Unit 3: Sounding and speed measuring

Chapter 1: Lead line and Echosounder

Chapter 2: Speed logs

1
 Chapter 1: Lead line and Echosounder

Introduction
Depth measurement could be done by two ways one is mechanical another one is
electronic. In the ancient days mechanical device- lead line was used to measure the depth.
The lead line is also called as hand lead line, is the oldest and most reliable depth-finding
device for shallow waters. Lead line is for taking soundings (which means measuring the
depth of water) up to 20 fathoms (120 feet). But the deep sea lead line is used to measure
depth up to 100 fathoms or more. The principle of lead line is very simple. A weight
(generally lead) is lowered to the sea bed by a graduated line. The length of rope immersed
gives the depth measurement of water.

The common electronic instrument used for measuring the depth is echo sounder; of
course this was introduced only after the Second World War.

Construction of lead line

Hand lead line
The hand lead line consists of a tapered bar of lead weighing from 7 to 20 pounds,
which is attached to a graduated rope. The long rope is marked with strips of cloth and leather
to indicate the various depths, and the rope is wound on small wooden reel. The cavity
available in the bottom of the tapered bar of lead is filled with a hard waxy substance, so that
when the lead touches the sea-bed, some of the soil gets stick in the waxy material in the
cavity. This will be useful to identify the nature of the sea-bottom.
The cable-laid hemp rope or nylon rope is used with the length of 25 fathoms (150
feet) and 10 mm in diameter. One end of the rope is attached with lead weight by means of
eye splice. Before marking a new lead line, it should be stretched, and thereafter mark the
line before it get dried. Mark the line every fathom, (1.83 metres) with any marking colour
and number them 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. Now place the end of the eye splice on the first marking
(zero) and mark the lead-line at 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 13, 15, 17, and 20. Fathoms which correspond
with the depths marked are called marks. There are no markings at 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14,
16, 18 and 19 fathoms. These are called “Deeps”. There are altogether nine marks and eleven
deeps. Different types of materials are used for marking, such as leather, linen, bunting, serge
and cord, so that a navigator can identify the markings even if there is no light, by touch and
feel the material with hand or lips.

2
Deep sea lead line
The deep sea lead line is constructed as in the case of hand lead line. The lead
attached with deep sea lead line is weighing from 30 to 50 pounds and the line being 100
fathoms or more in length. After the introduction of the echo sounder the use of deep sea lead
line is almost nil.
Marking on deep sea lead line

Depth Markings
2 fathoms (3.66 m) 2 strips of leather
3 fathoms (5.49 m) 3 strips of leather
5 fathoms (9.14 m) white rag (white bunting)
7 fathoms (12.80m) red rag (red bunting)
10 fathoms (18.29m) Leather strip with a hole
13 fathoms Blue serge/ same as 3 fathoms
15 fathoms White calico/same as 5 fathoms
17 fathoms (31.09) Red bunting /same as 7 fathoms
20 fathoms (36.58) A rope cord with 2 knots
25 fathoms (45.72) A rope cord with 1 knots
30 fathoms (54.86) A rope cord with 3 knots
35 fathoms (64.01) A rope cord with 1 knots
40 fathoms (73.15) A rope cord with 4 knots

3
Operation of Lead line
 The leadsman takes his place at the bow of a boat.
 Secure himself with “breast band” (a wide strip of canvas used like a seat belt) to
avoid from falling overboard.
 The leadsman lean forward and swing his lead. Coil the spare line in your other hand,
free for running
 Then swing the lead in a complete circle and throw it as far forward as possible. As
the ship moves ahead, heave in the spare line rapidly. (This will facilitate the lead to
resting on the bottom and the line tight, when the vessel is directly over the lead.)
 The leadsman can feel that line has reached the bottom by the sudden slack felt in the
line.
 Pick up the slack quickly and as the ship moves ahead, the lead will come directly
under you.
 See how much of the line is immersed and call out the sounding.
 Recoil quickly in your left hand in anticlockwise direction.
 Wax filled hollow at the base of the lead will bring particles of bottom materials
(mud, sand, or shingle) to know about the nature of the bottom of the sea.

