of solutions for; [ x] = { x}. where [ • ], { • } represents

greatest integer and fractional part of x.
y
SOLUTION As, [ x] = { x} {x}
2
∴ to plot y = [ x]; y = { x}
1
and find point of intersection. {x} {x}
A
Here, the only point of intersection is x = 0 , –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1
∴ only one solutions.
–2

44 Fig. 1.102
 Introduction of Graphs
EXAMPLE 16 Find the number of solutions of
4 { x} = x + [ x]
where { ⋅ }, [ ⋅ ] represents fractional part and greatest integer function.
SOLUTION As we know, to find y
number of solutions of two curves we
should find the point of intersection of y = [x]
2 y =3x
two curves. 5
∴ 4 { x} = x + [ x]
⇒ 4( x – [ x]) = x + [ x] 1

{Q x = [ x] + { x}}
⇒ 4x – x = 4 [ x] + [ x] –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
⇒ 3x = 5 [ x] –3/5
3 –1
⇒ [ x] = x …(i)
5
∴ To plot the graph of both –2
3
y = [ x] and y = x. Fig. 1.103
5
Clearly, the two graphs intersects when
[ x] = 0 and [ x] = 1 …(ii)
5
∴ x = [ x] [from Eqs. (i) and (ii)]
3
5 5
x= ⋅0 and x= (1)
3 3
5
∴ x = 0 and x= are the only two solutions.
3

EXAMPLE 17 Find the value of x graphically satisfying;[ x] – 1 + x 2 ≥ 0 ; where [ ⋅ ] denotes

the greatest integer function.
SOLUTION As, [ x] – 1 + x 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x 2 – 1 ≥ – [ x]
Thus, to find the points for which f ( x) = x – 1 is greater than or equals to
2

g( x) = – [ x].
y
x –

where two functions f ( x) and g( x) could be

2 1

5
plotted as shown in Fig. 1.104;
>

4
– [x

From the adjoining figure; the solution set lies

]
– [x

3
]

when
1>

2
x≤ A or x ≥ B.
x 2–

A
1
Thus, to find A and B.
x
It is clear that f ( x) and g( x) intersects when; –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1B 2 3 4
– [ x] = 2 . –1
x 2 –1< – [x]
∴ x2 – 1 = 2
x=± 3 ⇒ x=– 3 Fig. 1.104
(neglecting x = + 3 as A lies for x < 0 )
45
 Thus, for A : x = – 3 and for B : x = 1.
∴ Solution set for which x – 1 ≥ – [ x] holds.
2

⇒ x ∈ (– ∞, – 3] ∪ [1, ∞ ).
Play with Graphs

Note The method discussed in previous example is very important as it reduces your
calculations, so students should practice these forms.

E X A M P L E 18 Find the values of x graphically which satisfy; – 1 ≤ [ x] – x 2 + 4 ≤ 2 ; where

[ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integer function.
SOLUTION As, – 1 ≤ [ x] – x 2 + 4 ≤ 2 ⇒ x 2 – 5 ≤ [ x] ≤ x 2 – 2
Thus, to find the points for which f ( x ) = x – 5 is less than or equal to g( x ) = [ x] and g( x) = [ x] is
2

less than or equal to h( x) = x 2 – 2 , where the three functions f ( x), g( x)and h( x)could be plotted
as;
y h (x ) = x 2 – 2
5 f (x ) = x 2 – 5
4
3
g(x)
2 h (x) < g (x) < f (x)
C
1
g (x )
–4 –3 – 3 –1 0 1 2 2 5 3 4 5 x
–1
A B
–2
g(x)
–3
–4

–5

Fig. 1.105

Thus, from the above graph;

x 2 – 5 ≤ [ x] ≤ x 2 – 2 when x ∈[ A , B] ∪ [C, D]
where A and D is the point of intersection if;
x2 – 5 = ± 2 ⇒ x=– 3, 7
and C is point of intersection of
x2 – 2 = 1 ⇒ x = 3.
∴ A =– 3, B = – 1, C= 3 and D = 7.
∴ – 1 ≤ [ x] – x 2 + 4 ≤ 2 is satisfied;
when x ∈[– 3, – 1] ∪ [ 3, 7 ].

E X A M P L E 19 If 0 ≤ a ≤ 3, 0 ≤ b ≤ 3 and the equation; x 2 + 4 + 3 cos ( ax + b) = 2x has

atleast one solution then find the value of ( a + b).
SOLUTION Here, x 2 + 4 + 3 cos( ax + b) = 2x or x 2 – 2x + 4 = – 3 cos( ax + b)
⇒ ( x – 1) + 3 = – 3 cos( ax + b)
2

46
 Introduction of Graphs
for above equation to have atleast one y
f (x) = (x – 1)2 + 3
solution; plot f ( x) = ( x – 1) 2 + 3 and
g( x) = – 3 cos( ax + b) in such a way that
they touch each other. 4
3 (1, – 3 cos(a + b))
From figure the two curves could atmost g (x) = – 3 cos (ax + b)
touch at one point only when
– 3 cos( a + b) = 3 O 1 2
x

⇒ cos ( a + b) = – 1
–3
⇒ a + b = π, 3 π, 5 π, …
Fig. 1.106
But 3π > 6

⇒ a + b = π as 0 ≤ a, b ≤ 3.

EXAMPLE 20 If A + B + C = π and A, B, C are angles of ∆; then show

3 3
sin A + sin B + sin C < .
2
SOLUTION Here; we have three y
(B, sin B)
trigonometric ratios sin A , sin B, sin C.
∴ Let y = sin x, on which there are three 1
H
points x = A , x = B and x = C shown as; Q
As from the figure; In ∆PQR, G
R (C, sinC)
(A, sin A)
Centroid of ∆ formed by P( A , sin A ) P
Q( B, sin B) R(C, sin C ) is; x
O A B I π C π 2π
2
 A + B + C sin A + sin B + sin C 
G= , 
 3 3 

where; G, H and I are collinear Fig. 1.107

A + B + C   A + B + C sin A + sin B + sin C 

I , 0 ; G  , 
 3   3 3 

A + B + C  A + B + C 
and H , sin  
 3  3 

From figure; HI > GI

i.e., ordinate of H > ordinate of G
 A + B + C  sin A + sin B + sin C
⇒ sin  >
 3  3
3 3
⇒ > sin A + sin B + sin C.
2
47
 π π
EXAMPLE 21 If 0 < A <
, then show A ( cosec A ) < .
6 3
SOLUTION Here, graph for y = sin x is shown as;
y
π π
Play with Graphs

where P( A , sin A ) and Q  , sin 

6 6 y = sin x
π Q
sin
From adjoining figure; 6 P
slope of OP > slope of OQ sin A
π
sin – 0
sin A – 0 6
⇒ >
A–0 π x
–0 O A π/6 π/2
6
sin A 3 A π
⇒ > or < Fig. 1.108
A π sin A 3
π
or A (cosec A ) < .
3

π 3π
EXAMPLE 22 If 0 < A , B, C <, then show that: A cosec A + B cosec B + C cosec C < .
2 2
SOLUTION Here, graph for y = sin x is shown as;
y
π π
where P( B, sin B); Q(C, sin C ); R( A , sin A ); S  , sin  .
2 2
R S
From figure; Q
slope of OP > slope of OS: P
π
sin – 0
sin B – 0 2
⇒ >
B– 0 π O B C A π/2 x
2
sin B 2 B π Fig. 1.109
⇒ > or <
B π sin B 2
π
or B cosec B < …(i)
2
Similarly, slope of OQ < slope of OS and slope of OR < slope of OS.
⇒ C cosec C < π/2 …(ii)
A cosec A < π/2 …(iii)
Adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
3π
A cosec A + B cosec B + C cosec C < .
2

Note Students must practice above method in different questions of trigonometric

inequality as it saves time.

48
 Introduction of Graphs
1. Construct the graph for; 4. If f is defined by y = f (x ) ; where x = 2 t – | t |,
x – 1; x < 0 y = t 2 + t | t |, t ∈ R. Then construct the graph
 1 for f (x ).
(i) f (x ) =  ; x =0
4 5. Construct the graph for f (x ) = [[x ] – x ]; where
x ; x > 0 [ ⋅ ] denotes greatest integer function.
2

2x + 3 ; – 3 ≤ x < – 2 tan–1 α π

 6. If 0 < α < 1 ; then show; > .
(ii) f (x ) = x + 1; – 2 ≤ x < 0 α 4
x + 2 ; 0 ≤x ≤1 7. Find the number of solutions for;

cos–1(cos x ) = [x ] where [ ⋅ ] denotes the
2. Construct the graph of the function:
greatest integer function.
(i) f (x ) = | x – 1| + | x + 1|
8. Find the number of solutions for;
3 x ; – 1≤ x ≤ 1 [[x ] – x ] = sin x ; where [ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest
(ii) f (x ) = 
 4 – x ; 1≤ x < 4 integer function.
(iii) f (x ) = [x ] + | x – 1| ; – 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 9. Find the values of x graphically which satisfy
x2
(where [ ⋅ ] denotes greatest integer function) ≤ 1.
x –1
x 4 ; x 2 < 1
(iv) f (x ) =  10. Find the value of x for which x 3 – [x ] = 3, where
x ; x ≥ 1
2
[ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integer function.
3. Is f (x ) = x 2 + x + 1 invertible? If not in which
region it is invertible.

ANSWERS
1  – 1– 5 – 1 + 5 
3. x ≥ – 7. 5 solutions. 8. infinite 9. x ∈  ,  10. x = 22 / 3 .
2  2 2 

49
 Myths About Jangent Lins
Play with Graphs

Remark 1
y

C
P

x
O L meets C only at P but is not
tangent to C.
Fig. 1

Remark 2

L
P
x
O L is tangent to C at P but meets C at
several points
Fig. 2

Remark 3

L C

x
O L is tangent to C at P but lies on two
sides of C, crossing C at P.
Fig. 3

50
 er

Curvature and Transformations

t
ap
CURVATURE AND
2
C h

TRANSFORMATIONS

In this chapter we shall study:

➥ The bending of curves at different points.
➥ Transformations of curves.

2.1 CURVATURE

“The study of bending of curves at different points is known as curvature.” or “Rate at

which the curve curves”.
Consider a curve and a point P on it and let Q be a point y-axis
near P. Let A be a point on the curve.
arc AP = s, arc AQ = s + δs
∴ arc PQ = δs
A
Let ψ and ψ + δψ be angles which the tangents at P and
Q makes with x-axis. Q
P
∴ δψ is called the total curvature of the arc PQ. ψ ψ + δψ
x
δψ O
is called the average curvature of the arc PQ.
δs Fig. 2.1
δψ dψ
lim = = curvature of the curve at P.
δs→ 0 δs ds
dψ d2 y
Note To study curvature we shall define or .
ds dx2

2.2 CONCAVITY, CONVEXITY AND POINTS OF INFLEXION

(a) Concave upwards

If in the neighbourhood of a point P on a curve is above the tangent at P, it is said to be concave
upwards.
Mathematically
dy d 2y
increases as x increases. ⇒ >0
dx dx 2
51
 Geometrically
y y
Tangent
Tangent
Play with Graphs

P P

x x
O O

Fig. 2.2
(b) Convex upwards or Concave downwards
If the curve is below the tangent at P, it is said to be convex upward or concave downward.
Mathematically
dy d 2y
decreases as x decreases. ⇒ <0
dx dx 2
Geometrically
y y
Tangent Tangent

P P

x x
O O

Fig. 2.3

(c) Point of Inflexion

If at a point P, a curve changes its concavity from upwards to downwards or vice versa. Then P is
called point of inflexion.
Geometrically
y y

P P

x x
O O

Fig. 2.4

Mathematically
d 2y
(i) = 0 at the point.
dx 2
d 2y d 2y d 3y
(ii) changes its sign as x increases through the value at which = 0; i.e., ≠ 0.
dx 2 dx 2 dx 3
52
 Curvature and Transformations
Note In general we can represent concavity as;.
Tangent
y y
Concave down

Concave down P

0
dy P

<
dx 2 y
; d 2
dx < 0
; d 2y

0
Tangent

>
; d 2
dx 2 y
dy

0
dx 2 < 0 Tangent

dx >
dy
dx <
0

0
; d 2y

>
dy
Concave dx 2 > P

dx
0
up P

Tangent Concave up

x x
O O
dy dy
Here; < 0 for both curves. Here; > 0 for both curves.
dx dx
Fig. 2.5

2.3 PLOTTING OF ALGEBRAIC CURVES USING CONCAVITY

Here; if y = f ( x) = ( x – α )( x – β ). 0 < α < β. y

Then we know it has roots α and β and would be y = f (x) = (x – α)(x – β)
plotted as shown in Fig. 2.6.
From above discussion it becomes clear that to
plot curves we require; x
(i) Point of intersection on x-axis. (i.e., y = 0) O α β
min
(ii) Point of maximum and minimum value.
(iii) Interval for which function increases or Concave up Concave up
decreases. when x < x0 x = x 0 when x > x0
(iv) Point at which concave up, concave down Fig. 2.6
and point of inflexion.

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch y = ( x – 1)( x – 2).

SOLUTION Here; y = ( x – 1)( x – 2)
(i) Put y =0 ⇒ x = 1, 2 . (for point of intersection on x-axis.)
(ii) y = x – 3x + 22
y
d 2y
Co

dy
3/2
3/2
De

⇒ = 2x – 3 and =2
nca

x>
cre

nca g x >

dx dx 2
ve

asi

up

 
sin

d 2y
up

3
ng

ve

∴ minimum at x =  as > 0
rea
x<

x<

2  dx 2

Inc
3/2

Co
3/2

x
3 O 1 3/2 2
(iii) Increases when x > and decreases when minimum x = 3/2
2 –1/4
3
x< .
2 Fig. 2.7
53
 3 3
(iv) Concave upwards for x > or x < .
2 2
∴ Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Play with Graphs

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3).

SOLUTION Here; y = ( x – 1)( x – 2)( x – 3)
(i) Put y = 0 ⇒ x = 1, 2 , 3.
(ii) y = x 3 – 6x 2 + 11x – 6
dy d 2y
⇒ = 3x 2 – 12x + 11 and = 6x – 12
dx dx 2
dy 6± 3
when =0 ⇒ x=
dx 3
6– 3 d 2y
∴ maximum when; x= as =–2 3
3 dx 2
6+ 3 d 2y
minimum when; x= as =2 3
3 dx 2
dy y
(iii) Here; = 3x 2 – 12x + 11
dx

ing
 6 – 3  6 + 3
= 3 x –  x –  de
cre
maximum

eas
 3   3  as
ing

Incr
ing
eas

x
6– 3 O 1 6 – √3 2 6 + √3 3
Incr

⇒ Increases when; x< 2 2

3 minimum
6+ 3
or x> Concave Concave
3 down for up for
6– 3 6+ 3 x<2 x>2
decreases when; < x<
3 3
–6
(iv) Concave upwards when x > 2 and
concave down when x < 2 . Fig. 2.8
∴ Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.8.

