Sugar

Sugar (/ʃʊɡər/) is a class of sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates,

many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called
monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose and galactose. Compound
sugars, also called disaccharides or double sugars, are molecules
made of two bonded monosaccharides; common examples are
sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose) and
maltose (two molecules of glucose). White sugar is almost pure
sucrose. During digestion, compound sugars are hydrolysed into
simple sugars.

Longer chains of saccharides are not regarded as sugars, and are

called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Starch is a glucose
polymer found in plants – the most abundant source of energy in Sugars (clockwise from top-left): white
refined, unrefined, brown, unprocessed
human food. Some other chemical substances, such as ethylene
cane sugar
glycol, glycerol and sugar alcohols, may have a sweet taste, but are not
classified as sugar.

Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants. Honey and fruits are abundant natural sources of simple
sugars. Sucrose is especially concentrated in sugarcane and sugar beet, making them efficient for commercial
extraction to make refined sugar. In 2016 the combined world production of those two crops was about two
billion tonnes. Maltose may be produced by malting grain. Lactose is the only sugar that cannot be extracted
from plants, as it occurs only in milk, including human breast milk, and in some dairy products. A cheap
source of sugar is corn syrup, industrially produced by converting corn starch into sugars, such as maltose,
fructose and glucose.

Sucrose is used in prepared foods (e.g., cookies and cakes), is added to commercially available ultra-
processed food and beverages, and is used as a sweetener for foods (e.g., toast and cereal) and beverages (e.g.,
coffee and tea). Globally, on average, a person consumes about 24 kilograms (53 pounds) of sugar each year.
North and South Americans consume up to 50 kg (110 lb), and Africans consume under 20 kg (44 lb).[1]

The use of added sugar in food and beverage manufacturing is a concern for elevated calorie intake, which is
associated with an increased risk of several diseases, such as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular
disorders.[2] In 2015 the World Health Organization recommended that adults and children should reduce
their intake of free sugars to less than 10% of their total energy intake, encouraging a reduction to below
5%.[3]

Etymology
The etymology of sugar reflects the commodity's spread. From Sanskrit śarkarā, meaning "ground or
candied sugar", came Persian shakar and Arabic sukkar. The Arabic word was borrowed in Medieval Latin as
succarum, whence came the 12th-century Old French sucre and the English sugar. Sugar was introduced into
Europe by the Arabs in Sicily and Spain.[4]

The English word jaggery, a coarse brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar
etymological origin: Portuguese jágara from the Malayalam cakkarā, which is from the Sanskrit śarkarā.[5]
History
Sugar was first produced from sugar cane in the Indian
subcontinent.[6] Diverse species of sugar cane seem to have
originated from India (Saccharum barberi and S. edule) and New
Guinea (S. officinarum).[7][8] Sugarcane is described in Chinese
manuscripts dating to the 8th century BCE, which state that the use
of sugarcane originated in India.[9]

Nearchus (admiral of Alexander the Great), the Greek physician

Pedanius Dioscorides and the Roman Pliny the Elder also described
Sugar cane plantation
sugar.[10] In the mid-15th century, sugar was introduced into Madeira
and the Canary Islands, where it was mass-produced. Christopher
Columbus introduced it to the New World, leading to sugar industries in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s.[11]
The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil.

Beet sugar, the starting point for the modern sugar industry,[12] was a German invention.[13][14] Beet sugar
was first produced industrially in 1801 in Cunern, Prussia.[14]

Sugar became a household item by the 19th century, and this evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an
essential food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes.[15] Demand drove, in part, the
colonisation and industrialisation of previously under-developed lands. It was also intimately associated with
slavery.[15] World consumption increased more than 100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by the United
Kingdom, where it increased from about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th
century.

Chemistry
Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of
compounds typically with the formula (CH2O)n. Some
large classes of sugars, ranked in increasing order of
molecular weight are monosaccharides, disaccharides,
or oligosaccharides.

