Unit 6: Electronic Navigation

Chapter 1: Sonar and Net Sonde

Chapter 2: RADAR

Chapter 3: Radio Navigation - Decca, LORAN, and Omega Navigations

Chapter 4: GPS - Global Positioning System

Chapter 5: VHF - Marine Communication System

Chapter 6: Radio Direction Finder

Chapter 7: Autopilot-Automatic Steering System

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 Chapter 1: Sonar and Net sonde

Sonar
Introduction

SONAR (an acronym for Sound NAvigation and Ranging) is an acoustic equipment
that works with the principle of underwater sound propagation like echosounder. It is useful
to navigate the vessel safely and to find the fish shoal in the distance from a vessel. Principle
is similar to echo sounder. In case of echo sounder, the ultrasonic sound waves are
transmitted vertically downward, but in SONAR, the sound beam can be directed to any
angle by turning the transducer to any bearing around the vessel to 360º.
Sonar operates in much the same way as an echo sounder and has the same four main
components the transmitter, the transducer, the receiver and the recorder or display.

Fishing with SONAR

The echosounder indicates the bottom of the sea and fish under the vessel, the sonar
can search a whole area, horizontally, in all directions. Further, it can be adjusted to any angle
by tilting the transducer, or used vertically, for which purpose the transducer is moved into
the same position as that of an echosounder. The sonar has mostly been used for pelagic
fishing methods such as purse seining and mid water trawling. It is also quite useful for
assessing bottom conditions and configurations, which are of interest for bottom trawling and
other bottom fishing techniques.

NETSONDE
Net sonde is a special acoustic instrument which collects the operational information
of trawl net. It has the same working principle of echosounder, but for the position of the
transducer. The transducer of the net sonde is fixed in the head rope of the trawl net. It
monitors the operation of trawl net and its catch and transmits it for display in the wheel
house during trawling. Net sonde is also called as Trawl eye or Net sounder.
Net sonde was initially developed for mid-water trawling. Later it was found that it
can also be most useful in bottom trawling for measuring the opening height of the trawl
mouth and for ensuring continuous bottom contact. In addition to this continuous control of
gear performance the net sonde used in bottom trawling also provides a much better estimate
of catching efficiency and amount of catch by showing the fish in and above the net opening.
Net sonde equipment requires a direct connection between fishing gear and wheel house of a

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vessel which can be either by cable or by a wireless link. For observing the trawl opening and
fish entering, only one transducer is mounted on the headline of the trawl, usually sounding
straight downwards.
In the operation of aimed pelagic or mid water trawl it is essential to identify the
position of the trawl net relative to the fish shoal. Net sonde also obtain information about the
fish distribution and their reaction in front of and around the trawl, as well as providing more
complete data on the gear itself. Using the display the skipper can observe whether a fish
shoal being approached is higher or lower than the trawl opening or to the right or left, and an
adjustment of trawl depth and course may be made accordingly.

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 Chapter 2: RADAR

RADAR (Radio Detection And Ranging)

RADAR is an important navigational aid, working with radio waves. The word
RADAR was coined in 1941 and stand for an acronym of RAdio Detection And Ranging.
The radar is useful in guiding the navigator especially when sailing in coastal waters and
always when visibility is poor. Radar is used to identify any objects including ships and
buoys and to measure the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed
objects. Radar can also be used in clear visibility for navigation or collision avoidance
purposes by detecting the objects or targets above the water level. The range of visibility is
optional medium range radar could be useful up to 100 nautical miles. Sonar is known for its
usage to identify the underwater objects with sound waves, but radar is using radio waves to
find out things above the water level. It is also called as radio locator. The frequency of
electromagnetic energy used for radar is unaffected by darkness and also penetrates fog and
clouds. This permits radar systems to determine the position of airplanes, ships, or other
obstacles that are invisible to the naked eye because of distance, darkness or weather.
The waves applied in Radar are high frequency radio waves. The frequency ranges
between 100MHz with a wave length of 3meters to 60,000MHz with a wave length of 5mm.
Most radar waves are within a band of radio waves known as microwaves. Microwaves tend
to pierce the ionosphere, the electrified zone of the upper atmosphere that reflects radio
broadcasting waves. Hence conventional radar can detect only those objects that are in a
direct line of sight from the transmitting antenna.