Introduction to Echo-Sounder

The echosounder was used for measuring the depth of water and to find the fish
beneath the vessel. When the echosounder used in fishing vessels then it is called as fish
finder (also called a depth finder / sounder / Depth recorder). In fisheries the term
echosounding (vertical sounding) is usually restricted to sound transmitted from a vessel and
returned to it along a line straight down to the sea bed (or bottom). The equipment employing
this technique is called an ECHOSOUNDER.

Basic Principles of ecosounder

4
 Sound waves are directed in the same way as light waves in a searchlight, towards the
bottom of the sea floor. A pulse of sound sent from the ship is get reflected as echo after
hitting the sea bottom. The time interval between transmission of sound wave and the
reception of bounced echo is being proportional to the depth of the water. Water depth is
determined from the travel time and the speed of sound in water. Water depth can be
estimated simply by using an average sound speed and the following relationship:
Distance between vessel and sea bottom = speed of the sound wave in water
multiplied by travel time of sound wave send from vessel and reception of echo by vessel
divided by two. The value is divided by 2 as the sound wave travels two ways from vessel to
sea bed and seabed to vessel.

Sound in Water
Sound waves can travel through a material medium such as a gas, a liquid or a solid,
with particular speed, but not a vacuum. The frequency thus gives the number of waves or
periods per second. A period is also called a cycle and frequency is sometimes expressed as
cycles per second (c/s). One thousand cycles per second is one kilocycle per second (1 kc/s).
The unit ‘cycle per second’ is now internationally called Hertz (1 kc/s = 1 kHz) after a
famous physicist of the late 19th century. The human ear can detect sounds of frequencies
from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz (20 Hz to 20,000 Hz). Those above the normal range of the
human ear are termed ultrasonic or supersonic frequencies.
Sound velocity is the distance the sound waves travel per second, which thus
corresponds to the frequency multiplied by the wavelength. The sound velocity depends on
certain physical properties of the material through which the sound travels namely elasticity
and density. In air, the sound velocity is approximately 322 m per second (m/s) at 0°C, and it
increases slightly with higher temperature. In water, sound velocity is about 1,500 m/s at
15°C ( roughly 1.5 km/sec (just under 1 mile/sec) or about 4 times faster that sound travel
through air) and here also the velocity increases at higher temperatures as well as with
increasing salinity. The wavelength of the sound waves can be calculated in a very simple
way when we know the sound velocity of the medium and the frequency of the sound.

5
 Sound is partly reflected when it passes from one medium to another having different
density and elasticity. The amount of reflection depends on the difference between then
properties of the materials. Air and water are materials of greatly different density and
elasticity and their interface or the layer at which they meet is almost a complete barrier
sound. Air bubbles / rocks give strong echoes. Soft, muddy bottoms give weaker echoes. Fish
with a swim bladder / air bladder give better echoes than fish without, because the difference
in density between the water and the gas in the swim bladder is greater than that between
water and fish flesh. Regular changes in depth, salinity and temperature affect the
propagation of sound.
Echo-sounders transmit a pulse of acoustic energy down towards the seabed and
measure the total time taken for it to travel through the water, i.e. the outwards and return
journey. If the measured time is one second and it is known that the speed of acoustic waves
is 1500 m/s, the depth is obviously (1500 x 1)/2 metres = 750 m. Similarly, the two way
travel time of sound wave is 5 seconds, then the depth is 1500 x 5/2 =7500/2=3750 m.
The echo sounder was originally designed to measure depth of water and then used to
find the fishes beneath the vessel. By using the same principle as the echosounder,
equipments such as SONAR and net sonde were developed.

Basic Components of Echosounder

An echosounder consists of 4 basic components.