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars", the
most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose
have a formula that conforms to CnH2nOn with n (right)
between 3 and 7 (deoxyribose being an exception).
Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6. The names
of typical sugars end with -ose, as in "glucose" and "fructose". Such labels may also refer to any types of these
compounds. Fructose, galactose and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula
C6H12O6. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in
water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarised light to
diverge to the right or the left.[16]

Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and is the
sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a high-fructose
syrup, which is manufactured from hydrolysed corn starch that has been processed to yield corn syrup,
with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.[17]
 Galactose generally does not occur in the free state but is a constituent with glucose of the disaccharide
lactose or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It is a component of the antigens found on the surface
of red blood cells that determine blood groups.[18]
Glucose occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary product of photosynthesis. Starch is
converted into glucose during digestion, and glucose is the form of sugar that is transported around the
bodies of animals in the bloodstream. Although in principle there are two enantiomers of glucose (mirror
images one of the other), naturally occurring glucose is D-glucose. This is also called dextrose, or grape
sugar because drying grape juice produces crystals of dextrose that can be sieved from the other
components.[19]
The acyclic monosaccharides (and disaccharides) contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These
carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centres. All saccharides with more than one ring in their
structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a
molecule of water (H2O) per bond.[20]

Disaccharides
Lactose, maltose and sucrose are disaccharides, also called "compound sugars". They share the formula
C12H22O11. They are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide molecules with the expulsion of a
molecule of water.[16]

Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is formed by the combination
of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down when consumed into its
constituent parts by the enzyme lactase during digestion. Children have this enzyme, but some adults no
longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.[21]
Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable being barley, which is
converted into malt, the source of the sugar's name. A molecule of maltose is formed by the combination
of two molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose.[16] It is formed in the body
during the digestion of starch by the enzyme amylase and is itself broken down during digestion by the
enzyme maltase.[22]
Sucrose is found in the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally alongside
fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different
proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating
them.[16] A molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of
fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its constituent parts during digestion by a number of
enzymes known as sucrases.[23]

Polysaccharides
Longer than disaccharides are oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Cellulose and chitin are polymers, often
crystalline, found in diverse plants and insects, respectively. Cellulose cannot be digested directly by animals.
Starch is an amorphous polymer of glucose that is found in many plants and is widely used in the sugar
industry.

Sources
The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1.
 Table 1. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)[24]
Total
Fructose/ Sucrose
Food item carbohydrateA Total Free Free
Sucrose (Fructose+Glucose) as a % of
including sugars fructose glucose
ratioB total sugars
dietary fiber

Fruits

Apple 13.8 10.4 5.9 2.4 2.1 0.67 20

Apricot 11.1 9.2 0.9 2.4 5.9 0.42 64

Banana 22.8 12.2 4.9 5.0 2.4 0.5 20

Fig, dried 63.9 47.9 22.9 24.8 0.9 0.48 1.9

Grapes 18.1 15.5 8.1 7.2 0.2 0.53 1

Navel orange 12.5 8.5 2.25 2.0 4.3 0.51 51

Peach 9.5 8.4 1.5 2.0 4.8 0.47 57

Pear 15.5 9.8 6.2 2.8 0.8 0.67 8

Pineapple 13.1 9.9 2.1 1.7 6.0 0.52 61

Plum 11.4 9.9 3.1 5.1 1.6 0.40 16

Strawberry 7.68 4.89 2.441 1.99 0.47 0.55 10

Vegetables
Beet, red 9.6 6.8 0.1 0.1 6.5 0.50 96

Carrot 9.6 4.7 0.6 0.6 3.6 0.50 77

Corn, sweet 19.0 6.2 1.9 3.4 0.9 0.38 15

Red pepper, sweet 6.0 4.2 2.3 1.9 0.0 0.55 0

Onion, sweet 7.6 5.0 2.0 2.3 0.7 0.47 14

Sweet potato 20.1 4.2 0.7 1.0 2.5 0.47 60

Yam 27.9 0.5 tr tr tr na tr

Sugar cane 13–18 0.2–1.0 0.2–1.0 11–16 0.50 high

Sugar beet 17–18 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 16–17 0.50 high

^A The carbohydrate figure is calculated in the United States Department of Agriculture database and
does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the dietary fibre.
^B The fructose to fructose plus glucose ratio is calculated by including the fructose and glucose
coming from the sucrose.

Production
Due to rising demand, sugar production in general increased some 14% over the period 2009 to 2018.[25] The
largest importers were China, Indonesia, and the United States.[25]

Sugar
In 2022–23 world production of sugar was 186 million tonnes, and in 2023–2024 an estimated 194 million
tonnes – a surplus of 5 million tonnes, according to Ragus.[26]
Sugarcane
Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of the global crop production over the Sugarcane production – 2022
(millions of tonnes)
2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of
sugar cane (52% of the world total).[28] Global production of sugarcane in 2022 Brazil 724.4
was 1.9 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 38% of the world total and India India 439.4
23% (table).
China 103.4

Sugarcane is any of several species, or their hybrids, of giant grasses in the Thailand 92.1
genus Saccharum in the family Poaceae. They have been cultivated in tropical World 1,922.1
climates in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia over centuries for the
Source: FAO[27]
sucrose found in their stems.[6]

Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during

the growing season to make full use of the plant's substantial growth
potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped
into lengths and conveyed rapidly to the processing plant (commonly
known as a sugar mill) where it is either milled and the juice
extracted with water or extracted by diffusion.[30] The juice is
clarified with lime and heated to destroy enzymes. The resulting thin
syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further
water is removed. The resulting supersaturated solution is seeded
with sugar crystals, facilitating crystal formation and drying.[30]
World production of raw sugar, main Molasses is a by-product of the process and the fibre from the stems,
producers[29] known as bagasse,[30] is burned to provide energy for the sugar
extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown
coating and either can be used as they are, can be bleached by sulfur
dioxide, or can be treated in a carbonatation process to produce a whiter product.[30] About 2,500 litres
(660 US gal) of irrigation water is needed for every one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of sugar produced.[31]

Sugar beet
In 2022 global production of sugar beets was 260 million tonnes, led by Russia Sugar beet production – 2022
(millions of tonnes)
with 18.8% of the world total (table).
Russia 48.9
Sugar beet became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods France 31.5
for extracting the sugar became available. It is a biennial plant,[32] a cultivated
United States 29.6
variety of Beta vulgaris in the family Amaranthaceae, the tuberous root of
which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated as a root crop in Germany 28.2
temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a fertile soil. The crop is World 260
harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil
Source: FAO[27]
removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in the field for
some weeks before being transported to the processing plant where the crop is washed and sliced, and the
sugar extracted by diffusion.[33] Milk of lime is added to the raw juice with calcium carbonate. After water is
evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum, the syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The
white sugar that crystallises can be separated in a centrifuge and dried, requiring no further refining.[33]

Refining
Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a refining process to remove the molasses.[34][35]
Raw sugar is sucrose which is extracted from sugarcane or sugar beet. While raw sugar can be consumed, the
refining process removes unwanted tastes and results in refined sugar or white sugar.[36][37]
The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often takes
place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a concentrated
syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals are then
separated from the liquor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either by a carbonatation or
by a phosphatation process. Both involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this is filtered
out, many of the impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of colour is achieved by using either a
granular activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then
cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallise out. The liquor is spun off in a
centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or used. The surplus liquor is
made into refiners' molasses.[38]

The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards for the measurement of
the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in
the refined sugar.[39]

Refined sugar is widely used for industrial needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is purer (ICUMSA below
300) than raw sugar (ICUMSA over 1,500).[40] The level of purity associated with the colours of sugar,
expressed by standard number ICUMSA, the smaller ICUMSA numbers indicate the higher purity of
sugar.[40]

Forms and uses

Crystal size
Coarse-grain sugar, also known as sanding
sugar, composed of reflective crystals with
grain size of about 1 to 3 mm, similar to
kitchen salt. Used atop baked products and
candies, it will not dissolve when subjected to
heat and moisture.[41]
Granulated sugar (about 0.6 mm crystals),
also known as table sugar or regular sugar, is
used at the table, to sprinkle on foods and to
sweeten hot drinks (coffee and tea), and in
home baking to add sweetness and texture to
Misri crystals Rock candy
baked products (cookies and cakes) and
coloured with green
desserts (pudding and ice cream). It is also
dye
used as a preservative to prevent micro-
organisms from growing and perishable food
from spoiling, as in candied fruits, jams, and
marmalades.[42]
Milled sugars such as powdered sugar (icing sugar) are ground to a fine powder. They are used for
dusting foods and in baking and confectionery.[43][41]
Screened sugars such as caster sugar are crystalline products separated according to the size of the
grains. They are used for decorative table sugars, for blending in dry mixes and in baking and
confectionery.[43]

Densities
The densities of culinary sugars varies owing to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture:[44]

Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL

Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( = 620 kg/m^3)
 Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL

Shapes
Cube sugar (sometimes called sugar lumps) are white or brown
granulated sugars lightly steamed and pressed together in block
shape. They are used to sweeten drinks.[43]
Sugarloaf was the usual cone-form in which refined sugar was
produced and sold until the late 19th century.[45]

Brown sugars
Brown sugars are granulated sugars, either containing residual Sugar cubes
molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to
produce a light- or dark-coloured sugar such as muscovado and
turbinado. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and
toffees.[43] Their darkness is due to the amount of molasses they
contain. They may be classified based on their darkness or country of
origin.[41]