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve y = ( x – 1) 2 ( x – 2).

SOLUTION Here; y = ( x – 1) 2 ( x – 2)
(i) Put y = 0 ⇒ x = 1, 1, 2
(ii) y = x – 4x + 5x – 2
3 2

dy d 2y
⇒ = 3x 2 – 8x + 5 and = 6x – 8
dx dx 2
dy 5
when =0 ⇒ x = 1,
dx 3
d 2y
∴ maximum when; x = 1 as = – 2.
dx 2
54
 d 2y

Curvature and Transformations

5
minimum when; x= as = 2.
3 dx 2

g
sin
dy  5
= 3x 2 – 8x + 5 = 3( x – 1)  x – 

rea
(iii) Here;
dx  3 maximum

Inc
4 5
at x = 1 3 3
5
⇒ Increases when; x < 1 or x > . O 1de 2

g
sin
3 cr minimum at
ea

ea
s x = 5/3
5 in

cr
1< x< . g

In
Decreases when;
3
4
(iv) Concave up when x > and
3 Concave down Concave up
4 when x < 4/3 when x > 4/3
concave down when x < .
3
Fig. 2.9
∴ Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.9.

EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the curve y = 3x 2 – 2x 3 .

SOLUTION Here; y = 3x 2 – 2x 3
3 y
⇒ x = 0, when y = 0 …(i)
De
2
dy
= 6x – 6x 2 = 6x(1 – x) cre
also asi
dx ng maximum
ing
d 2y reas when x = 1
and = 6 – 12x = 6 (1 – 2x) Inc
x
dx 2 minimum O 1/2 1 3/2
d 2y

De
when x = 0
⇒ maximum when; x = 1 as = – 6

cr
ea
dx 2 

sin
 …(ii)

g
2
d y 
and minimum when; x = 0 as 2
= 6 
Concave up Concave down
dx x = 1/2
y increases when; 0 < x < 1.  Fig. 2.10
 …(iii)
y decreases when; x < 0 and x > 1 
1 
Concave up when; x<
2 
 …(iv)
1 
Concave down when; x> 
2
∴ Graph is sketched as shown in Fig. 2.10.

EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the graph for the function: f ( x) = |x + 3|( x + 1).

( x + 3)( x + 1); x ≥ – 3
SOLUTION Here; y = |x + 3|( x + 1) = 
 – ( x + 3)( x + 1); x < – 3
⇒ x = – 1, – 3 when y =0 …(i)
dy  + 2x + 4; x ≥ – 3 2
d y  2; x≥ – 3
also; = and =
dx  – 2x – 4; x < – 3 dx 2
– 2 ; x< – 3

55
 y

g
sin
Play with Graphs

rea
Inc
maximum at x = –3
x
–2 –1 O 1 2
–3

g
asin
e minimum at x = –3
Incr

Concave down Concave up

x = –3
Fig. 2.11
Increasing when x < – 3 or x > – 2
⇒  …(ii)
decreasing when – 3 < x < – 2 
maximum at x = – 3
 …(iii)
minimum at x = – 2 
concave up when x < – 3 
 …(iv)
concave down when x > – 3

Note Above example could also be solved by using transformations discussed in later part of
chapter.

x+1
EXAMPLE 6 Sketch the graph for: f ( x) =
x2 + 3
x = – 1 when y = 0
x+1 
SOLUTION Here; y = ⇒ 1  …(i)
x2 + 3 y = when x = 0
3 
dy – x 2 – 2x + 3 – ( x + 3)( x – 1) Increasing when; – 3 < x < 1 
= = ⇒  …(ii)
dx ( x + 3)
2 2
( x + 3)
2 2 Decreasing when; x < – 3 or x > 1
y

maximum
1/2
(1, 1/2)
1/3
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1/6
(–3, –1/6) minimum

Fig. 2.12
56
  

Curvature and Transformations

dy – + –
 Using number line rule for , decn –3 Incn 1 decn 
 dx 
d 2y 2( x + 3x – 9x – 3)
3 2
also; =
dx 2 ( x 2 + 3) 3
d 2y 1
minimum at x=– 3 as; 2
=+ > 0
dx 36 
d 2y 1  …(iii)
maximum at x=1 as; = – < 0 
dx 2 4 

Note In above curve x-axis works as asymptote, i.e., the curve would never meet x-axis. For
detail refer chapter 3.

2.4 GRAPHICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Here, we shall discuss the transformations as;

(i) f ( x) transforms to f ( x) ± a
(ii) f ( x) transforms to f ( x ± a).
(iii) f ( x) transforms to ( a f ( x))
(iv) f ( x) transforms to f ( ax).
(v) f ( x) transforms to f (– x).
(vi) f ( x) transforms to – f ( x).
(vii) f ( x) transforms to – f (– x)
(viii) f ( x) transforms to|f ( x)|. 
(ix) f ( x) transforms to f (|x |). 
(x) f ( x) transforms to|f (|x|)|. 
(xi) y = f ( x) transforms to|y | = f ( x).  Where| • | means modulus or absolute value function.

(xii) y = f ( x) transforms to|y| = |f ( x)|. 
(xiii) y = f ( x) transforms to|y| = |f (|x|)|. 
(xiv) y = f ( x) transforms to y = [ f ( x)]. 
(xv) y = f ( x) transforms to y = f ([ x]). 
= f ( x) transforms to y = [ f ([ x])]. 
(xvi) y  Where [ • ] denotes greatest integer less than or equal
(xvii) y = f ( x) transforms to [ y ] = f ( x).  to x.
(xviii) y = f ( x) transforms to [ y ] = [ f ( x)]. 

(xix) y = f ( x) transforms to y = f ({ x}). 

(xx) y = f ( x) transforms to y = { f ( x)}. 

(xxi) y = f ( x) transforms to y = { f ({ x})}.  Where { • } denotes fractional part of x.
(xxii) y = f ( x) transforms to { y } = f ( x). 
(xxiii) y = f ( x) transforms to { y } = { f ( x)}. 

(xxiv) y = f ( x) transforms to y = f –1 ( x), f –1 ( x) represents inverse of f ( x).

57
 Now, we shall study the following cases as;
(i) When f (x), transforms to f (x) ± a. (where a is + ve)
i.e., f ( x) → f ( x) + a
Play with Graphs

shift the given graph of f ( x) upward through ‘a’ units

again, f ( x) → f ( x) – a
shift the given graph of f ( x) downward through ‘a’ units.
Graphically it could be stated as:
y

y = f (x ) + a
a a
a
a y = f (x )
a aa
a
a x where a > 0
O a
y = f (x ) – a

Fig. 2.13

EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = e x + 1; y = e x – 1, with the help of y = e x .

SOLUTION We know; y = e x (exponential function) could be plotted as;
y
y = ex

(0, 1)

x
O

Fig. 2.14

⇒ y = e x + 1, is shifted upwards by 1 Also y = e x – 1, is shifted downwards by

unit, shown as 1 unit, shown as
y y
y = ex + 1
y = ex
y = ex
y = ex – 1

1
2 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 x
1 1 O
x
O

Fig. 2.15 Fig. 2.16

58
 y = |x| + 2 and y = |x| – 2 , with the help of y = |x|.

Curvature and Transformations

EXAMPLE 2 Plot
SOLUTION We know; y = |x|(modulus function) could be plotted as;
y
y = |x | = x ; x > 0
y = |x | = –x ; x < 0
2

x
–2 –1 O 1 2

Fig. 2.17
⇒ y = |x| + 2 is shifted upwards by 2 units.
y
y = |x | + 2 = –x + 2 ; y = |x | + 2 = x + 2 ; x > 0
x<0
y = | x | = –x ; y = |x | = x ; x > 0
x<0 2 2
2 2 2
2
x
O

Fig. 2.18
also y = |x| – 2 is shifted downwards by 2 units.
y = |x | = – x ; y y = |x | = x ;
x<0 x>0
y = |x | – 2 = –x – 2 ; y = |x | – 2 = x – 2;
x<0 2 2 x>0
2 2
x
O
2

–2

Fig. 2.19

EXAMPLE 3 Plot y = sin –1 x; y = (sin –1 x) + 1 and y = (sin –1 x) – 1.

SOLUTION We know, y = sin –1 x (Inverse trigonometric) could be plotted as;
y

π/2
y = sin–1x ; where –1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and
–π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2
x
–1 O 1

–π/2

Fig. 2.20
59
 ⇒ y = sin –1 x + 1, is shifted upwards by 1 unit.
and y = sin –1 x – 1, is shifted downwards by 1 unit.
y –1
(1, π/2 + 1) y = (sin x ) + 1
π/2 + 1
Play with Graphs

π/2 (1, π/2) y = sin–1x

1
–1
(1, π/2 – 1) y = (sin x ) – 1
x
(–1, –π/2 + 1) –1 O 1

–1
(–1, –π/2) –π/2
–π/2 – 1
(–π/2 – 1)
x = –1 x=1
Fig. 2.21

(ii) f (x) transforms to f (x – a)

i.e., f ( x) → f ( x – a); a is positive. Shift the graph of f ( x) through ‘a’ unit towards right f ( x )
transforms to f ( x + a ).
i.e., f ( x) → f ( x + a); a is positive. Shift the graph of f ( x) through ‘a’ units towards left.
Graphically it could be stated as
y
y = f (x + a )
y = f (x) y = f (x – a)

a a
O x
–a a a a

a a

Fig. 2.22

EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = |x|, y = |x – 2| and y = |x + 2 |.

SOLUTION As discussed f ( x) → f ( x – a); shift towards right.
⇒ y = |x – 2 | is shifted ‘2’ units towards right.
y

y = |x| = –x ; x < 0 y = |x – 2| = –x + 2; x < 2 y = |x | = x ; x > 0

y = |x – 2| = (x – 2); x > 2
2 2

2 2

x
O 2 2

60 Fig. 2.23
 y = |x + 2 | is shifted ‘2’ units towards left.

Curvature and Transformations

also
y

y = |x + 2 | = –(x + 2); x < –2 y = |x| = –x ; x < 0 y = |x + 2 | = x + 2; x > –2

y = |x | = x ; x > 0
2 2

2 2

x
–2 2 O

Fig. 2.24

 π  π
EXAMPLE 2 Plot y = sin  x –  and y = sin  x +  .
 2  2
SOLUTION As we know; y = sin x could be plotted as;
y

π π π
2 2 2 y=1

π y = sin(x – π/2)
2 x
–2π 3π –π π O π π 3π 2π
y = sin(x + π/4) – –
2 2
2 2
y = sin x y = sin(x – π/4) π y = sin(x + π/4) y = sin x y = –1
2

Fig. 2.25

EXAMPLE 3 Plot y = sin –1 x; y = sin –1 ( x – 1) and y = sin –1 ( x + 1).

y
SOLUTION We know;
y = sin –1 x could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.26. π/2 (1, π/2)

⇒ y = sin –1 ( x – 1) is shifted ‘1’ unit towards right.

x
and y = sin –1 ( x + 1) is shifted ‘1’ unit towards left. –1 O 1

Shown as in Fig. 2.27. (–1, π/2) –π/2

y

y = sin–1(x + 1)
y = sin–1x y = sin–1(x – 1) Fig. 2.26
π/2
1 1

1 1
x
–2 –1 O 1 2

1 1 –π/2

Fig. 2.27 61
 (iii) f (x) transforms to a f (x)
y
i.e., f ( x) → af ( x); a > 1
y = f ( x)
Stretch the graph of f ( x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
Play with Graphs

y = a f ( x) y = 1 f (x)
a
1
f ( x) → f ( x); a > 1. x
a
Shrink the graph of f ( x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.

Graphically it could be stated as shown in

Fig. 2.28. Fig. 2.28

1
EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = x; y = 2x and y = x.
2
y
y = 2x
SOLUTION As we know graph for y = 2x. (1, 2)
2
y=x
∴ y = 2x; is stretch of f ( x) ‘2’ times
y= 1x
1 1 (1, 1) 2
along y-axis and y = x; is shrink of f ( x) ‘2’
2 –1 (1, 1/2)
times along y-axis. x
O 1

Shown as in Fig. 2.29. (–1, –1/2) –1

–2
(–1,–2)

Fig. 2.29

EXAMPLE 2 Plot y = sin x and y = 2 sin x.

SOLUTION We know; y = sin x and f ( x) → a f ( x)
⇒ Stretch the graph of f ( x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
∴ y = 2 sin x ⇒ stretch the graph of sin x ‘2’ times along y-axis.
y

y=2
2
y = 2sin x
y=1
1
y = sin x
x
–π –π/2 O π/2 π

y = –1
–1

y = –2
–2

Fig. 2.30
62
Above curve is plotted for the interval [– π, π] as periodic with period 2 π .
 1

Curvature and Transformations

EXAMPLE 3 Plot y = sin x and y = sin x.
2
SOLUTION As we know; y

1
y = f ( x)
a 1 y = sin x

⇒ shrink the graph of f ( x)‘a’ 1/2

y= 1
sin x
2
times along y-axis. –π –π/2 O π/2 π x

1 –1/2
∴ y = sin x
2 –1

⇒ shrink the graph of f ( x)

‘2’ times along y-axis. Fig. 2.31

(iv) f (x) transforms to f (ax) y

i.e., f ( x) → f ( ax); a>1
y = f (ax) y = f (x) y = f ( 1 x)
a

Shrink (or contract) the graph of f ( x) ‘a’

times along x-axis.
1  1/a 1 a
again f ( x) → f  x ; a > 1 x
a  –a –1 –1/a O

Stretch (or expand) the graph of f ( x) ‘a’

times along x-axis.

Graphically it could be stated as shown in

Fig. 2.32.
Fig. 2.32

EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = sin x and y = sin 2x.

