NOTE for students-All the experiments should be start from new page only.
Draw diagrams and observation table on plane page.
Experiment no. 1
Aim
To determine the focal length of concave mirror by obtaining the image of a
distant object.
Materials Required
A concave mirror, a mirror holder, a small screen fixed on a stand, a measuring
scale and a distant object (a tree visible clearly through an open window).
Theory-When a parallel beam of light coming from a distant object, such as
tree or pole is incident on the reflecting surface of a mirror, then after reflection,
the rays converge at its principal focus.
Result
The approximate value of focal length of the given concave mirror is …………
m.
Precautions
1. The measuring scale should be parallel to the base of both the stands.
2. There should not be any obstacle in the path of rays of light incident on
the concave mirror.
Experiment no. 2
Aim
To determine the focal length of convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant
object.
Materials Required
A thin convex lens, a lens holder, a small screen fixed on a stand and a
measuring scale.
Theory
The distance between the optical centre O of the convex lens and the focus F1
or F2 is its focal length. When the parallel beam of light coming from a distant
object (such as the sun, a building, a tree, etc.) falls on a convex lens, the rays
after refraction, converge at a point on its other side. This point is one of the two
foci of the lens.
Result
From the above observations and calculations, the approximate value of focal
length of the given convex lens is ………. m.
Precautions
1. The principal axis of the convex lens should be horizontal, i.e. the lens
should be placed vertically.
2. There should be no obstacle in the path of rays of light from the distant
object incident on the convex lens.
Experiment no. 3
Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for
different angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of
refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the result.
Materials Required
A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a
protractor, a scale, a pencil and thumb pins.
Theory
Refraction of Light: When light passes from one medium to other it
deviates/changes its path, this property of light is called refraction of light.
Laws of Refraction:
(i) The incident ray, the normal ray and the refracted ray, all lie in the
same plane.
(ii) The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is a constant quantity for a given colour of light and pair of
media. This law is also known as Snell’s law.
sin i/ sin r= constant
This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium
with respect to the first.
Observation Table
[Link] Angle of Angle of Angle of
incidence refraction emergence
1
Conclusion
The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.
The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is
travelling from rarer to denser optical medium.
When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically
denser medium (glass) the light bends towards the normal.
Precautions
The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
All pins base should lie in straight line.
Experiment no. 4
Aim
Tracing of the Path of the Rays of Light through a Glass Prism.
Apparatus Required
White light source, Glass Prism, Measuring Scale, Paper Pins (8-9),
White Paper, Pencil, Protector, Drawing Board.
Theory
A prism has a triangular base and three triangular lateral surfaces. These
surfaces are inclined to each other. The emergent ray always bend
towards the base of the prism.
Observations
1. The light ray enters the prism at surface AB, bends towards the normal on
refraction.
2. At surface AC of the prism, this light ray bends away from the normal
because it travels from a glass to air.
3. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle
to the direction of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of
deviation (∠D).
Conclusion
1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it
gets refracted in the prism and while leaving the prism it bends away
from the normal.
incidence ∠i. It attains a minimum value then increases with further
2. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of
increase in angle of incidence.
Precautions
Please fix the white paper on the board without a tilt.
Draw straight lines very carefully.
Do not move the position of the prism during the measurement.
Experiment no. 5
Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on
the current (I) passing through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a
graph between V and I.
Materials Required
A battery, an insulated copper wire (cut into 10 pieces), a key, an
ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, a resistor and a piece of sand paper.
Theory
Ohm’s Law: The potential difference, V across the ends of a given
metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided its temperature is the same. This is Ohm’s
V∝I
law.
.’. V = IR, (Here R = Constant for the given metallic wire)
The SI unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).
One Ohm: If the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is 1
volt and the current flowing through it is 1 ampere, then the resistance of
the conductor R is 1 ohm.
Factors affecting resistance:
The length of the resistance. (R ∝ l)
The nature of resistor (a conductor having some resistance.)
(Resistance increases as the length of the wire is increased)
The area of cross-section of the resistor.
Calculation-
Range of ammeter =(0-5) A
Least count of ammeter = 0.05 A
Range of voltmeter =(0-5) V
Least count of voltmeter =0.05 V
Conclusions
1. The value of R is found to be same and constant in all three readings.
2. The resistance of a resistor is ratio of potential difference V and
current I.
3. The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V∝I. This
verifies Ohm’s law.
Precautions
1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation
of their ends should be removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may
introduce in the circuit.
Experiment no. 6
Aim
Experiment To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when
connected in series.
Materials Required
A battery, an insulated copper wire (cut into 10 pieces), a key, an ammeter, a
voltmeter, a rheostat, a resistor and a piece of sand paper.
Theory
If two resistors named as R1 and R2 are joined end to end they are said to be
connected in series.
R = R 1 + R2
Observation Table-
Result
1. The calculated value of Rs = R1 + R2 = 3 Ω
2. The experimental value of Rs = 3 Ω
The above two values are close to each other.
Hence, Rs = R1 + R2 is verified.
Precautions
1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of
their ends should be removed using the sandpaper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may
introduce in the circuit.
Experiment no. 7
Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in
parallel.
Materials Required
A battery, a plug key, connecting wires, an ammeter, a voltmeter, rheostat,
a piece of sand paper and two resistors of different value.
Theory
When resistors are connected in parallel combination the total resistance
is reciprocal sum of the individual resistances.
i.e., 1/Rp = (1/R1) + (1/R2)
Result
1. The calculated value of 1/Rp = (1/R1) + (1/R2) = 1.5 Ω
2. The experimental value of 1/Rp = 1.5 Ω
3. The equivalent resistance (Rp) is less than the individual resistance (R1 or
R2)
Precautions
1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of
their ends should be removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may
introduce in the circuit.