Liquid sugars
Glucose syrup and corn syrup are widely used in the manufacture Brown sugar examples: Muscovado (top),
of foodstuffs. They manufactured from starch by enzymatic dark brown (left), light brown (right)
hydrolysis. [46] For example, corn syrup, which is produced
commercially by breaking down maize starch, is one common
source of purified dextrose.[47] Such syrups are use in producing
beverages, hard candy, ice cream, and jams.[43]
Inverted sugar syrup, commonly known as invert syrup or invert sugar, is a
mixture of two simple sugars – glucose and fructose – that is made by
heating granulated sugar in water. It is used in breads, cakes and
beverages for adjusting sweetness, aiding moisture retention and avoiding
crystallisation of sugars.[43]
Molasses and treacle are obtained by removing sugar from sugarcane or
sugar beet juice, as a byproduct of sugar production. They may be
blended with the above-mentioned syrups to enhance sweetness and
used in a range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and
licorice.[43]
In winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation
process. If the must formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content,
additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a
process called chaptalisation. In the production of sweet wines, A jar of honey with a dipper
fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind and a biscuit
some residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.[48]

Burnt sugars and caramels

Heating sugar to near 200 °C for several minutes yields a product called burnt sugar. Often additives are used
to modify the resulting caramels, e.g. alkali or sulfites. Several volatile products evolve in the heating process
including butanone, several furans (2-Acetylfuran, furanone, hydroxymethyl furfural), and levoglucosan and
more.[49]
Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the handling of sugar powders risks dust explosion.[50]
The 2008 Georgia Imperial sugar refinery explosion, which killed 14 people and injured 36, and destroyed
most of the refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust.[51]

Other sweeteners
Low-calorie sweeteners are often made of maltodextrin with added sweeteners. Maltodextrin is an easily
digestible synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of three or more glucose molecules and is
made by the partial hydrolysis of starch.[52] Strictly, maltodextrin is not classified as sugar as it contains
more than two glucose molecules, although its structure is similar to maltose, a molecule composed of
two joined glucose molecules.
Polyols are sugar alcohols and are used in chewing gums where a sweet flavour is required that lasts for
a prolonged time in the mouth.[53]

Consumption
Worldwide sugar provides 10% of the daily calories (based on a 2000 kcal diet).[54] In 1750 the average
Briton got 72 calories a day from sugar. In 1913 this had risen to 395. In 2015, sugar still provided around 14%
of the calories in British diets.[55] According to one source, per capita consumption of sugar in 2016 was
highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands.[56]

Nutrition and flavour

Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% Sugar (sucrose), brown (with
carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no molasses)
dietary fibre, protein or fat (table).[59] Because brown sugar
contains 5–10% molasses reintroduced during processing, its Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
value to some consumers is a richer flavour than white Energy 1,576 kJ (377 kcal)
sugar.[60] Carbohydrates 97.33 g
Sugars 96.21 g
Dietary fiber 0g
Health effects Fat 0g
Protein 0g
The World Health Organization and other clinical associations
recommend that reducing the consumption of free sugar (sugar Vitamins and minerals
sources added during manufacturing) to less than 10% of total Other constituents Quantity
energy needs can help to lower disease risk.[2][3] This amount Water 1.77 g
of sugar consumption is equivalent to about 50 g (1.8 oz) or 12
teaspoons of added sugar per day.[61] As of 2025, the American Full link to USDA database entry ([Link]
Heart Association recommends that free sugar intake should be [Link]/web/20130328062217/[Link]
limited to 6% of total daily energy needs, or 36 g (1.3 oz) (9 [Link]/ndb/foods/show/6318)
teaspoons) for adult males, and 25 g (0.88 oz) (6 teaspoons) for †
Percentages estimated using
women.[62] In many countries, the source and amount of added US recommendations for adults,[57] except for
sugars can be viewed among ingredients on the labels of potassium, which is estimated based on
packaged foods.[62] Added sugars provide no nutritional expert recommendation from the National
benefit, but are a source of excess calories that can lead to Academies.[58]
overweight and increased disease risk.[2][3][61][62]

Sugar (sucrose), granulated

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,619 kJ (387 kcal)
Carbohydrates 99.98 g
Obesity and metabolic syndrome Sugars 99.91 g
Dietary fiber 0g
A 2003 technical report by the World Health Organization
Fat 0g
provided evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (including
fruit juice) increases the risk of obesity by adding to overall Protein 0g

energy intake.[63] By itself, sugar is not a factor causing obesity Vitamins and minerals
and metabolic syndrome, but rather its excessive consumption
Other constituents Quantity
adds to caloric burden, which meta-analyses showed could Water 0.03 g
increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic
syndrome in adults and children.[64][65] Full link to USDA database entry ([Link]
[Link]/food-details/746784/nutrients)