Working Principle of RADAR

Basically radar works on the same principle as an echo sounder but use radio waves
instead of sound waves. Radar sends radio waves with the help of directional antenna to
particular direction. The radio wave travels with the speed of light that is 3x10 8 m/s, hit an
object if any, on the way of radio wave and bounce back as echo. Since the waves travel at a
constant speed (3x108 m/s), the distance of an object can be calculated by noting the time
interval between transmission of a wave and reception of an echo.

Components of RADAR
Modulator
Modulator is the heart of the system. It produces electric pulses that trigger the
transmitter to send the specified number of radio signals. Also it controls all the time related
functions in radar.

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Transmitter
The transmitter generates powerful pulses of radio frequency (RF) in the form of short
pulses with definite intervals. The radio waves are usually sent in short pulses, with each
pulse duration is fraction of a microsecond (a microsecond 1/10,00,000). Enough time
intervals will be given for the echoes to return back to the antenna. Normally, 50 pulses per
second are sent from the transmitter.

Duplexer
The duplexer is an electronic switch that alternately connects the transmitter and
receiver to the antenna, which facilitate to transmit the pulse and to receive the echo.

Antenna (Scanner)
The antenna also known as scanner takes the radio frequency energy from the
transmitter and send to air in a well defined directional beam. The antenna system also
receives any returning echoes and passes them to the receiver. The antenna is capable of
rotating 360o (always rotate in clockwise) with a speed of 15-25 rpm.

Receiver
The receiver receives the weak echo signals from antenna, amplifies and produces
them as video pulses to be applied to the indicator. The receiver is sensitive to the range of
frequencies being transmitted and provides amplification of the returned signal.

Indicator (Display unit)

The indicator or display unit produces a visual output to the observer in easily
understandable picture of the relative position of radar. The radar can also determine bearing
of an object.

The advantages of radar are:

1. It is used at night hours and low visibility time.
2. It gives the accurate picture about the objects available around the vessel.
3. It is possible to take bearing of any object around a vessel.
4. The distance between the vessel and target can be measured
5. The direction of movement of vessel can be found out

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 Chapter 3: Radio Navigation - Decca, LORAN, and Omega Navigations

Decca, Omega and Loran are called Hyperbolic Navigation Systems

Decca

Decca is a hyperbolic radio navigation system used for fixing a ship’s position with
great accuracy. The Decca system work with minimum three shore based transmitter stations
called ‘Chains’ operating within the frequency range of 70-130 KHz. Each chain comprised
of one Master station and two or three Slave stations (identified in terms of Red, Green and
Purple colours), usually located 80 to 110 Nm from the Master station. The Slaves are
positioned at the vertices of an equilateral triangle with the Master at the centre. Each station
transmitted a continuous radio wave signal, and each station signal was identified with
the phase difference from the Master and other Slaves. These phase difference formed a set of
hyperbolic lines of position called a ‘pattern’. The three Slaves were identified by different
colours namely, Red, Green and Purple. The hyperbola patterns were drawn on nautical
charts as a set of lines with the designated colour. Decca receivers fixed onboard a vessel
identified the hyperbola by phase difference and intersection of the hyperbola from different
patterns.
Decca system is used only for coastal navigation including fishing vessels. The main
application of Decca system is that fixing the position of vessels.

LORAN (Long Range Navigation)

LORAN is an acronym for Long Range Navigation. The current version of LORAN
is LORAN-C. LORAN system is a net work of land based radio transmitters (one master and
2, 3 or 4 slaves or secondary stations called a chain). The LORAN system works with low or
very low frequency bands ranging between 90 KHz - 110 KHz with the transmitting power of
400 - 1600 kilowatts. The operation range of LORAN system is more than 1000 nautical
miles (1800 km). Many nations use this system, including the United States, Japan and
several European countries. Russia uses a nearly identical system to LORAN in the same
frequency range, called CHAYKA. In India, Loran-C is functional at two places viz.
Diamond Harbour, Calcutta and Dhrangadhra, Bombay.