SOLUTION Here; y = sin 2x, is to shrink (or contract) the graph of sin x by ‘2’ units along
x-axis. Shown as in Fig. 2.33. y

y=1

π π x
–2π –π – O π 3π
2 2 2

y = –1

Fig. 2.33
From above figure sin x is periodic with period 2 π and sin 2 x with period π.
63
 x
EXAMPLE 2 Plot y = sin x and y = sin .
2
 x
SOLUTION Here; y = sin   , is to stretch (or expand) the graph of sin x ‘2’ times along
 2
Play with Graphs

x-axis. Shown as in Fig. 2.34.

y

y = sin (x /2)
y = sin x

π π x
–2π 3π –π – O π 3π 2π
– 2 2
2 2

Fig. 2.34

 x
From above figure sin x is periodic with period 2 π and sin   is periodic with period 4 π.
 2

EXAMPLE 3 Plot y = sin –1 x and y = sin –1 ( 2x).

y
SOLUTION Here; y = sin –1 ( 2x), is to shrink
π
(or contract) the graph of sin –1 x ‘2’ times 2 y = sin–1(2x)
along x-axis.
y = sin–1(x)
Shown as in Fig. 2.35.
x
–1 – 1 O 1 1
2 2

π
–
2

Fig. 2.35

x 
EXAMPLE 4 Plot y = sin –1  – 1 .
3 
x 
SOLUTION To plot y = sin –1  – 1 . We should follow as;
3 

(i) Plot y = sin –1 x

 x
(ii) Plot y = sin –1   , i.e., stretch graph ‘3’ units along x-axis.
 3
x 
(iii) Plot y = sin –1  – 1 , i.e., shift the graph (ii) by ‘3’ unit towards right.
3 
64
 Curvature and Transformations
(i) Plotting y = sin –1 x :  x
(ii) Plot y = sin –1   :
 3
y y

π π
2 2

y = sin–1x
y = sin–1(x /3)
x x
–1 O 1 –3 O 3

π π
– –
2 2

Fig. 2.36 Fig. 2.37

x 
(iii) Plot y = sin –1  – 1 :
3 
y

π
2 3

x
–3 –2 O 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1

3 π
–
2

Fig. 2.38

(iv) f ( x ) transforms to f (– x )
i.e., f ( x) → f (– x)
To draw y = f (– x), take the image of the curve y = f ( x) in y-axis as plane mirror.
OR
“Turn the graph of f ( x ) by 180° about y-axis.”
Graphically it is stated as;
y y
y = f (–x) y = f ( x)
OR y = f ( x)

x x
O
O

y = f (–x)

Fig. 2.39 65
 EXAMPLE 1 Plot y = e– x .
SOLUTION As y = e x is known; then y = e – x is the image in y-axis as plane mirror for y = e x ;
shown as;
Play with Graphs

y
y = e–x y = ex

x
O

Fig. 2.40

EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = log e (– x).

SOLUTION Here; y = log e (– x); is to take mirror image of y = log e x about y-axis. Shown as;
y

y = loge (–x ) y = loge x

x
(–1, 0) O (1, 0)

Fig. 2.41

EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve y = sin –1 (– x).

y
π
2
SOLUTION Here; y = sin (– x);–1
is the y = sin–1(–x ) y = sin–1x
mirror image of y = sin –1 ( x) about y-axis.
x
Shown as in Fig. 2.42. –1 1

π
–
2
Fig. 2.42

(vi) f (x) transforms to – f (x)

i.e., f ( x) → – f ( x);
To draw y = – f ( x) take image of y = f ( x) in the x-axis as plane mirror.
OR
“Turn the graph of f ( x ) by 180° about x-axis.”

66
 y = – ex .

Curvature and Transformations

EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve y
y = ex

SOLUTION As y = e x is known;
1
∴ y = – e x take image of y = e x in the x-axis as plane
mirror. x
O
–1

y = –e x

Fig. 2.43

EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = – (log x).

y
y = log x
SOLUTION As y = log x is given then y = – log x is
the image of y = log x in the x-axis as plane
mirror. x
O

y = – log x

Fig. 2.44

EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve y = – { x}; where { ⋅ } denotes the fractional part of x.
SOLUTION As y = { x} is known;
∴ y = – { x} is the image of y = { x} about x-axis as plane mirror.
y

y = {x }
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
y = –{x }

–1

Fig. 2.45

(vii) f (x) transforms to – f (– x)

i.e., f ( x) → – f (– x);
to draw y = – f (– x)take image of f ( x)about y-axis to obtain f (– x)and then take image of f (– x)about
x-axis to obtain – f (– x).
∴ f ( x) → – f (– x)
67
 ⇒ (i) Image about y-axis. (ii) Image about x-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as;
y
y = –f (–x)
y
Play with Graphs

OR

y = f (x)
y = –f (–x)

O x
x
–b –a O
y = f (x) y = f (–x)
y = –f (x)

Fig. 2.46

EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve y = – e– x .

y
y = e–x y = ex

SOLUTION As y = e x is known; 1
(i) Take image about y-axis; for y = e . –x

x
O
(ii) Take image of y = e – x about x-axis; for y = – e – x . –1
Shown as in Fig. 2.47.

y = –e–x

Fig. 2.47

EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = – log(– x).

SOLUTION As y = log x is known;

(i) Take image about y-axis, for y = log(– x).

(ii) Take image of y = log(– x) about x-axis, for y = – log(– x).

y

y = log (–x) y = log x

x
O

y = –log (–x)

Fig. 2.48

68
 y = – {– x}. (where { ⋅ } denote fractional part).

Curvature and Transformations

EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve
SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = { x}.
∴ To plot y = – {– x}
(i) Take image about x-axis.
(ii) Take image about y-axis.
y

y = {–x } y = {x }

x
O
y = –{–x }

–1

Fig. 2.49

EXAMPLE 4 Plot the curve for y = – [– x]. (where [ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integer function.)
SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = [ x].
∴ to plot y = – [– x]
(i) Take image about x-axis.
y

3
y = [x]
2

1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5

–1

–2

–3 y = [–x]

–4

Fig. 2.50

69
 (ii) Take image about y-axis.
y
y = –[–x]
3
Play with Graphs

x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

–1

–2

–3

–4

Fig. 2.51

(viii) f (x) transforms to|f (x)|; (where| • |represents modulus function)

i.e., f ( x) → |f ( x)|
Here; y = |f ( x)|is drawn in two steps.
(a) In the I step, leave the positive part of f ( x), {i.e., the part of f ( x) above x-axis) as it is.
(b) In the II step, take the mirror image of negative part of f ( x). {i.e., the part of f ( x) below
x-axis} in the x-axis as plane mirror.
OR
Take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of f ( x) which lies below x-axis.
OR
Turn the portion of the graph of f ( x) lying below x-axis by 180° about x-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as
Graph of f ( x ) : Graph for| f ( x )| :

y y

y = |f (x)|

x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1

y = f (x)

Fig. 2.52 Fig. 2.53

70
 Curvature and Transformations
Note Above transformation of graph is very important as to discuss differentiability of f (x).
As from above example we could say y = f (x) is differentiable for all x ∈ R – {0 }.
But; y = | f (x)| is differentiable for all x ∈ R – {– 1, 0 , 1} as, “at sharp edges function is not
differentiable.”

EXAMPLE 1 Draw the graph for y = |log x|.

SOLUTION To draw graph for y = |log x|we have to follow two steps:
(i) Leave the ( + ve) part of y = log x, as it is
(ii) Take images of (– ve) part of y = log x, i.e., the part below x-axis in the x-axis as plane mirror.
Shown as:
Graph for y = log x : Graph for y =|log x|:
y
y

y = log x

y = | log x |
x
O 1
x
O 1

Fig. 2.54 Fig. 2.55

which is differentiable for all x ∈ ( 0, ∞ ) which is clearly differentiable for all
x ∈ ( 0, ∞ ) – {1}. “as at x = 1 their is a sharp
edge”.

EXAMPLE 2 Draw the graph for y = |x 2 – 2x – 3|.

SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x 2 – 2x – 3 = ( x – 3)( x + 1) is a parabola; so to
sketch y = | x 2 – 2x – 3 | we have to follow two steps.
(i) Leave the positive part of y = x 2 – 2x – 3, as it is.
(ii) Take the image of negative part of y = x 2 – 2x – 3, i.e., the part below x-axis in the x-axis
as plane mirror shown as in Fig. 2.56.
Graph for y = x 2 – 2x – 3 = ( x – 3)( x + 1) :
y
3

x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
–1

–2

–3 b
minimum at x = –
2a
–4 D
and y = –
(1, –4) 4a
71
Fig. 2.56
 Graph for y =| x 2 – 2x – 3| :
y

(1, 4)
Play with Graphs

x
–1 O 1 3

Fig. 2.57

Clearly above curve is differentiable for all x ∈ R – {– 1, 3}.

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph for y = |sin x|.

SOLUTION Here; y = sin x is known.
∴ To draw y = |sin x |, we take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of sin x
which lies below x-axis.
y

y = |sin x|
–π π x
–2π O 2π 3π

Image of portion below

x-axis
Fig. 2.58

From above figure it is clear;

y = |sin x|is differentiable for all x ∈ R – { nπ; n ∈ integer}.

(ix) f (x) transforms to f (|x|)

i.e., f ( x) → f (|x|).
If we know y = f ( x), then to plot y = f (|x|), we should follow two steps:
(i) Leave the graph lying right side of the y-axis as it is.
(ii) Take the image of f ( x) in the right of y-axis as the plane mirror and the graph of f ( x) lying
leftward of the y-axis (if it exists) is omitted.
OR
Neglect the curve for x < 0 and take the images of curve for x ≥ 0 about y-axis.

72
 Curvature and Transformations
Graphically shown as;
y y

y = f (x ) y = f (|x |)
Neglected

x x
O O

Image of
f (x) about y-axis
when x > 0

Fig. 2.59

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = log|x|.

SOLUTION As we know, the curve y = log x.
∴ y = log|x|could be drawn in two steps:
(i) Leave the graph lying right side of y-axis as it is.
(ii) Take the image of f ( x) in the y-axis as plane mirror.
y y
y = log x y = log |x |

x x
O 1 –1 O 1

Fig. 2.60

EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = e| x| .

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = e x .
y
y
y = e|x |
y = ex
Image
for y = f (x); x ≥ 0
(1, 0)
neglect (1, 0)
x x
O O

Fig. 2.61 Fig 2.62

∴ To plot y = e , neglect the curve for x < 0and take image about y-axis for x ≥ 0. Shown as in
| x|

Fig. 2.62.
73
 EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve y = sin|x|.
SOLUTION
y y
Play with Graphs

neglected y = sin x y = sin |x |

x x
O O

y = sin x y = sin |x |
Fig. 2.63

EXAMPLE 4 Plot the curve y = |x|2 – 2 |x| – 3 .

SOLUTION As we know, the curve for y = x 2 – 2x – 3 is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.64.
y y

neglec
y = x 2 – 2x – 3 ting y = |x |2 – 2|x | – 3

x x
–1 O 1 3 –3 –1 O 1 3

–4 (1, –4) (1, –4)

Fig. 2.64 Fig. 2.65

∴ y = f (|x |), i.e., y = |x| – 2 |x| – 3 is to be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.65.

2

which shows y = |x|2 – 2 |x| – 3 is differentiable for all x ∈ R – { 0}.

(x) f (x) transforms to|f (|x |)|

i.e., f ( x) → |f (|x |)|
Here, plot the curve in two steps; y
(i) f ( x) → |f ( x)| (ii) |f ( x)| → |f (|x|)|
y = f (x )
OR 1

(i) f ( x) → f (|x |)
x
(ii) f (|x|) → |f (|x |)|., i.e., (viii) and (ix) O 1/2 1
transformations.
–1
Graphically it could be stated as shown in Fig. 2.66.

Fig. 2.66
74
 Curvature and Transformations
(i) y =| f ( x )|: (ii) y =| f (| x|)|:
y y

y = |f (x )| y = |f (|x |)|
1 1

x x
O 1/2 –1 –1/2 O 1/2 1

Fig. 2.67 Fig. 2.68

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve for y = ||x |2 – 2 |x | – 3 |.

SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x 2 – 2 x – 3, shown as;

y

y = x 2 – 2x – 3

x
–1 O 1 3

Fig. 2.69

(i) y = x 2 – 2x – 3 → y = |x|2 – 2 |x| – 3. (ii) y =|x |2 –2 |x | – 3 → y = ||x|2 –2 |x |–3 |

y
y
(–1, 4) (1, 4)
3|
2|x | –

3
x| –
y = || 2

x
–3 –1 O 1 3

x
–3 –1 O 1 3

–3

–3
(–1, –4) (1, –4)

Fig. 2.70 Fig. 2.71

Clearly, above figure is differentiable for all
x ∈ R – {– 3, 0, 3}.
75
 1
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the graph for y = e –|x| – .
2
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = e – x .
Play with Graphs

y
y = ex

1
x
O

Fig. 2.72

1 1 1
(i) y = e – x → y = e – x – . (ii) y = e – x – → y = e –|x| – .
2 2 2
y y

1
1/2
1/2
–log 2
x
x O log 2 1
O log 2 y = e–|x | –
2
–1/2
–1/2

Fig. 2.73 Fig. 2.74

1
(iii) y = e –|x| –
2
y

1/2
1
y = e–|x | –
2
x
–log 2 O log 2

–1/2

Fig. 2.75

(xi) y = f (x) transforms to|y| = f (x)

Clearly|y| ≥ 0 ⇒ if f ( x) < 0; graph of|y| = f ( x) would not exist.
if f ( x) ≥ 0; |y| = f ( x) would be given as y = ± f ( x).
Hence, the graph of |y | = f ( x) exists only in the regions where f ( x) is non-negative and will be
reflected about x-axis only when f ( x) ≥ 0. “Region where f ( x) < 0 is neglected”.
76
 Curvature and Transformations
OR
(i) Remove (or neglect) the portion of the graph which lies below x-axis.
(ii) Plot the remaining portion of the graph, and also its mirror image in the x-axis.
Graphically it could be stated as shown in Fig. 2.76.
Graph for y = f ( x ) :
y

(1, 1) y = f (x ) (1, 1) |y | = f (x )
1 1

x 1/2
x
O 1/2 1 O

–1
(1, –1) mirror image
about x-axis.
neglecting
–2 –2

Fig. 2.76

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve |y| = ( x – 1)( x – 2).

SOLUTION

As we know the graph for ⇒ y = ( x – 1)( x – 2) → |y| = ( x – 1)( x – 2)

y = ( x – 1)( x – 2), is shown in Fig. 2.77. , as shown in Fig. 2.78.

y y

1 3/2 2 3 O 1 2
O x x
3
(3/2, –1/4) neglecting

Fig. 2.77 Image on x-axis,

when (x–1)(x–2) ≥ 0

Fig. 2.78

EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve |y| = sin x.

SOLUTION Here, we know the curve for y = sin x.

77
 y

1
Play with Graphs

–π π x
–2π O 2π 3π y = sin x
–1

Fig. 2.79
∴ y = sin x → |y| = sin x
y

–2π –π O π 2π 3π
x
π 2π
neglected Image neglected –1 Image neglected Image neglected

Fig. 2.80

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve |x| + |y | = 1.