Cancer †
Percentages estimated using
US recommendations for adults,[57] except for
Sugar consumption does not directly cause cancer.[66][67][68]
Cancer Council Australia have stated that "there is no evidence potassium, which is estimated based on
expert recommendation from the National
that consuming sugar makes cancer cells grow faster or cause
Academies.[58]
cancer".[66] There is an indirect relationship between sugar
consumption and obesity-related cancers through increased
risk of excess body weight.[68][66][69]

The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund recommend that people
should limit sugar consumption.[70][71]

Cognition
Despite some studies suggesting that sugar consumption causes hyperactivity, the quality of evidence is
low[72] and it is generally accepted within the scientific community that the notion of children's "sugar rush"
is a myth.[73][74] A 2019 meta-analysis found that sugar consumption does not improve mood, but can lower
alertness and increase fatigue within an hour of consumption.[75] One review of low-quality studies of
children consuming high amounts of energy drinks showed association with higher rates of unhealthy
behaviours, including smoking and excessive alcohol use, and with hyperactivity and insomnia, although such
effects could not be specifically attributed to sugar over other components of those drinks such as caffeine.[76]

Tooth decay
The WHO, Action on Sugar and the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) state dental caries,
also known as tooth decay/cavities, "can be prevented by avoiding dietary free sugars".[3][77][78][79]

A review of human studies showed that the incidence of caries is lower when sugar intake is less than 10% of
total energy consumed.[80] Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption is associated with an increased risk of
tooth decay.[81]

Nutritional displacement
The "empty calories" argument states that a diet high in added (or 'free') sugars will reduce consumption of
foods that contain essential nutrients.[82] This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than
25% of daily energy intake,[83] a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity.[3]
Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.[83]
Recommended dietary intake
The WHO recommends that both adults and children reduce the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total
energy intake.[3] "Free sugars" include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods, and sugars found
in fruit juice and concentrates, as well as in honey and syrups.[3][62]

On 20 May 2016, the United States Food and Drug Administration announced changes to the Nutrition Facts
panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list "added
sugars" by weight and as a percentage of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to
indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be
exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to
200 calories and thus 10% of total calories – the same guidance as the WHO.[84] To put this in context, most
12-US-fluid-ounce (355 ml) cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a government
survey on food consumption in 2013–14 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and older, the average
total sugar intakes – naturally occurring in foods and added – were, respectively, 125 and 99 grams per
day.[85] The American Heart Association recommends even lower daily consumption of added sugars: 36
grams for men and 25 grams for women.[62]

Society and culture

Manufacturers of sugary products, such as soft drinks and candy, and the Sugar Research Foundation have
been accused of trying to influence consumers and medical associations in the 1960s and 1970s by creating
doubt about the potential health hazards of sucrose overconsumption, while promoting saturated fat as the
main dietary risk factor in cardiovascular diseases.[86] In 2016, the criticism led to recommendations that diet
policymakers emphasise the need for high-quality research that accounts for multiple biomarkers on
development of cardiovascular diseases.[86]

Originally, no sugar was white; the anthropologist Sidney Mintz writes that white likely became understood
as the ideal after groups who associated the colour white with purity transferred their value to sugar.[87] In
India, sugar frequently appears in religious observances. For ritual purity, such sugar cannot be white.[87]
Gallery

Brown sugar crystals Whole date sugar Whole cane sugar (grey),
vacuum-dried

Whole cane sugar (brown), Raw crystals of

vacuum-dried unrefined, unbleached
sugar

See also
Barley sugar – Boiled sweet made from barley
Blood sugar level – Concentration of glucose present in the blood (Glycaemia)
Caramelization – Process of browning of sugar
Glycemic load – Estimate of how a quantity of food will raise a blood glucose level
Glycome – Set of all sugars, free or bound, in an organism
Insulin – Peptide hormone
List of unrefined sweeteners

References
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Further reading
Barrett, Duncan, Calvi, Nuala (2012). The Sugar Girls. Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-744847-0.
Chisholm H, ed. (1911). "Sugar" ([Link]
ugar). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Frankopan, Peter, The Silk Roads: A New History of the World, 2016, Bloomsbury, ISBN 9781408839997
Saulo, Aurora A. (March 2005). "Sugars and Sweeteners in Foods" ([Link]
bs/pdf/[Link]) (PDF). College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources.
Strong, Roy (2002), Feast: A History of Grand Eating, Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0224061380

External links
Sugar ([Link] at the National
Health Service

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