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Omega
Omega is a worldwide hyperbolic radio navigation system using three very low
frequencies between 10 and 14 KHz. There are eight transmitting stations spread all over the
world and they provide continuous positional information anywhere in the world. Omega
transmitters send out signals which are detected by the ship’s receiver. The receiver then
measured the required time intervals in special manner and converts the information so that it
is displayed as numbered position lines. The observer makes some corrections to these
numbers and plots them on special lattice chart which shows chosen numbered lined in a
given area.
Omega system enables the navigator to fix his positions generally within 1-2 nautical
miles in all weathers and at any time anywhere in the world. It is not intended for close
coastal and inshore navigation where greater accuracy is required.

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 Chapter 4: GPS - Global Positioning System

Global Positioning System

GPS or Global Positioning System is a method of determining the position, course
and speed from signals sent from satellites. The term GPS is generally used for both
American and Russian satellite system. The American system is called Navstar GPS, standing
for Navigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System. The Russian
system name ‘Glonass’ stands for Global Navigation Satellite System.
In the early 20th century several radio wave -based navigation systems (Loran,
Omega and Decca) and equipments were developed, which were used in the World War II.
The problem with the radio wave based navigation systems was that they were restricted to
use only in certain parts of the world. High-frequency radio waves can provide accurate
position location but can only be picked up in a small, localized area. Lower frequency radio
waves can cover a larger area, but cannot provide accurate position location.
Then it was decided to have one method to provide coverage for the entire world. A
transmitter high above the Earth sending a high-frequency radio wave can cover a large area.
This is one of the main principles behind the GPS system.

NAVSTAR GPS
The system was developed by the United States Department of Defence and it is
officially named by them. The first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched in
February 1978. By 1985, the experimental Block-I satellite number reached to 10 to validate
the concept. Then during 1989 to 1993 the 13 numbers of modern Block- II satellites were
launched to reach the total number to 23. By January 17, 1994 a complete constellation of 24
satellites was in orbit. The satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force
50th Space Wing. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US750 million dollar
per year, including the replacement of aging satellite, as well as research and development.
The service is available to public free of cost.

Working Principles

GPS Satellites in orbits

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 A GPS receiver after receiving the signals calculates its position by measuring
distance between itself and three or more GPS satellites. Measuring the time delay between
transmission and reception of each GPS radio signal gives the distance to each satellite; since
the signals travels at speed of light i,e. 3×10 8 m/s. The signals also carry information about
the location of the satellites. By determining the position and distance of at least three
satellites, the receiver can compute its own position.
The NAVSTAR GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment
(SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US).

Space segment
The space segment (SS) is composed of 24 orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles
(SV). These satellites are distributed equally among six circular orbital planes. The orbital
planes centred on the earth. Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometres, each
SV makes one complete rotation in a period of 12 hours. The orbits are arranged in such a
way that, at least six satellites are always visible from almost anywhere on earth.

Control segment
The orbits of satellites are monitored by US Air Force monitoring stations in Hawaii,
Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia and Colorado Springs, Colorado, along with
monitor stations operated by National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). The tracking
information is sent to the Air Force Space Command’s master control station at Colorado
Springs, Colorado, which is operated by the United States Air Force (USAF). USAF contacts
each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update using the ground antennas at different
stations.

User segment
The GPS receiver of the user is the user segment (US) of the GPS system. In general,
GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tunes to the frequencies transmitted by the
satellites, receiver-processors and a highly stable clock. They may also include a display for
providing location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its
number of channels: this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously.

Application of GPS
By using the GPS, one can identify his geographic position (longitude and latitude),
altitude, velocity and direction of travel. GPS has various applications on land, at sea and in
the air.
GPS are used in the following fields
 Air craft navigation
 Marine navigation and fishing
 Car navigation
 Surveying
 Recreation
 Tracking
 Emergency response e.g. ambulance and fire
 Mapping
 Military
 Town planning and Land management