SOLUTION As the graph for y = 1 – x is;
y

x
–1 O 1 y=1–x

–1

Fig. 2.81
(i) y = 1 – x → y = 1 – |x |. (ii) y = 1 – |x| → |y | = 1 – |x |.
y y
ne

1
gl

|y | = 1 – |x | or |x | + |y | = 1
ec
te
d

1
–1 1
x
O
e
d
Im

x
ne
ag
te
ag

O
ec

gl
e

–1 1
Im

y = 1 – |x |
ag

ec
e
gl

–1
Im

ne

te
d

Image
–1
Fig. 2.83
Fig. 2.82
Clearly above figure represents a square.
78
 Curvature and Transformations
EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the curve|x| – |y | = 1 .
SOLUTION As the graph for y = x – 1 is known;
y

y=x–1

x
O 1

–1

Fit. 2.84
(i) y = x – 1 → y = |x | – 1 (ii) y = |x | – 1 → |y | = |x | – 1
y y
Im
ag

y = |x | – 1
e

x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1
e

Im
ne
ag

ag
gl
Im

ec

e
–1 –1
te
d

d
te
ec
gl
ne

Fig. 2.85 Fig. 2.86

(xii) y = f (x) transforms to|y| = |f (x)|

i.e., y = f ( x) → |y| = |f ( x)|; is plotted in two steps.
(i) y = f ( x) → y = |f ( x)|
(ii) y =|f ( x)| → |y| = |f ( x)|
Graphically it could be stated as;
y y y

y = f ( x) y = |f (x)| |y | = |f (x)|

x x x
O O O

y = f (x) → y = |f (x)| y = |f (x)| → |y | = |f (x)|

(i) (ii) (iii)
Fig. 2.87
79
 EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve for|y| = |e – x|.
SOLUTION Here; curve for y = e – x is shown as;
y
Play with Graphs

y = e–x

x
O

Fig. 2.88

(i) y = e – x → y = |e – x| (ii) y = |e – x| → |y| = |e – x|.

y y
–x
y= e

1
1
remains same x
O
x
O
–1

Fig. 2.89 |y | = e–x

Fig. 2.90

EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve |y| = |e x – 1| .

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = e x is shown as;

Fig. 2.91

(i) y = e → y = e – 1.
x x
(ii) y = e x – 1 → y = |e x – 1 |.
y y
y = |e x – 1|
1
1

x x
O neglected O

–1 –1
80
Fig. 2.92 Fig. 2.93
(iii) y = |e x – 1 | → |y | = |e x – 1 |.

Curvature and Transformations

y

|y | = |e x – 1|
1

x
O

–1

Fig. 2.94

1
EXAMPLE 3 Plot the curve |y| = sin x + .
2
SOLUTION Here; we know the graph for y = sin x, is shown as
y

x
–2π –π O π 2π

–1

Fig. 2.95

1
(i) y = sin x → y = sin x + .
2
y

3/2
y = 3/2
1/2 y = 1/2
–π π x
–2π O 2π
y = –1/2
–1/2

Fig. 2.96

1 1
(ii) y = sin x + → y = sin x +
2 2

81
 y

3/2 y = 3/2

y = 1/2
Play with Graphs

1/2
–π π x
–2π O 2π
y = –1/2

y = –3/2

Fig. 2.97
1 1
(iii) y = sin x + → |y | = sin x +
2 2
y

|y | = sin x + 1
2
y = 3/2

y = 1/2
x
O
y = –1/2

y = –3/2

Fig. 2.98

(xiii) y = f (x) transforms to|y| = |f (|x |)|

i.e., y = f ( x) → |y| = |f ( x)|.
The steps followed are:
(i) y = f ( x) → y = |f ( x)|.
(ii) y = |f ( x)| → y = |f (|x |)|
(iii) y = |f (|x |)| → |y | = |f (|x |)|.
Graphically it could be stated as:
y

x
O

Fig. 2.99

82
 (i) y = f ( x) → y = |f ( x)| (ii) y = |f ( x)| → y = |f (|x |)|

Curvature and Transformations

y
y

1
1

x x
O
d

O
cte
gl e
ne

Fig. 2.100 Fig. 2.101

(iii) y = |f (|x |)| → |y | = |f (|x |)|.

y

x
O
–1

Fig. 2.102

1
EXAMPLE 1 Plot the|y| = e –|x| – .
2
SOLUTION Here; we know the graph for y = e – x .
y

x
O

Fig. 2.103
1 1 1
(i) y = e – x → y = e – x – (ii) y = e – x – → y = e –|x| – .
2 2 2
y y

1/2
–log 2 log 2
1/2 x
O
x
O log 2 –1/2
–1/2 y = –1/2
Fig. 2.105 83
Fig. 2.104
 1 1 1 1
(iii) y = e –|x| – → y = e –|x| – . (iv) y = e –|x| – → |y | = e –|x| – .
2 2 2 2
y y
Play with Graphs

1
1/2 |y | = e–|x |–
1/2 2

x
–log 2 O log 2 x
O
–1/2
–1/2

Fig. 2.106 Fig. 2.107

EXAMPLE 2 Plot |y| = |log|x ||.

SOLUTION Here; y = log x is plotted as;
y

y = logex

x
O 1

Fig. 2.108

(i) y = log x → y = log|x| (ii) y = log|x | → y = |log|x ||

y y

y = | log|x| |

x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1
neglected neglected

Fig. 2.109 Fig. 2.110

(iii) y = |log|x || → |y | = |log|x ||
y

|y | = | log |x | |

x
–1 O 1

Fig. 2.111
84
 Sketch the curve |y | = ||x |2 – 3 |x | – 2| .

Curvature and Transformations

EXAMPLE 3
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x 2 – 3x – 2 .
y

x
–1 O 1 3

–3

Fig. 2.112

(i) y = x 2 – 3x – 2 → y = |x |2 – 3 |x | – 2 (ii)
y y

x
–1 O 1 3

x
–3 –1 O 1 3
–3

Fig. 2.113 Fig. 2.114

y = |x |2 – 3 |x | – 2 → y = ||x |2 – 3 |x | – 2 |.
(iii) |y | = ||x|2 – 3|x| – 2| y

3
|y | = ||x |2 – 3|x | – 2|

x
–3 –1 O 1 3

–3

Fig. 2.115

85
 (xiv) y = f (x) transforms to y = [f (x)] ; (where [ • ] denotes the greatest integer function)
i.e., f ( x) → [ f ( x)]

Here; in order to draw y = [ f ( x)] mark the integer on y-axis. Draw the horizontal lines through
Play with Graphs

integers till they intersect the graph. Draw vertical dotted lines from these intersection points; finally
draw horizontal lines parallel to x-axis from any intersection point to the nearest vertical dotted line
with blank dot at right end in case f ( x) increase.
OR
Step 1. Plot f ( x).
Step 2. Mark the intervals of unit length with integers as end points on y-axis.
Step 3. Mark the corresponding intervals {with the help of graph of f ( x)} on x-axis.
Step 4. Plot the value of [ f ( x)] for each of the marked intervals.
Graphically it could be shown as:

2
y = f (x)
1

–1

–2

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8

–1 y = [f (x)]

–2

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8

Fig. 2.116

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = [sin x].

SOLUTION Here, sketch for y = sin x is shown as in Fig. 2.117.

86
 y

Curvature and Transformations

1

π x
–3π –2π –π O 2π 3π
y = sin x
–1

Fig. 2.117

y = sin x → y = [sin x]
y

x
O

–1 y = [sin x ]

–3π– 5π –2π – 3π –π x = – π x=
π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2 2 2 2
Fig. 2.118

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = [ x 2 – 1]. (where [ ⋅ ] denotes greatest integer function).
When – 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 .
SOLUTION Here y = x 2 – 1
could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.119. (i) y = x 2 – 1 → y = [ x 2 – 1].
y y

3 3

2 2

1 1

–√3 –√3
x x
–2 –√2 –1 O 1 √2 √3 2 –2 –√2 –1 O 1 √2 √3 2

–1 –1

y = [x 2 – 1]; –2 ≤ x ≤ 2
Fig. 2.119
Fig. 2.120 87
 EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve; y = [ 2 – x 2 ] ; where [ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integer
function.
SOLUTION We know, y = 2 – x2 represents a circle for y ≥ 0.
Play with Graphs

Shown as in Fig. 2.121.

y

2
√2

1
y = √2 – x 2
x
– √2 –1 0 1 √2

Thus, the graph for y = [ 2 – x2 ] y

√2

1
y = √2 – x 2
x
– √2 –1 0 1 √2

Fig. 2.121
(xv) y = f (x) transforms to y = f ([x])
Here, mark the integers on the x-axis. Draw vertical lines till they intersect the graph of f ( x).
From these intersection points draw horizontal lines (parallel to x-axis) to meet the nearest right
vertical line, with a black dot on each nearest right vertical line which can be shown as in Fig. 2.122.
y = f (x)
y = f ([ x])
y

x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 2.122
88
 y

Curvature and Transformations

y = f ([x])

x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 2.123

OR
y = f ( x ) → y = f ([ x])
Step 1. Plot the straight lines parallel to y-axis for integral values of x
(say – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …)
Step 2. Now mark the points at which x = – 3, x = – 2, x = – 1, x = 0, x = 1, … on the curve.
Step 3. Take the lower marked point for x say if n < x < n + 1 then take the point at x = n and
draw a horizontal line to the nearest vertical line formed by x = n + 1, proceeding in this way we get
required curve.

EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve y = e[x ].

SOLUTION Here the graph for y = e[x ] is shown as;
y y = ex

y = e [x ]

x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3

Fig. 2.124

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = sin[ x] when –2 π ≤ x ≤ 2 π.

SOLUTION The curve for
y = sin[ x]; could be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.125.

89
 y
Play with Graphs

x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6
y = sin x

y = sin [x ]

Fig. 2.125

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve for y = cos[ x] ; – π ≤ x ≤ π.

SOLUTION The curve for y = cos[ x] could be plotted as;
y
y = cos [x ]

x
–π –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 π

Fig. 2.126

EXAMPLE 4 Plot the curve y = [ x]2 ; –2 ≤ x ≤ 2 .

SOLUTION The curve for y = [ x]2 ; –2 ≤ x ≤ 2 could be plotted as;
y

y = x2
4

y = [x ] 2
1

x
–2 –1 O 1 2

Fig. 2.127

(xvi) y = f (x) transforms to y = [f ([x])]

Here, we should follow two steps;
90
 y = f ( x) → y = f ([ x])

Curvature and Transformations

(i)
(ii) y = f ([ x]) → y = [ f ([ x])]

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = [sin[ x]]; where [ ⋅ ] denotes the greatest integral function
when 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
SOLUTION Here; first we shall plot the curve for y = sin[ x], when x ∈[ 0, π].
y y
y = sin [x ]; 0 ≤ x ≤ π
sin 2 sin 2
sin 1 sin 1
sin 3 sin 3

x x
O 1 2 3 π O 1 2 3 π

y = [sin [x]]; 0 ≤ x ≤ π
Fig. 2.128
From above figure we conclude that;
when 0 ≤ x ≤ π ⇒ y = sin[ x] ∈ [ 0, 1).
⇒ y = [sin[ x]] → 0 for all 0 ≤ x ≤ π.

EXAMPLE 2 Plot the curve y = [ e[x ]] ; when – 4 < x < 2 .

SOLUTION Here to sketch y = [ e[x ]], we should follow the steps as;
(i) y = e x

(ii) y = e[x ]
(iii) y = [ e[x ]]
(i) y = ex (ii) y = e[ x ]
y y

(2, e2)
4

3 e 2.7
(1, e)
1 (–1, 1 )
(–2, 2 ) e
2 (1, e) 1 e (0, 1)
(–3, 3 )
e
1 (–1, 1 ) 1 x
1 (–2, 2 ) e (0, 1) –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2
(–3, 3 ) e
e
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2

Fig. 2.129 Fig. 2.130

91
 (iii) y = [ e[ x ]]; from Fig. 2.130. y

 0 < e[x ] < 1; x < 0


e[x ] =  e[x ] = 1 ; 0≤ x< 1
Play with Graphs

e
 [x ]
 e = 2.7 ; 1 ≤ x < 2 2 y = [e [x] ]
1
Thus; y = [ e[x ]]

 0; x< 0 x
O
 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2
⇒ y = 1; 0 ≤ x < 1 shown as in
 2; 1 ≤ x < 2

Fig. 2.131. Fig. 2.131

Graph for; y = [ e[x ]]; when x < 2.

(xvii) y = f (x) transforms to [y ] = f (x) / Graph of Candles

Here, to plot[ y ] = f ( x); we check only those points for which f ( x)∈ integers, as[ y ] ∈integers for
all x.
Thus; [ y ] = f ( x) represents only integral values of y. Here, domain of f ( x) are set of values of x
for which f ( x) ∈integers.

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve;

[ y ] = sin x.
SOLUTION As we know; – 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 but since; [ y ] = sin x.
⇒ sin x = – 1, 0, 1 are only solutions;
nπ
or x= ∈ Domain of [ y ] = sin x.
2
Thus, [ y ] = sin x is shown as in Fig. 2.132.
Graph for y = sin x :
y

x
–2π – 3π
–π –π O –π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
–1

Fig. 2.132

92
 Graph for [ y ] = sin x :

Curvature and Transformations

y

2
3π , – 1 π,1 5π , 1
–
2 1 2 2
C′ A E
(–3π, 0) (–2π, 0) (–π, 0) (π, 0) (2π, 0)
x
F′ D′ B′ O (0, 0) B D
E′ A′ C
π , –1 [y ] = sin x
5π , – 1 – 3π , – 1
– 2
2 2

Fig. 2.133

From above figure, (the points marked O, A, B, C, D, E, A ′ , B′ , C ′ , D′ , E′ ,… is the graph for

candles), or graph for [ y ] = sin x.

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve [ y ] = sin –1 x.

SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = sin –1 x; shown as in Fig. 2.134 and 2.135.
Graph for y = sin –1 x; Graph for [ y ] = sin –1 x;
y y

2
π/2
π/2
1 C (sin 1, 1)
1
x
–1 sin(–1) O sin 1 1
B (0, 0)
–1 x
–1 –sin 1 O
sin 1 1
–π/2
A –1
(–sin 1, –1)
–π/2

Fig. 2.134
Fig. 2.135

From above figure, [ y ] = sin x.

(xviii) y = f (x) transforms to [y ] = [f (x)]

As we have earlier discussed y = [ f ( x)], i.e., transformation (xiv), and we know [ y ] implies
only those values of x for which f ( x) ∈ integer.

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve; [ y ] = [sin x] .

SOLUTION To sketch the curve [ y ] = [sin x] we first plot y = [sin x].

93
 (i) Graph for y = [sin x]
y

2
Play with Graphs

π x
–3π –2π –π O 2π 3π

–1

Fig. 2.136

(ii) Graph for [ y ] = [sin x]

y

2
(–3π/2, 1) 1 (π/2, 1) (5π/2, 1)

π x
–3π –2π –π O 2π 3π 4π

–1

Fig. 2.137

From above figure it is clear [ y ] = [sin x] is periodic with period 2 π.

(xix) y = f (x) transforms to y = f ({x}); (where { ⋅ } denotes fractional part of x,

i.e., {x} = x – [x] )
f ( x) → f ({ x})
Graph of f ( x – [ x]) or f ({ x}) can be obtained from the graph of f ( x) by following rule.
“Retain the graph of f ( x) for values of x lying between interval [0, 1). Now it can be repeated for
rest of the points. (taking periodicity 1).
New obtained function is graph for y = f ({ x})”.
Graphically it could be stated as;
Graph for y = f ( x ) Graph for y = f ({ x})
y y
neglecting

y1 y1

x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

Fig. 2.138
94 Fig. 2.139
 y = ({ x} – 1) 2 .

Curvature and Transformations

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve
SOLUTION Here, we know the curve for y = ( x – 1) 2 shown as;
Graph for y = ( x – 1)2: Graph for y = ({ x} – 1)2 :
y y

y = (x – 1)2
1
1
y = ({x} – 1)2
x
–2 –1 0 1 2 x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

Fig. 2.140 Fig. 2.141

Now; to plot y = ({ x} – 1) retain the 2

graph for the interval x ∈[ 0, 1) and

repeat for length ‘one’.

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve |y| = ({ x} – 1) 2 .

SOLUTION As discussed in above example y = ({ x} – 1) 2 .
Thus, |y| = ({ x} – 1) 2 is image of ({ x} – 1) 2 on x-axis whenever ({ x} – 1) 2 is positive.
Graph of| y | = ({ x} – 1)2 :
y

x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

–1

Fig. 2.142

2x
EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph of y = .
2[x ]
SOLUTION As we know 2 x is exponential function and we want to transform it to 2 x –[x ], it retain
the graph for x ∈[ 0, 1) and repeat for rest points.
Graph for y = 2x Graph for y = 2{ x}
To retain graph between x ∈[ 0, 1).
y y
y = 2x
2
2
y = 2{x}
1
1
x
x –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
O 1

Fig. 2.143 Fig. 2.144 95

 (xx) y = f (x) transforms to y = {f (x)}
Here, plot the horizontal lines for all integral values of y and for the point of intersection on
y = f ( x) plot draw vertical lines and translate the graph for boundary y = 0 and y = 1.
Play with Graphs

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = {sin x}. (where { ⋅ } denotes the fractional part of x).
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = sin x. Shown as.
Graph of sin x :
y

1
y = sin x
x
O

–1

Fig. 2.145

As to retain the curve when 0 ≤ y < 1; and shift other sections of graph between y = 0 to y = 1.
Graph for y = {sin x} :
y

1
As it is
–2π
x
–3π 5π 3π –π –π O π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
– –
2 2 2 2 2 2
–1

Fig. 2.146

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = { x 2 }.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = x 2 , is shown as:
y

5
y = x2
4

1
x
–2 –√3 –√2 –1 O 1 √2 √3 2
96
Fig. 2.147
 Now to sketch y = { x 2 }; retain the graph for 0 ≤ y < 1 and for other intervals transform the

Curvature and Transformations

graph between 0 ≤ y < 1.
y

3
Translated
between
2
0 ≤ y <1

1
x
–2 –√3 –√2 –1 O 1 √2 √3 2

Fig. 2.148

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve y = { e x }.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = e x ;
shown as: Graph for y = { ex } :
To retain the graph for 0 ≤ y < 1 and transform
the others to 0 ≤ y < 1.
3
y
2
3
1
2 Transformed
between
1 0≤y<1
O log 2 log 3
Retained y = {e x }
x
Fig. 2.149 O log 2 log 3

Fig. 2.150

(xxi) y = f (x) transforms to y = {f ({x})}

Here, we have to follow two steps :
(i) Draw the graph for y = f ({ x}).
(ii) f ({ x}) → { f ({ x})}

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve y = { e{ x} }.

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = e x , is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.151.

97
 Graph for y = ex : Now to sketch y = e{ x} retain the graph for
y = e x between 0 ≤ x < 1 and repeat for entire
y
real x.
Graph for y = e{ x} :
Play with Graphs

y = ex
y
e

1
e
x
O 1 1

x
Fig. 2.151 –2 –1 O 1 2 3

Fig. 2.152
Graph for y = { e{ x} }:
y

y = {e {x}}
x
–3 –2 –1 –log 2 O log 2 1 2 3 4

Fig. 2.153

Here, we know the graph for y = e{ x} , now to plot straight lines||to x-axis for integral values of y
and retain the graph for 0 ≤ y < 1 and transform the others between 0 ≤ y < 1.

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = {sin{ x}}.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = sin x; is plotted as;
Graph for y = sin x :
y

sin1

π x
O 1 π 2π
2

Fig. 2.154
98
 Graph for y = sin{ x} :

Curvature and Transformations

y

1
sin 1

x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 2.155

Graph for y = {sin{ x}} :

From above figure
y = sin{ x} ⇒ 0 ≤ y < 1.
y

1
sin1
y = {sin {x }}
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

Fig. 2.156

So, the graph of y = sin{ x} and y = {sin{ x}} are same.

(xxii) y = f (x) transforms to {y} = f (x)

Here; retain the graph of y = f ( x) only when y = f ( x) lies between y ∈[ 0, 1) and neglect the
graph for other values.
Graphically it could be stated as;
y
neglected

Graph for y = f (x )

1
Graph for {y} = f (x )
x
O

Fgi. 2.157
99
 EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve { y } = x 2 .
SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = x 2 , is plotted as:
Graph for y = x 2: Graph for { y } = x 2:
Play with Graphs

y y

y = x2

ed
neg

ect
lect

l
neg
ed
1 1

{y } = x 2
x x
–1 O 1 O
–1 1

Fig. 2.158 Fig. 2.159

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve { y } = sin x.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = sin x, is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.160 and 2.161.
Graph for y = sin x :
y

x
–3π –2π –π O π 2π 3π

Fig. 2.160
Now to sketch { y } = sin x: We retain the graph for 0 ≤ y < 1 and neglect the graph for other
values.
Graph for { y } = sin x :
y

{y } = sin x
x

neglected

Fig. 2.161
100
(xxiii) y = f (x) transforms to {y} = {f (x)}

Curvature and Transformations

As we have earlier discussed y = { f ( x)} (i.e., transformation ( xx), which shows y = { f ( x)}
belongs to [0, 1) ⇒ { y } = { f ( x)}. Thus, the graph of y = { f ( x)} and { y } = { f ( x)} are same.

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve { y } = { x}.

SOLUTION As we know the curve for y = x. Graph for y = { x} :
y y

1
1

x y = {x}
–2 –1 O 1
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2
–1

–2

Fig. 2.162 Fig. 2.163

Graph for { y } = { x} : From above figure we can see y = { x} attains all values between [0, 1).
Thus, graph remains same.
y

{y } = { x }
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3

Fig. 2.164

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve { y } = {cos x}.

SOLUTION As we know the curve y = {cos x} is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.165.
y

x
–
5π –
3π –π Oπ 3π 5π
2 2 2 2 2 2

Fig. 2.165
101
 From above figure; y = {cos x} lies between [0, 1), which shows y = {cos x} and { y } = {cos x}
are same.
Thus, graph for { y } = {cos x}:
y
Play with Graphs

{y } = {cos x }
x
O

Fig. 2.166

(xxiv) y = f (x) transforms to y = f –1 (x)

As discussed in chapter 1. y = f –1 ( x) is the mirror image of y = f ( x) about y = x.
OR
“Interchange x and y-axis when function is bijective.”
Graphically it could be stated as :
y y = f (x)
y =x

y = f –1(x)

x
O

Fig. 2.167

2.4 SKETCHING h( x ) = MAXIMUM { f ( x ), g ( x )} AND h( x ) = MINIMUM { f ( x ), g ( x )}

(i) h (x ) = maximum {f (x ), g (x )}
 f ( x); when f ( x) > g( x)
⇒ h( x) = 
g( x); when g( x) > f ( x)
∴ Sketch f ( x) when its graph is above the graph of g( x) and sketch g( x) when its graph is above
the graph of f ( x).
(ii) h (x ) = minimum {f (x ), g (x )}
 f ( x), when f ( x) < g( x)
⇒ h( x) = 
g( x), when g( x) < f ( x)
∴ Sketch f ( x) when its graph is lower and otherwise sketch g( x).

102
 Curvature and Transformations
Note One must remember the formula we can write;
f (x) + g (x) f (x) – g (x)
max {f (x), g (x)} = +
2 2
f (x) + g (x) f (x) – g (x)
min {f (x), g (x)} = –
2 2

OR
“To draw the graph of functions of the form
y = max { f ( x ), g( x )} or y = min { f ( x ), g( x )}.”
We first draw the graphs of both the functions f ( x) and g( x) and their points of intersections.
Then we find any two consecutive points of intersection. In between these points either
f ( x) > g( x) or f ( x) < g( x), then, in order to max{ f ( x ), g( x )} we take those segments of f ( x ) for
which f ( x ) > g( x ), between any two consecutive points of intersection of f ( x) and g( x).
Similarly, in order to min { f ( x ), g( x )}, we take those segments of f ( x ) for which f ( x ) < g( x ),
between any two consecutive points of intersection of f ( x) and g( x).

 3π 
EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the graph of y = max {sin x, cos x}, ∀ x ∈  – π, .
 2
SOLUTION First plot both y = sin x and y

y = cos x by a dotted curve as can be seen

1
 3π 
from the graph in the interval  – π, 
 2 B
and then darken those dotted lines for –π π O π π 3π
x
–
which f ( x) > g( x) or g( x) > f ( x). A 2 2 C 2

From adjacent figure the point of –1

intersections are A, B, C.
Fig. 2.168
∴ Graph of max {sin x, cos x}
y

y = max. { sin x, cos x }

B

π x
–π – O π π 3π
2 2 2
A C

Fig. 2.169

EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the graph for y = min {tan x, cot x}.

SOLUTION First plot both f ( x) = tan x and g( x) = cot x by a dotted curves as can be seen from the
graph and then darken those dotted lines for which f ( x) < g( x) and g( x) < f ( x).
103
 y
Play with Graphs

B D F
π π π x
3π –π – O 3π
– 2 2
2 2
A C E

Fig. 2.170

From above figure we obtain the graph of min{tan x, cot x}.

Graph of min {tan x, cot x} :
y

π π π x
3π –π – O 3π
–
2 2 2 2
–1

Fig. 2.171

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the curve y = min {|x |,|x – 1 |,|x + 1 |}.

SOLUTION First plot the graph y

y = |x + 1|
for: y = |x |
y = |x |, y = |x – 1 |, y =|x + 1| 3
y = |x – 1|
by a dotted curve as can be seen
from the graph and then darken 2
those dotted lines for which
|x | < {|x – 1 |,|x + 1 |}; 1
|x – 1 | < {|x |,|x + 1 |}
x
and |x + 1 | < {|x |,|x – 1 |}. –3 –2 –1– 1 O 1 1 2 3
Graph for 2 2

y = | x|, y =| x – 1|, y = | x + 1| .
Fig. 2.172

104
 As from the above curve graph for y = min {|x – 1|,|x|,|x + 1|} is plotted as;

Curvature and Transformations

y

1
y

≥
=

x
|x

1;
+

–
1|

x
=

=
–x

1|
1

–
–
2

|x
1;
y =1–x

=
x
x +1 –x x

y
–1
x
–3 –2 –1– 1 O 1 1 2 3
2 2

Fig. 2.173

From above figure;

 –( x + 1) ; x≤ –1
 1
( x + 1) ; – 1≤ x≤ –
 2
 1
 –( x) ; – ≤ x≤ 0
 2
min {|x – 1 |,|x |,|x + 1 |} = 
( x) 1
; 0≤ x≤
 2
 1
(1 – x) ; ≤ x≤1
 2
( x – 1) ; x≥1

2.5 WHEN f ( x ), g ( x ) → f ( x ) + g ( x ) = h ( x )

There is no direct approach; but we can use following steps if minimum or maximum value of any
one is known.
Step 1. Find maximum and minimum value of g( x) say; a ≤ g( x) ≤ b.
Step 2. Plot the curve h( x) = f ( x) + g( x) between f ( x) + a to f ( x) + b.
i.e., f ( x) + a ≤ h( x) ≤ f ( x) + b
Step 3. Check g( x) = 0 ⇒ h( x) = f ( x).
Step 4. When g( x) > 0 ⇒ h( x) > f ( x).
Step 5. When g( x) < 0 ⇒ h( x) < f ( x).

EXAMPLE 1 Plot the curve y = x + sin x.

SOLUTION Here, y = x + sin x = f ( x) + g( x)
as we know; g( x) = sin x ∈ [– 1, 1]
∴ x – 1≤ y ≤ x + 1 …(i)
⇒ To sketch the curve between two parallel lines y = x + 1and y = x – 1(called bounded limits)
also; g( x ) = 0 ⇒ y = x …(ii)
g( x) > 0 ⇒ y = x + sin x > x …(iii)
105
 g( x) < 0 ⇒ y = x + sin x < x …(iv)
Using Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get
y=x–1
y=x
Play with Graphs

y=x+1
x (3π/2, 3π/2 – 1)
+ sin
y y=x (π, π)
(π/2, π/2 + 1)

x
–3π/2 –π –π/2 –1 (0, 0) 1 π/2 π 3π/2

–1

(–π/2, –π/2 – 1)

(–3π/2, –3π/2 + 1) (–π, –π)

Fig. 2.174

2.6 WHEN f ( x ), g ( x ) → f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) = h ( x )

There is no direct approach but we can use the following steps if minimum and maximum of any
one is known.
Step 1. Find the minimum and maximum of any one of them say a ≤ g( x) ≤ b.
Step 2. From step 1; a ⋅ f ( x) ≤ h ( x) ≤ b ⋅ f ( x)
Step 3. Check g( x) = 0 ⇒ h( x) = 0 .

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curve; y = x sin x.

SOLUTION Here; y = x sin x; y = –x

y
y=x

where, – 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 y = x sin x

⇒ – x≤ y ≤ x …(i)
x
also; sin x = 0 –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π

⇒ x = – 2 π, – π, 0, π, 2 π, …

∴ y = 0 when
x = – 2 π, – π, 0, π, … Fig. 2.175

106
 π 5π

Curvature and Transformations

and y =x when x= , ,…
2 2
π 3π
y =–x when x=– , ,…
2 2

sin x
EXAMPLE 2 Draw the graph of the function y = .
x
sin x 1 1
SOLUTION As we know; –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 ⇒ y = lies between – to .
x x x
1 1
or to sketch the curve where – ≤ y ≤ …(i)
x x
Here at x = 0; y is not defined but as;
sin x
x → 0 ⇒ y = → 1 …(ii)
x
also; y = 0 at x = nπ ; n ∈ z – { 0} …(iii)
Using Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), the curve could be plotted as;
y

y = –1/x y = 1/x

x
–3π –5π/2 –2π –3π/2 –π –π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π
sin x
y=
x

y = 1/x y = –1/x

Fig. 2.176

EXAMPLE 3 Draw the curve: y = e – x sin x.

y
SOLUTION As we know; y = e–x

–1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
∴ y = e x sin x y = e–xsin x

⇒ – e– x ≤ y ≤ e– x …(i) x
–2π –π O π 2π
4π
3π
Thus, y is bounded between
y = – e– x and y = e– x .
Shown as in Fig. 2.177;
y = –e–x
107
Fig. 2.177
 SOME MORE SOLVED EXAMPLES
Play with Graphs

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the curves of the following :

(i) y = x – [ x] (ii) y = [ x] + x – [ x]
(iii) y = |[ x] + x – [ x] |; where [ • ] represent greatest integer function
SOLUTION (i) As we know that;
0 ≤ x – [ x] < 1 for all x ∈ R.
Also, for any x ∈[ 0, 1), we have
x2 ≤ x ≤ x
∴ x – [ x] ≤ x – [ x]
 x + 1 , when – 1 ≤ x < 0

 x , when 0 ≤ x < 1
Now, y = x – [ x] = 
 x – 1 , when 1 ≤ x < 2

 x – 2 , when 2 ≤ x < 3 … and so on.
Thus, from above we have to plot;
y = x, when 0 ≤ x < 1
y = x – 1, when 1 ≤ x < 2
(i.e., same as shifting x towards right by 1 unit.)
y = x – 2, when 2 ≤ x < 3
(i.e., same as shifting x towards right by 2 units)
∴ the curve for y = x – [ x] is periodic with period ‘1’. Shown as in Fig. 2.178.
y

√x + 3 √x + 2 √x + 1 √x √x – 1 √x – 2 √x – 3
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3

Fig. 2.178

(ii) As we know; y = [ x] + x – [ x]
 –1 + x + 1, when – 1 ≤ x < 0

 x , when 0 ≤ x < 1
⇒ y =
1 + x – 1 , when 1 ≤ x < 2

 2 + x – 2 , when 2 ≤ x < 3 … and so on.