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Use of GPS in marine navigation and fishing
Fishing vessels require electronic equipments for safe navigation especially to know
their position at sea and to go through planned routes and also to locate Potential Fishing
Zone (PFZ).The details of places where the fishes are expected to aggregate more (PFZ)
could be obtained from remote sensing agencies. In India, Remote sensing agency stationed
at Hyderabad gives information about PFZ (Potential Fishing Zone) for the benefit of
fishermen. Fishermen require GPS to indentify the PFZ. GPS is recently developed
equipment which is easy to operate, very convenient, very accurate and reliable. The unit is
very simple; no license is required to operate. The system available as a small unit can be
installed even in small fishing vessels conveniently to indicate the latitude and longitude. The
fishermen operating country crafts such as catamarans can have the handheld model of GPS.
Modern GPS are now available with a several new facilities – the operating can
decide the destination point of points and the instrument will give directions for shortest route
to those points as well as returning back. This ensures safe voyage without wandering in the
sea. The instrument gives alarm when the vessel deviates away from the desired route. It also
gives the speed of the vessel and also total distance travelled at different times.
In addition to the position and velocity of fishing vessels, a modern GPS will be giving
the following information
 A course to steer to the waypoint (continually updated).
 The distance to the waypoint (continually updated).
 Speed (continually updated).
 The time it will take to get to the waypoint at your current speed (continually
updated).
 Turn, Steer or Off-Course Error - the GPS should tell you when you are off course
and what direction to turn to get back on course.

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 Chapter 5: VHF - Marine Communication System

VHF - Marine Communication System

Marine radio systems are similar to having a conversation on the telephone, but with
significant differences that the marine radio conversations could be listen by many people.
An electronic device that performs in receiving radio signals called a radio receiver or a
radio. There are several types of marine radios with different frequencies MF, HF and VHF,
and, are identified by the mode of transmission.
Very High Frequency (VHF) is transmitted within the frequency range 156-174 MHz,
used for local, short-range marine communications. Clarity in the communication and
effective range depends mainly on the height of antennas of both the receiving and
transmitting stations and power output of the transmitting station. VHF equipment is called
“line-of-sight radio” because its radio waves travel in nearly a straight line, meaning, if one
antenna can “see” another antenna, communications between the two is possible.
Very High Frequency (VHF) marine radio is essential communication equipment for
fishing vessels operating in coastal waters. It allows instant communication between boats of
in that area and port stations. The VHF is the most valuable equipment for safety
communication and any call for assistance of nearby vessels and coast stations. VHF is not a
telephone and radio conversations are not private. When you talk on the VHF, everyone
within range tuned to that channel is listening. The users of VHF should not use the
equipment for private talk sand to chat. VHF has the advantage that equipment is relatively
simple, and can therefore be compact and low cost.
VHF sets occupying the 156-174MKz band and generally considered the most suitable
for short range (25-40 miles) marine communication. In the VHF system, different channels
are set aside for ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore, safety, distress and calling and other specialized
uses

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Identification of Radio Telephony Stations:

Radio telephony communication mainly between ship to shore or shore to ship or ship
to ship. There are 13 shore stations called coast stations are operated by the Department of
Telecommunication, Government of India, along the Indian coast. Bombay and Madras are
the two major coast stations operating in the MF, HF and VHF bands. Other 11 stations
namely Kandla, Okha, Porbandar, Ratnagiri, Goa, Manglore, Cochin, Tuticorin, Port Blair,
Visakhapatnam and Calcutta operate in the MF band. Of these Calcutta, Visakhapatnam, Port
Blair and Cochin operate also in the VHF band.

Advantages of Marine VHF Radio

• Easy to use
• Good clear reception
• Reasonable range of coverage for small fishing vessels
• Low power requirements make battery operation possible
• VHF facilitates reasonable antenna sizes
• Portable and hand held sets are available
• The relatively low cost of appliances has lead to their great popularity

Emergency Voice calls through marine radio communication

When an emergency occurs at sea, the degree of urgency could be expressed by using
proper pro-words on marine radio communication. The following are the important pro-
words commonly used on marine radio communication,
 MAYDAY is used to express distress of the highest priority. It should be used only
when a boat is threatened by grave or imminent danger and requires immediate
assistance. Broadcast the distress on 156.8 MHz or Channel 16. A MAYDAY call
has absolute priority over all other transmissions and the message will be heard by all
the listeners of channel 16. All boat operators hearing a MAYDAY call should
immediately pay attention.
 PAN-PAN (pahn-pahn ) is the spoken word for communicating a very urgent
message to transmit concerning the safety of a ship, aircraft, vehicle, or person.
 SECURITY (SEE-CURE-IT-TAY) is a safety related spoken word to indicate a
message concerning the safety of navigation, or important weather warnings.
General Rules for using VHF
 English is the international language of marine communication
 Conversation must be as short as possible with decent language
 As many conversations are safety related, there is a need to have un-ambiguous and
precise dialogue