108
 Thus, the graph for y = [ x] + x – [ x] is obtained by the graph of y = x – [ x] by translating

Curvature and Transformations

it by [x] units in upward or downward direction according as [ x] > 0 or [ x] < 0.
Thus, the curve for y = [ x] + x – [ x]
y

3 + √x – 3
3

2 + √x – 2
2

1 + √x – 1
1

√x
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1 + √x + 1
–1
–2 + √x + 2
–2
–3 + √x + 3
–3

Fig. 2.179

From above curve we could discuss that;

y = [ x] + x – [ x] is continuous and differentiable for all x.
(iii) The graph for y = [ x] + x – [ x] is obtained by reflecting the portion lying below x-axis of
the graph of y = [ x] + x – [ x] about x-axis and keeping the portion lying above x-axis (as it
is).
Thus, the graph for y = [ x] + x – [ x] .
y

x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

Fig. 2.180
109
 EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the curve y = (1 – x 2/ 3 ) 3/ 2 .
SOLUTION Here;
(a) f (– x) = f ( x) ∴ even function or symmetric about y-axis …(i)
Play with Graphs

x=0 ⇒ y =1 
(b) When  …(ii)
y = 0 ⇒ x = ± 1
Domain ∈ [– 1, 1] 
(c)  …(iii)
Range ∈ [ 0, 1] 
dy 
> 0 when x ∈ [– 1, 0] 
dx 
(d)  …(iv)
dy
< 0 when x ∈ [ 0, 1] 
dx 
2
d y 
(e) 2
> 0 when x ∈ [– 1, 1]  …(v)
dx 
From above;
y

y = (1 – x 2/3 )3/2

x
–1 O 1

Fig. 2.181

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph for y = ( x – 1)x 2/ 3 .

SOLUTION In y = ( x – 1)x 2/ 3
(a) Not symmetric about any axis or origin. …(i)
as x = 0 ⇒ y = 0 
(b)  …(ii)
as y = 0 ⇒ x = 0, 1
Domain ∈ R
(c)  …(iii)
Range ∈ R 
dy 2( x – 1) 5x – 2
(d) = x 2/ 3 + =
dx 3x1/ 3 3x1/ 3
dy 2
> 0, when x < 0 or x >
⇒ dx 5
 …(iv)
dy 2 
< 0, when 0 < x <
dx 5 

110
  1/ 3 1 

Curvature and Transformations

y
x ⋅ 5 – ( 5x – 2) ( x) –2/ 3
d 2y 1 3 
(e) =   y = (x –1)x 2/3
dx 2 3 x 2/ 3

 
10x + 2
= O
x
9x 4 / 3 –2/5 2/5 1

d 2y 2 
> 0, when x < – or x > 0
dx2
5 
⇒  …(v
d 2y 2 
< 0, when – < x < 0
dx 2
5 
Fig. 2.182
)
Thus, curve for y = ( x – 1) x 2/ 3 is shown in Fig. 2.182.

EXAMPLE 4 Draw the graph for:

(i) y = | 1 – |x – 1 || (ii) |y | = |1 – |x – 1||
SOLUTION As we know the graph for y = x – 1
y
y=x–1

x
O 1

–1

Fig. 2.183

(a) y = ( x – 1) → y = |x – 1| (b) y = |x – 1 | → y = – |x – 1 |
y y
Im
ag
W

y = |x – 1|
he

ab
n

ou

1
y

1
<

x-
0

x
ax
is

O
Sm

x
O 1
al
la
bo

–1
ut
x-

–1
ax
is

Fig. 2.185
Fig. 2.184

111
 (c) y = – |x – 1 | → y = 1 –|x – 1 | (d) y = 1 – |x – 1 | → y = 1 – |x – 1 |
y y
Play with Graphs

1 1 y = |1 – |x – 1||

x x
O 1 2
O 1 2
y = 1 – |x – 1|

Fig. 2.186 Fig. 2.187

(e) y = 1 – |x – 1 | → |y | = 1 – |x – 1 |
y

(1, 1) |y | = |1 – |x – 1||
1

x
O 1 2

–1
(1, –1)

Fig. 2.188

EXAMPLE 5 Draw the graph for:

1 1 1
(i) y = 2 – (ii) y = 2 – (iii) |y | = 2 –
|x – 1 | |x – 1 | |x – 1 |
1
SOLUTION We know the graph for y = is shown as;
x
y

1
y=
x

1 (1, 1)

x
–1 O 1

(–1, –1) –1

Fig. 2.189

112
 1 1 1 1

Curvature and Transformations

(a) y = → y = (b) y = → y =
x x–1 x–1 |x – 1|
y y

(2, 1) 1 (2, 1)

x x
O 1 2 O 1
(0, –1)

x=1
x=1
Fig. 2.190 Fig. 2.191

1 1 1 1
(c) y = → y = – (d) y = – → y = 2 –
|x – 1 | |x – 1 | |x – 1| |x – 1|
y y 1
y=2–
|x – 1|

1 (2, 1)

x x
O 1 2 O 1 3 2
2 2
(0, –1) –1
(2, –1)

x=1
x=1 Fig. 2.193
Fig. 2.192

1 1 1 1
(e) y = 2 – → y = 2 – (f) y = 2 – → |y |= 2 –
|x – 1| |x – 1| |x – 1 | |x – 1 |

y y 1
|y | = 2 –
|x – 1|
1
y= 2–
|x – 1|
1
1
x
O
x 1 3
O 1 3 –1 2 2
2 2

x=1 x=1
Fig. 2.194 Fig. 2.195

113
 EXAMPLE 6 Sketch the graph for:
(i) y = e|x| – e – x (ii) y = |1 + e|x| – e – x|
(iii) |y| = |1 + e|x| – e – x| (iv) |y | ≤ | 1 + e|x| – e – x |
Play with Graphs

SOLUTION
(i) Here y = e |x| – e –x
ex – e– x ; x ≥ 0
⇒ y =
e – e ; x < 0
–x –x

ex – e– x ; x ≥ 0
y =
0 ; x< 0
To discuss; y = ex – e– x
(i) when x = 0 ⇒ y = 0 (it passes through origin)
(ii) when y = 0 ⇒ e 2x – 1 = 0 ⇒ x=0
(iii) f (– x) = – f ( x)
as y = f ( x) = e x – e – x
⇒ f (– x) = e – x – e x = – f ( x);
it shows y = f ( x) = e x – e – x is odd function, i.e., symmetric about origin.
(iv) y = ex – e– x
dy e 2x + 1
⇒ = ex + e– x = > 0 for all x ∈ R.
dx ex
∴ y is increasing for all x.
d 2y e 2x – 1
(v) = e x
– e –x
=
dx 2 ex
d 2y
⇒ > 0 when x > 0; concave up and increasing .
dx 2
d 2y
also < 0 when x < 0; concave down and increasing from above discussion
dx 2
y = ex – e– x ; is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.196.
y Recall : Increasing
n
ow
ed
ave g

v
co easin
up

a
nc
1 Co p
r

e– u
Inc
nc

e ve
n ca
x Co
–1 O 1
n

1
ng
ow

–e
con reasi

e
ed
cav
Inc

y = e x – e –x ; x ∈ R
Fig. 2.196

114
 y

Curvature and Transformations

Now;
y = ex – e–x; x ≥ 0
ex – e– x ; x ≥ 0
y =e |x|
–e –x
= ∴ y = e|x | – e–x
0 ; x < 0.
y = 0; x < 0
Thus from Fig. 2.197. x
(0, 0)

Fig. 2.197
(ii) Plotting of y = | 1 + e |x| – e –x |
y y

y = 1+ ex – e–x; x ≥ 0 y = |1+ e|x | – e–x|

y = 1; x < 0 1 1

x x
O O

Fig. 2.198 Fig. 2.199

From above Fig. 2.198.

y = e|x| – e – x → y = 1 + e|x| – e – x
1 + e x – e – x ; x ≥ 0
⇒ y =
1 ; x< 0
Thus, the graph for; y = |1 + e|x| – e – x|
is same as; y = 1 + e|x| – e – x {as y ≥ 1 for all x ∈ R}
∴ Graph for y = |1 + e | x| –x
– e | is shown in Fig. 2.199.
(iii) Plotting of | y | = | 1 + e |x|
– e –x |
y

y = 1 + ex – e–x; x ≥ 0
y = 1; x < 0 1

x
O
–1
y = –1; x < 0
y = –(1 + ex – e–x); x ≥ 0

Fig. 2.200

115
 (iv) Plotting of | y | ≤ |1 + e |x| – e –x | y
y = 1 + ex – e–x; x ≥ 0
From above figure check any point say
(0, 0)
Play with Graphs

y = 1; x < 0 1
⇒ 0 ≤ | 1 | (True, thus to shade area |y | ≤ |1 + e|x | – e–x|
towards (0, 0). x

From given figure shade part represents y = –1; x < 0

the area bounded between two curves.

y = –(1 + ex – e–x); x ≥ 0
Fig. 2.201

EXAMPLE 7 Sketch the curve of the following:

(i) |x + y| ≥ 1 (ii) |x – y | ≤ 1
(iii) |x| + |y | ≤ 2 (iv) |x| – |y | ≥ 1
SOLUTION
(i) Here to sketch, | x + y | ≥ 1
we know; |x + y| ≥ 1
y
x + y ≥ 1
⇒ 
x + y ≤ – 1
or x+y≥1
and x+ y ≤ –1
First we shall draw the graph for 1
x + y = 1 and x + y = – 1, now we
–1
shall consider any fixed point say x
1
(0, 0) and check x + y ≥ 1 and
x + y ≤ – 1 holds or not. x + y ≤ –1 –1

As; x + y ≥ 1 ⇒ 0 ≥ 1 (false).
∴ shaded part is away from origin.
again as; x+y≤–1
⇒ 0≤ – 1 (false)
Fig. 2.202
∴ Shaded part is away from origin
shown as in Fig. 2.202.
(ii) To sketch | x – y | ≤ 1
we know |x – y| ≤ 1
⇒ –1 ≤ x – y ≤ 1
⇒ –1 – x ≤ – y ≤ 1 – x
116
 y
( x – 1) ≤ y ≤ ( x + 1)

Curvature and Transformations

or

1
+
Thus, to plot y between ( x – 1) to ( x + 1).

x
=
y
In figure shaded parts is towards origin as; 1

1
–
putting any fixed point say (0, 0); in|x – y| ≤ 1.

x
=
–1

y
x
⇒ | 0 – 0| ≤ 1 O 1

⇒ 0≤ 1 (true) –1

|x – y | ≤ 1

(iii) To sketch | x | + | y | ≤ 2 Fig. 2.203

Here; |y | = 2 – |x | is plotted as;
y y y

2 2 2
|y | = 2 – | x |
1
x x x
–2 –1 O 1 2 –2 O 2 –2 O 2
–1
y=2–x y = 2 – |x |
–2 –2 –2

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 2.204
y

From above graph of|y | = 2 – |x |, we can check shading 2

of

|y | ≤ 2 – |x | or |x | + |y | ≤ 2 . x
–2 2
as at (0, 0) ⇒ 0≤ 2 (true)

∴ shading towards origin; shown as in Fig. 2.205. –2 |x | + |y | ≤ 2

(iv) Sketching of | x | – | y | ≥ 1
Fig. 2.205
To sketch |x | – |y | ≥ 1; we proceed as:
y = ( x – 1) → y = |x | – 1 → | y |= |x | – 1 → |x | – |y | ≥ 1
y y

y=x–1 y = |x | – 1

x x
O 1 –1 O 1
–1 –1

(i) (ii)
117
 y y

|x | – |y | ≥ 1
|y | = |x | – 1
Play with Graphs

x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1

(iii) (iv)
Fig. 2.206

EXAMPLE 8 Sketch the curve;

(i) |x + y | + |x – y | ≤ 4 (ii) |x + y | + |x – y | ≥ 4
SOLUTION (i) As we know;
y
|x | – |y |; |x | ≥ |y |
|x – y | = 
 –(|x | – |y |); |x | ≤ |y | 2

Thus; |x + y| + |x – y| ≤ 4
 x + y + x – y ≤ 4; |x | ≥ |y | x
⇒  –2 2
 x + y – x + y ≤ 4; |x | < |y |
|x + y | + |x – y | ≤ 4
 2x ≤ 4; |x | ≥ |y |
⇒  –2
 2y ≤ 4; |x | < |y |
or |x + y | + |x – y | ≤ 4
Fig. 2.207
⇒ |x | ≤ 2 and |y | ≤ 2
Thus, to shade the portion when –2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and –2 ≤ y ≤ 2 . Shown as in Fig. 2.207.
(ii) Again; |x + y| + |x – y| ≥ 4 ⇒ |x | ≥ 2 and |y | ≥ 2
Thus, to shade the portion when x ≤ –2 or x ≥ 2 and y ≤ – 2 or y ≥ 2 . Shown as in
Fig. 2.208.
y

x
–2 O 2

–2

|x + y | + |x – y | ≥ 4
Fig. 2.208
118
 Curvature and Transformations
EXAMPLE 9 Sketch the curve for;
1 1
(i) 2| x||y | + 2| x|–1 ≤ 1 (ii) 2|x| |y| + 2|x|–1 ≤ 1; |x | ≤ and |y | ≤ .
2 2
 1
SOLUTION (i) Here 2|x||y| + 2|x|–1 ≤ 1 ⇒ 2| x| |y| + ≤1
 2
1
⇒ |y| + ≤ 2 –|x|
2
1
Thus, to plot |y| + ≤ 2 –|x| , we proceed as;
2
 – x 1 1 1 1
y =  2 –  → y = 2 –|x| – → |y| = 2 –|x| – → |y| ≤ 2 –|x| –
 2 2 2 2
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Shown as;
y

(0, 1)
y = 2–x
x
O

Fig. 2.209

y y
y = 2–x–1/2
neglecting
1/2
1/2
Image
x x
O 1 –1 O 1
–1/2 –1/2

1 1
(i) y = 2 – x – (ii) y = 2 –|x | –
2 2
y y

1/2 1/2

x x
–1 O 1 –1 O 1

–1/2 –1/2

1 1
(iii) | y | = 2 –|x| – (iv) | y | ≤ 2 –|x | –
2 2

Fig. 2.210
119
 1
Here, figure (iv) is shaded towards origin as putting x = 0, y = 0 in |y| ≤ 2 –|x| – .
2
1 1
⇒ 0≤ 1 – or 0 ≤ , which is true, therefore, shaded towards origin.
2 2
Play with Graphs

(ii) Plotting of 2|x||y | + 2|x|–1 ≤ 1; y

1 1
|x | ≤ and |y | ≤ .
2 2 1/2 y = 1/2

from above figure; x

–1 O 1
2|x||y | + 2|x|–1 ≤ 1
–1/2 y = –1/2
2|x ||y | + 2|x | –1 ≤ 1;
1 1
and |x | ≤ , |y | ≤ shown as in |x | ≤
1 and |y | ≤ 1
2 2 2 2 x = –1/2 x = 1/2
Fig. 2.211.
Fig. 2.211

EXAMPLE Sketch the graph of the function:

10
f ( x) = log 2 (1 – x 2 )
SOLUTION Here, log 2 (1 – x 2 ) exists when, –1 < x < 1 

i. e., doman ∈ (– 1, 1)  …(i)
and range ∈ (– ∞, 0] 

as x → ± 1 ⇒ y → – ∞ …(ii)
differentiating y = log 2 (1 – x 2 ),
dy (–2x) x
we get = 2
⋅ (log 2 e) = 2 log 2 e 2
dx 1 – x ( x – 1)
Using number line rule;
– + – +
–1 0 1
dy 
> 0, when – 1 < x < 0
dx 
 …(iii)
dy
< 0, when 0 < x < 1 
dx 
y
d 2y –2 log 2 e(1 + x 2 )
also, = < 0 for all x ∈ (– 1, 1)
dx 2 (1 – x 2 ) 2
O
∴ y = log(1 – x 2 ) is concave down for x ∈ (–1, 1)} …(iv) x
increa own

Con

–1 1
sing

decr

from above results we can draw

d

cave
cave

easin

y = log 2 (1 – x 2 ) as shown in Fig. 2.212.

dow
Con

g
n

y = log2 (1 – x 2 )

Fig. 2.212
120
 Curvature and Transformations
EXAMPLE 11 Sketch the graph of y = log(sin x) .
SOLUTION Here;
(i) y = log(sin x) is defined, when sin x > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1)π ).
(ii) Since, sin x is periodic with period 2 π .
∴ to discuss y = log(sin x), when x ∈ ( 0, π ) as exists when x ∈ ( 0, π ) and then plotted for
entire number line.
(iii) as x → 0 ⇒ y = log( 0) = – ∞.
π
as y → 0 ⇒ sin x → 1 ⇒ x= .
2
dy 1
(iv) = ⋅ cos x = cot x
dx sin x
dy  π
⇒ > 0 when x ∈  0, 
dx  2
dy π 
< 0, when x ∈  , π
dx 2 
d 2y
(v) = – cosec 2 x < 0 for all x ∈ ( 0, π )
dx 2
Thus, increasing and concave down x ∈( 0, π / 2)
decreasing and concave down x ∈( π / 2, π ).
and to plot the curve only when x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1) π ). Shown as in Fig. 2.213.
y

–π π π x
–2π O π 3π 2π 3π
own

decre

3π – 5π
– 2 2
2 2 2
cave d

asin
g and
nd con

conca
sing a

ve dow
increa

Fig. 2.213

EXAMPLE 12 Sketch the graph for

y = – log sin x e.
–1
SOLUTION (i) Here, y = – log sin x e = is defined when,
log e sin x
sin x > 0 and sin x ≠ 1.
i.e., x ∈ ( 2nπ, ( 2n + 1) π ) – { 2nπ + π / 2}; n ∈ N …(i)
121
 –1
(ii) y = is periodic with period 2 π,
log e sin x
∴ to discuss the graph for x ∈ ( 0, π ) – { π / 2} and sketch for the entire number line.
dy 1 1 dy cot x
Play with Graphs

(iii) ∴ =+ 2
⋅ ⋅ cos x ⇒ =+
dx (log sin x) sin x dx (log sin x) 2
dy  π
or > 0 when x ∈  0, 
dx  2
dy π 
< 0 when x ∈  , π
dx 2 
d 2y  (log sin x) 2 ⋅ (– cosec 2 x) – cot x ⋅ 2 (log sin x) ⋅ cot x
(iv) = +  
dx 2  (log sin x) 4 
{(log sin x) 2 cosec 2 x + 2 (log sin x) cot 2 x}
=–
(log sin x) 2
d 2y  π
⇒ > 0 for all
x ∈ ( 0, π ) –  
dx 2
 2
 π 
 increasing and concave up x ∈  2 , π
1 
Thus, y = ⇒ 
log sin x  decreasing and concave up x ∈  0, π 
  2
y

1
y=–
logesin x

3π –π π π π x
–2π – O 3π 2π 5π 3π
– 2 2
2 2 2
y = – logsin x e
Fig. 2.214

EXAMPLE 13 Sketch the curve:

(i) [ y ] = cos x; x ∈ [–2 π, 2 π]
(ii) [ y ] = [cos x]; x ∈ [–2 π, 2 π] ; where [ ⋅ ] denotes greatest integer function.
SOLUTION As we know; y = cos x could be plotted as;
y

π O π x
–2π – 3π –π – π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
–1

122 Fig. 2.215

(i) Sketching of [ y ] = cos x

Curvature and Transformations

3π π π 3π
From above curve cos x = – 1, 0, 1 when x = – 2 π, – ,– π, – , 0, , π, , 2π
2 2 2 2
y
⇒ [ y ] = cos x is possible only
2
 3π π 
when x ∈  ±2 π, ± , ± π, ± , 0
 2 2  1

Thus,
x
π
–π π
–π O
cos x = – 1 ⇒ –1 ≤ y < 0
–2π – 3π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
cos x = 0 ⇒ 0≤ y < 0 –1

cos x = 1 ⇒ 1≤ y < 2 –2

Thus, [ y ] = cos x is plotted as [y] = cos x

shown in Fig. 2.216.
Fig. 2.216

(ii) Sketching of [ y ] = [cos x ]

First to plot y = [cos x]. Shown as;
y

(–2π, 1) (0, 1) (2π, 1)

x
–2π – 3π –π O π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

Fig. 2.217
From above figure y = [cos x]

 π 3π
 –1 ; 2 < |x | < 2

 π 3π
⇒ y =  0 ; 0 < |x | ≤ and ≤ |x | < 2 π
 2 2
 1 ; |x | = 0, 2 π


Thus, when y =0 ⇒ [ y ] ∈ [ 0, 1)
y =1 ⇒ [ y ] ∈ [1, 2)
y = –1 ⇒ [ y ] ∈ [– 1, 0)

123
 Thus, graph for [ y ] = [cos x]
y

2
Play with Graphs

1 (2π, 1)
(–2π, 1)

x
π π 3π
–2π < x ≤ –
3π – ≤x<0<x≤ ≤ x < 2π
2 2 2 2

3π π –1 3π
– <x<– 2π < x <
2 2 2

Fig. 2.218

EXAMPLE 14 Sketch the curves

(i) y = 4 – [ x]
(ii) [ y ] = 4 – [ x]
(iii) [|y |] = 4 – [|x |]
SOLUTION As we know;
(i) y = 4 – [ x] could be plotted with in two steps;

y = 4 – x → y = 4 – [ x]
y

y 5

4 4
3 3
2 y=4–x 2
1 1
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3

y = 4 – [x ]
(i) (ii)
Fig. 2.219

(ii) Since, we know from above curve y = 4 – [ x]

⇒ y ∈integer, thus, on taking integral part, say
[ y ] = I ⇒ I ≤ y < ( I + 1)

124
 ∴ Graph for [ y ] = 4 – [ x]

Curvature and Transformations

y

6
5

4
Included Excluded
3
2
1
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
and so on
–3
[y ] = 4 – [x ]
Fig. 2.220

In above curve lower boundary are included and upper are excluded.
(iii) To sketch [| y |] = 4 – [| x |]
From above figure we can say;
[ y ] = 4 – [ x] → [ y ] = 4 – [|x |] → [|y |] = 4 – [|x |]
y

4
3
2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1
[|y |] = 4 – [|x |]
–2
–3
–4

–5

[|y |] + [|x |] = 4

Fig. 2.221

EXAMPLE 15 Shade the region whose co-ordinates x and y satisfy the equation.
cos x – cos y > 0
 x + y  y – x
SOLUTION Here, cos x – cos y > 0 can be written as, 2 sin   sin  >0
 2   2 
125
  x + y  y – x
⇒ sin   sin  >0
 2   2 
This inequality holds true for all points,
 x + y  y – x
Play with Graphs

when sin   and sin   have same sign.

 2   2 
 x + y  y – x
i.e., sin   > 0 and sin  >0
 2   2 
 x + y  y – x
or sin   < 0 and sin  <0
 2   2 
⇒ x + y > 2nπ and y – x > 2nπ
or x + y < 2nπ and y – x < 2nπ
 y > 2nπ – x  y < 2nπ – x
⇒  or 
 y > 2nπ + x  y < 2nπ + x where n ∈ z
Here, the equation x + y = 2kπ represents a system of parallel straight lines corresponding to
different values of k.
Say k = 0, 1 ⇒ y = – x and y = – x + 2 π.
i.e., the set of points whose coordinates satisfy the inequality
0 < x + y < 2π
Similarly, for general points: 2kπ < x + y < ( 2k + 1) π …(i)
x + y
Now, the set of points which satisfy sin   > 0.
 2 
y

8π

6π

4π

2π
y – x = 2n π
x
–8π –6π –4π –2π O 2π 4π 6π 8π cos x > cos y
–2π

–4π

–6π

–8π

x + y = 2k π
Fig. 2.222

126
 x+y

Curvature and Transformations

⇒ 2nπ < < ( 2n + 1) π
2
⇒ 2 ( 2nπ ) < x + y < 2 ( 2n + 1) π …(ii)
⇒ only those points of x, y which satisfy Eq. (ii).
Similarly, 2 ( 2p – 1) π < y – x < 2 ( 2p ) π …(iii)
From above results, graph for cos x > cos y is shown in Fig. 2.222.

EXAMPLE 16 Sketch the curve x 2/ 3 + y 2/ 3 = a 2/ 3 .

SOLUTION As to sketch, x 2/ 3 + y 2/ 3 = a 2/ 3 .
(i) Curve is symmetric about y-axis (as when x is replaced by (– x) curve remains same)
(ii) Curve is symmetric about x-axis (as when y is replaced by (– y) curve remains same).
(iii) Curve is symmetric about origin (as when x is replaced by y and y by x curve remains same).
(iv) When, x=0 ⇒ y =±a
when, y = 0 ⇒ x = ± a.
(v) y 2/ 3 = ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ),
or y 2 = ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) 3 ;
dy  2 
differentiating both sides, 2y = 3 (a 2 / 3 – x 2 / 3 )2 ⋅  – x –1 / 3 
dx  3 
dy
⇒ < 0 when x > 0, y > 0 [to discuss 0 < x ≤ a and to take symmetry for rest of graph
dx
using Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii)].
dy
(vi) From above y = – x –1/ 3 ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) 2
dx
Differentiating again, we get;
2
d 2y  dy   2  1
y +   = – x –1/ 3 ⋅ 2( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) ⋅  – x –1/ 3  + x –4 / 3 ⋅ ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) 2
dx 2  dx   3  3
4 1
= x –2/ 3 ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) + x –4 / 3 ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 ) 2
3 3
1 –2/ 3 2/ 3
= x (a – x 2/ 3 ){ 4 + x –2/ 3 ( a 2/ 3 – x 2/ 3 )} y
3
a
d 2y
= + ve whenever; 0 < x ≤ a and y > 0. decreasing and
dx 2 concave up
Thus; when 0 < x ≤ a and y > 0 O
x
2 –a a
dy d y
⇒ < 0 and > 0, x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3
dx dx 2 –a
i.e., decreasing and concave up.
∴ Graph for x 2/ 3 + y 2/ 3 = a 2/ 3 Fig. 2.223

Note Above curve is known as Astroid represented by the following parametric equations:
x = a cos3 t 
 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π , a > 0
y = a sin3 t 

127
 Eliminating cos t and sin t from above equations, we get x 2/ 3 + y 2/ 3 = a 2/ 3 .
where the quantities x and y are defined for all values of t. But since, the functions cos 3 t and sin 3 t are
periodic with period 2 π, it is sufficient to discuss the curve for t ∈[ 0, 2 π].
Domain of function ∈ [ 0, 2π]
Play with Graphs

Thus,  …(i)
Range of function ∈ [– a, a] 
dx 
= – 3a cos 2 t sin t
dt 
Now,  …(ii)
dy
= + 3a sin 2 t cos t
dt 
dx dy π 3π
Here, = 0, = 0 ⇒ t = 0, , 8 π, , 2 π.
dt dx 2 2
dy 
∴ = – tan t …(iii)
dx 
d 2y 1 
2
= 4  …(iv)
dx 3a cos t sin t 
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we construct a table;
dy d 2y
Range of t Domain (x) Range (y) Sign of Sign of
dx dx 2
π 0< x< a 0< y < a – +
0< t <
2
π – a< x< 0 0< y < a + +
< t< π
2
3π – a< x< 0 – a< y < 0 – –
π< t<
2
3π 0< x< a –a < y < 0 + –
< t < 2π
2
y
On the basis of above information we can sketch
x = a cos 3 t a Astroid : x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3
or x = a cos3t
y = b sin 3 t y = a sin3t
x
Students are adviced to convert the cartesian into –a O a
parametric if possible.
–a

Fig. 2.224

EXAMPLE 17 Sketch the curves:

ex + e– x ex – e– x ex – e– x ex + e– x
(i) y = (ii) y = (iii) y = (iv) y =
2 2 ex + e– x ex – e– x
e x + e –x
SOLUTION (i) Sketching of f (x ) = y =
2
(a) f (– x) = f ( x), ∴ even or symmetric about y-axis …(i)
128
 x=0 ⇒y =1