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 Transmit the emergency calls only with the approval of the authority of the vessel
only in an emergency situation.
 Operate the radio telephone with the qualified person.
 Use frequencies or channels allotted for you
 Limit the conversations to only to the required duration,
 Remember that everything you say can be heard by anyone who has a VHF radio. ·
While the radio is turned on, watch the Distress Channel 16 (156.8 MHz).
 Use phonetics to spell out difficult words or abbreviations.
 Do not interrupt or interfere with transmissions already in progress wait for an
appropriate break before starting your call.
 Know the correct procedures for making and dealing with distress messages and
traffic and train others on board how to receive and make calls.

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 Chapter 6: Radio Direction Finder

Radio Direction Finder (RDF)

A radio beacon is a wireless lighthouse, transmits radio signals at particular frequency
from a place that is visible from navigational point of view. The transmitted radio signal is
used for ships in taking radio bearings. There are many types of radio beacons used for sea
and air traffic and position fixing purposes.

Working of Radio Direction Finder

Radio Direction Finder (RDF) often referred as ‘Radio Compass’, is an important

electronic radiolocation instrument for navigation of both aircraft and ships. It used for
finding the direction of a radio signal transmitting source. It is one of the long range and
reliable radio navigation system. RDF was introduced in 1930s and extensively used in air
traffic. The RDF is still used in air and marine crafts, because of its simplicity. Fixing the
vessel’s position by radio bearing is very simple when compare to visual bearings.
The RDF is basically a radio receiver fixed onboard a vessel or aircraft, which has
display unit and directional aerial (antenna) system. The directional antenna determines the
direction of the incoming radio signal in relation to the ship’s head. The radio signal in a
particular frequency will be transmitted from a transmitter kept in coast station, radio beacon,
light house beacon in the vicinity whose position is known. Establishment of radio bearing is
possible from a vessel to a transmitting station. The established line of position is plotted on
the appropriate chart. Similarly, a second line of bearing can be established from another
radio transmitting station of known frequency .These two bearings are plotted to obtain
vessel’s position at particular time. It is also possible to take third line of bearing from yet
another transmitting station to make the fix the vessel’s position very accurately.

Merits of Radio Direction Finder

The following are the merits of Radio Direction Finder over other radiolocation
systems
1) It is simple to use.
2) It can be used in any part of the world.
3) Bearing of any radio transmitter can be independently taken on board ship or aircraft.
4) Signal reception from the desired transmitter is possible by turning the loop antenna.
5) If there is no radio beacon in the vicinity of vessel, navigator will request the nearest
port to transmit radio signals. Any one of the coast station or pilot vessels to transmit
signals and thus act as radio beacons.
6) Signals from transmitting stations are usually very strong, so that a good bearing and
position line can be obtained

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 Chapter 7: Autopilot-Automatic Steering System

Automatic Steering System or Auto-Pilot

The automatic steering device or the autopilot is an instrument controlling the steering
system that automatically maintains the ship on a predetermined course. The autopilot must
fulfil all the functions of the steering system under different conditions of steering in any type
of ship. The use of thus instrument leads to a reduction in the running costs of a ship. This is
used for steering the vessel without constant handling of steering wheel manually.

The basic functions of autopilot are

The desired course is set into the autopilot by the user and this course is compared in
the autopilot with this actual course achieved. The difference between the two, this course
error, is their acted on by the autopilot and an output signal is sent to this rudder control
mechanism. This demanded rudder command corresponds to the helm or wheel order with
the rudder control system in hand control.
The degree of success with which the autopilot will be able to control the ship is
course depends on a number of factors.
They are
1. The speed of the ship
2. The Environmental condition
3. The condition of the autopilot

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