Curvature and Transformations

(b) When …(ii)
dy e x – e – x e 2x – 1
Differentiating, we get; = =
dx 2 2 ex
d 2y ex + e– x e 2x + 1
⇒ = =
dx 2 2 2 ex y
dy  ex + e–x
> 0 whenever x > 0 y=
2


de cave
dx


co
From above; …(iii)

av ing
cre

p
n
dy 

eu
co reas
as p
< 0 whenever x < 0


ing
dx

inc
nc
u
d 2y  1
> 0 for all x …(iv)
dx 2  x
O
Thus, from Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) graph of
ex + e– x Fig. 2.225
y = is;
2
e x – e –x
(ii) Sketching y =
2
(a) f (– x) = – f ( x),
y
∴ odd function or symmetric about origin …(i) e x – e– x
y=
2
(b) x=0 ⇒ y =0 …(ii)

av ing
p
eu
co reas
dy e + ex –x
(c) = > 0 for all x …(iii)

Inc
nc
dx 2
x
d 2y ex – e– x O
av sing

=
n

(d)
ow

dx 2 2
co crea
ed
In

d 2y 
nc

> 0 when x > 0 

dx 2

⇒  …(iv) Fig. 2.226
2
d y
< 0 when x < 0
dx 2 

ex – e– x
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) graph of y = .
2
e x – e –x
(iii) Sketching of y =
e x + e –x
(a) f (– x) = – f ( x), ∴ odd function or symmetric about origin …(i)
(b) as x=0 ⇒ y =0 …(ii)
Domain ∈ R 
(c)  …(iii)
Range ∈ (– 1, 1)
dy
(d) > 0 for all x ∈R …(iv)
dx

129
 d 2y  y
< 0 for x > 0
dx 2

(e)
2
 …(v) 1
d y
> 0 for x < 0 ex – e–x
y=

Play with Graphs

dx 2 e x + e –x
x
O
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) graph of
ex – e– x –1
y = x is shown as in Fig. 2.227.
e + e– x
e x + e –x Fig. 2.227
(iv) Sketching y = x –x
e –e
(a) f (– x) = – f ( x), ∴ odd function or symmetric about origin …(i)
as x → 0; y → ∞ y

(b) as y → 1; x → ∞  …(ii)
y → – 1; x → – ∞  ex + e–x
y= x
e – e–x
Domain ∈ R – { 0}  1
(c)  …(iii)
Range ∈ R – [– 1, 1] x
O
dy
(d) < 0 for all x ∈ R – { 0} …(iv)
dx –1
2
d y 
> 0 for x > 0
dx 2

(e)
2
 …(v)
d y
< 0 for x < 0  Fig. 2.228
dx 2 

ex + e– x
From above information, graph for y = x as shown in Fig. 2.228.
e – e– x
1 x
Note In many applications we come across exponential functions of the form (e – e – x ) and
2
1 x
(e + e – x ) known as “hyperbolic functions” represented by;
2
ex – e– x 
sin hx = 
2
–x 
…(i)
e +e 
x
cos hx = 
2
called hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine.
ex – e– x 
tan hx = x
e + e – x 
also,  …(ii)
ex + e– x 
cot hx = x
e – e – x 
called hyperbolic tangent and hyperbolic cotangent. Where if; x = cos ht , y = sin ht
⇒ x 2 – y 2 = cos2 ht – sin2 ht = 1 {Using Eq. (i)}
which is equation of hyperbola.
ex – e– x ex + e– x
Thus, sin hx = and cos hx = are hyperbolic functions.
2 2
130
 y = 2 sin x + cos 2x.

Curvature and Transformations

E X A M P L E 18 Sketch the curve
SOLUTION Since, the function is periodic with period 2 π, it is sufficient to investigate the
function in the interval [0, 2 π].
dy
(a) = 2 cos x – 2 sin 2x = 2 (cos x – 2 sin x cos x)
dx
dy
∴ = 2 cos x(1 – 2 sin x)
dx
dy π π 5π 3π
Here, =0 ⇒ x= , , ,
dx 6 2 6 2
d 2y
(b) = – 2 sin x – 4 cos 2x
dx 2
 d 2y  3
 2 = – 3< 0 where y =
 dx  at x = π 2
6

π π  d 2y 
∴ at x= is maximum at x = .  2 = 2 > 0;
6 6  dx  at x = π
2

π π
∴ at x = is minimum at x = , where y = 1 y
2 2
5π d 2y 2
at x= we have, 2
= – 3< 0 3/2
6 dx 1
3
and y = (maximum) x
2 O π π 5π π 3π 2π
6 2 6 2
3π d 2y –1
at x= , we have, 2
= 6> 0
2 dx –2
and y = – 3 (minimum)
–3
Thus, curve for y = 2 sin x + cos 2x; y = 2 sin x + cos 2x
Fig. 2.229

2
EXAMPLE 19 Sketch the curve y = e– x (Gaussian curve)
2
SOLUTION As the curve y = f ( x) = e – x
(a) Symmetric about y-axis {as f (– x) = f ( x)} …(i)
as x → 0 ⇒ y → 1 
(b)  …(ii)
as y → 0 ⇒ x → ± ∞
dy 
< 0 ⇒x> 0
dy 
= e – x (–2x) ⇒ dx
2
(c)  …(iii)
dx dy
> 0 ⇒ x < 0
dx 

131
 d 2y 2 2 2
(d) 2
= – 2e – x – 2x(– 2xe – x ) = 2e x ( 2x 2 – 1)
dx
d 2y 1 1
> 0 ⇒x< – or x > 
Play with Graphs

dx 2
2 2
⇒  …(iv)
2
d y
<0 ⇒–
1
< x<
1 
dx 2 2 2 
y
2
(e) y = e – x assumes maximum at C
n 1 on y=1
d ow de cav
x=0 ⇒ y =1 av
e ng
i cr e d
ea o
o nc reas sin wn
C inc g
and Domain ∈ R …(v) e up e–1/2 Conc
ave u
cav
Con asing decr p
Range ∈ ( 0, 1] incr
e easin
g x
–1/√2 O 1/√2
From above discussion;
Fig. 2.230

x
EXAMPLE 20 Sketch the curve y = .
1 + x2

Domain ∈ R 
SOLUTION Here; (a)  …(i)
Range ∈ [– 0.5, 0.5]

(b) f (– x) = – f ( x), hence, f ( x) is odd, symmetric about origin …(ii)

(c) When x=0 ⇒ y =0 …(iii)

2 – + –
dy 1– x
(d) = –1 1
dx (1 + x 2 ) 2
Fig. 2.231
dy 
> 0 when – 1 < x < 1 
dx
or  …(iv)
dy
< 0 when x < – 1 or x > 1
dx 

From above maximum at x = 1 and minimum at x = – 1} …(v)

2 x 2 – + – +
d y 2 ( x – 3)
(e) =
dx 2
(1 + x 2 ) 3 –√3 0 –√3
2  Fig. 2.232
d y
> 0, when x ∈ (– 3, 0) and ( 3, ∞ ) 
dx 2

⇒  …(vi)
d 2y
< 0, when x ∈ (– ∞, – 3 ) and ( 0, 3 )
dx 2 
x
From above conditions graph for y =
1 + x2
132
 y

Curvature and Transformations

1

0.5 (1, 0.5)

decr
ing easin (√3, √3/4)
as g
–√3 re
decr c x
easin –1 in O 1 √3
g
(–√3, –√3/4)
(–1, –0.5) –0.5

Concave down Concave up Concave down Concave up

Fig. 2.233

In above figure :
x dy/dx d 2y / dx 2
–∞ < x < – 3 – –
– 3< x< –1 – +
– 1< x< 0 + +
0< x< 1 + –
1< x< 3 – –
3< x< ∞ – +

EXAMPLE 21 Sketch the curve y 2 = x 3 . (Semicubical parabola).

SOLUTION To plot the curve we discuss;
(i) Symmetric about x-axis (as y → – y curve remains same).
(ii) Domain ∈ [ 0, ∞ )
(iii) Range ∈ R.
Here, to plot y 2 = x3 ⇒ y = x3 and y =– x 3 , we draw y = x 3 and take image
about x-axis for y = – x 3 . (i.e., to discuss curve when x, y ≥ 0).
dy 3 1/ 2 3
(iv) = x = x > 0 for all x, y > 0.
dx 2 2 y
d 2y 3
(v) = > 0 for all x, y > 0. y = (x 3/2 )
dx 2 4 x
⇒ Increasing and concave up when x > 0.
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v). x
O
x y dy / dx d 2y / dx 2
y = –(x 3/2 )
+ + + +

+ – – – Fig. 2.234

133
 Note In above curve y 2 = x 3 (semicubical parabola). For x = 0 we have y = 0 and y′ = 0, thus, the
branch of the curve has a tangent at y = 0 at origin. The second branch of y = – x3 also
passes through origin and has the same tangent y = 0. Thus, two different branches of the
curve meet at origin, have the same tangent, and situated at different sides of origin. This
Play with Graphs

is known as cusp of first kind.

EXAMPLE 22 Sketch the curve: y 2 = x 4 – x 6.

SOLUTION Here; y = ± x2 1 – x2
Thus, to plot the curve for y = x 2 1 – x 2 and take image about x-axis.
(i) Symmetric about x and y-axis.
(ii) Domain ∈[– 1, 1]
 2 2 
(iii) Range ∈ – , .
 3 3 3 3
(iv) When x=0 ⇒ y =0
y = 0 ⇒ x = 0, ± 1.
dy
(v) 2y = 4x 3 – 6x 5 = 2x 3 ( 2 – 3x 2 ) = 2x 3 ( 2 – 3x)( 2 + 3x)
dx
dy 2
⇒ > 0 when; 0 < x < and y > 0.
dx 3
dy 2
< 0 when < x < 1 and y > 0.
dx 3
Here, we are sketching the curve only when x, y ≥ 0and then take image about x and y-axis.
d 2y 2
(vi) 2
> 0 when 0< x< and y > 0.
dx 5
d 2y 2
2
< 0 when < x < 1 and y > 0.
dx 5
From above discussion.
y Concave up and increasing
Concave downward increasing
2 Concave down and decreasing
By symmetry 3√3

x
–1 O 1

– 2 By symmetry
3√3
√2 – √2 √2 √2
– 5
3 5 3
Fig. 2.235

Note At the origin (as the singular point) the two branches of the curve corresponding to plus
and minus in front of the radical sign are mutually tangent. Known as point of osculation
or tacnode or double cusp.

134
 Curvature and Transformations
EXERCISE

1. Sketch the curves; (where [ ⋅ ] denotes the (vi) y = 2sin x

greatest integer function).
(vii) y = log2 (| sin x | )
(i) y = |2 – | x – 1||
(viii) | y | = log2 | sin x |
4
(ii) y = 2 –  1
| x – 1| (ix) y = logsin x  
 2
4
(iii) | y | = 2 –  1
| x – 1| (x) | y | = logsin x  
 2
4 1– x 2
(iv) y = 2 –
| x – 1| 3. Sketch the curve y = sin–1  
1+ x 2
4
(v) | y | = 2 – 4. Sketch the curve y =
2x
| x – 1| x +1
2

(vi) y = | e| x | – 2 | 5. Sketch the curves;

(vii) | y | = | e| x | – 2 | (i) y = x 2 – 2 | x | (ii) y = e –| x |
(viii) y = x – [x ] (iii) y = e |x|
(iv) | y | = x
(ix) y = x – [x ] (v) y = x – x 3
(vi) y 2 = x – 1
(x) y = (x – [x ]) 2
6. Construct the graph of the function
(xi) | y | = x – [x ] y = f (x – 1) + f (x + 1)
(xii) | y | = (x – [x ]) 2 1 – | x |, when | x | ≤ 1
where f (x ) = 
(xiii) y = | x – 1| + | x + 1| 0, when | x | > 1
(xiv) | y | = | x – 1| + | x + 1| 7. Sketch the curves;
(xv) y = [| x – 1|] (i) y =
1
(ii) y =
1
(xvi) | y | = [| x – 1|] x –2 |x | – 2
(xvii) y = x + [x ] 1 1
(iii) y = (iv) | y | =
(xviii) y = | x | + [| x |] |x | – 2 |x | – 2
(xix) | y | = x + [x ]
8. Find number of solutions of 2 cos x = | sin x |.
(xx) | y | = | x | + [| x |]
When x ∈[ 0, 4π ].
2. Sketch the curves;
9. Find the number of solutions of;
(i) y = sin x
sin π x = |log| x ||.
(ii) | y | = sin x
10. Sketch the curve
(iii) y = | sin x | + | cos x | sin 2x
(iv) | y | = cos x + | cos x | y = + cos x .
2
(v) y = sin2 x – 2 sin x

ANSWERS
8. 2 solutions, 9. 6 solutions.

135
 Graph Jells Us
Play with Graphs

Remark 1

Absolute maximum
No greater value of f any where.
Also a local maximum

Local minima
No greater value of f near by
y = f (x)
Local minimum
No smaller value of f near by

Local minima
No smaller value of f near by
Absolute minima
No smaller value of f any where.
Also a local minimum.
a c e d b x-axis
Local vs absolute (Global) Extrema
Fig. 1

Remark 2
Absolute maximum
f ′undefined
Local maximum y = f (x )
f ′= 0

No extremum
f ′< 0 f ′= 0
f ′> 0
No extremum f′ > 0
f ′< 0
f ′= 0 Local minimum

f ′> 0
f ′= 0
Absolute minimum Local minimum

a c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 b x-axis
Local vs absolute (Global) Extrema
Fig. 2

Remark 3
The First derivative Test for Local Extreme Value
(i) If f ′ changes from positive to negative at C (f ′ > 0 for x < c and f ′ < 0 for x > c), then f has a
local maximum value at c.

136
 Local maximum Local maximum

Graph Tells Us
f ′> 0 f ′< 0
f ′> 0 f ′< 0

x=c x-axis x=c x-axis

(a) f ′(c) = 0 (b) f ′(c) undefined
Fig. 3
(ii) If f ′ changes from negative to positive at c (f ′ < 0 for x < c and f ′ > 0 for x > c), then f has a
local minimum at x = c.

f ′< 0 f ′> 0 f ′< 0

f ′> 0
Local minimum Local minimum
x=c x-axis x=c x-axis
(a) f ′(c) = 0 (b) f ′(c) undefined
Fig. 4

(iii) If f ′ does not change sign at c (f ′ has the same sign on both sides of c), then f has no local
extreme value at c.

no extreme no extreme
f ′> 0

f ′> 0

x=c x-axis x=c x-axis

(a) f ′(c) = 0 (b) f ′(c) undefined
Fig. 5
(iv) At a left end point ‘a’: If f ′ < 0 Local maximum
(f ′ > 0) for x > a, then f has local
Local minimum f ′> 0
f ′< 0
maximum (minimum) value at
x = a.
x=a x-axis x=a x-axis
Fig. 6
(v) At a right end point ‘b’: If f ′ < 0 ( f ′ > 0) for x < b, then f has local minimum
(maximum) at x = b.
Local maximum

Local minimum

x=b x-axis x=b x-axis

Fig. 7
137