1. The Transmitter
2. The Transducer
3. The Receiver
4. The Recorder

6
Block Diagram of Ecosounder

Transmitter
First component of echosounder is transmitter. The function of the transmitter is to
produce energy in the form of pulses of electrical oscillations. The pulses of electrical
energy are generated at a specified frequency. In echosounder, the sound wave is not sent out
continuously but in short bursts (pulses) with longer quiet periods in between. The duration
of the short burst is called the pulse length. The duration of the sound pulse is one thousandth
of a second (i.e. one millisecond). Pulses of electrical energy will be generated by oscillator
of the transmitter. Pulse gate will determine the duration of the pulse. Pulses will be
amplified several thousand times by power amplifier. The power of the pulse produced by the
transmitter is an important feature of any echosounder and it may vary from a few watts (w)
up to several kilowatts (kw).

Transducer

Transducer is very important part of the echosounder, which is fixed in the hull
region, below the waterline of the vessel. The main function of the transducer is to convert
electrical energy into sound energy when sound is to be sent and conversely, to convert the
sound energy into electrical energy when echoes are received.
The transducer is also responsible for concentrating the sound pulse in a directional
beam, similar to the beam of light produced by search light. The width of the sound beam is
inversely proportional to the frequency of the sound. The transmitted pulse of sound
propagates through the water away from transducer. The sound pulse travelling through water
may face various targets such as fish, seaweed, sea bed etc. These targets reflect or scatter the
sound pulse, and some energy returns towards the transducer. This bounced sound (the echo)
is detected by the transducer and converted to electrical energy as the received signal. The

7
time at which the echo is received is calculated by the echosounder and the distance of the
target from the transducer is calculated.
There are two main types of transducers for sounding equipment used in fisheries
- Nickel transducers and ceramic transducers. Their function is based upon the principles of
magneto-striction and electro-striction respectively. The quality of transducers may vary
considerably and is measured by their efficiency to transform electrical energy into sound
waves and vice versa.

Receivers
The function of the receiver is to amplify the weak electrical oscillations produced in
the transducer by the echo so that they can be recorded or displayed. The weak electrical
signals produced in the transducer when echoes are received must be amplified several
thousand times before being passed on to the recorder. This amplification takes place in the
receiver and the amount of amplification can be decided by the sensitivity control.

Recorders
The recorders are responsible for displaying and recording of the echos in different
forms like paper recorder, a flash-light display, an audible signal or an oscilloscope (Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT)). Modern echosounders often use a colour monitors to show the echoes. In
recent years , most advanced, light weight displays such as LCD and LED are used in
echosounders, with that the crystal clear visibility of the display is possible even under the
direct sunlight.

Installation of Ecosounders

Positioning and installation of the transducer are often decisive in ensuring proper
performance. Normally the transducer should be placed between one third and one half of the
vessel length from the bow and approx. one metre away from the keel. In vessels smaller than
30m the transducer may be closer to the keel. Noise may considerably reduce the efficiency
of echo sounding and it is therefore of the greatest importance to avoid or reduce noise as far
as possible.
The surface of the transducer should always be tilted 3 o forward in order to prevent
turbulence on the transducer itself while underway.

8
Maintenance of tranducer of echosounder
 Transmitter and receiver do not require routine maintenance
 Transducer should be inspected and its surface to be cleaned whenever possible
 Transducer face must be kept free from growth of seaweed or fouler in order to
function properly.
 Scratching of surface with hard sharp instrument will damage the soft parts, so use
only wood pieces for cleaning the surface of transducer.
 Do not paint the transducers face

9
 Chapter 2: Speed logs

Introduction
Speed logs are basic requirement for successful navigation. The navigator must know
his vessel speed, which is useful in calculating right time of arrival to the destination and
distance travelled by the vessel. The speed is also required to calculate his approximate
position at sea. The speed log is a device used to measure the speed of a moving vessel.
Generally the unit used for expressing the speed of a vessel is knots (Nautical miles/hour).
Logs are used on vessels to record the speed and also the number of nautical miles the vessel
has travelled through the water in a given time.

Speed log are generally classified in to two types

i) Conventional logs
ii) Modern logs

CONVENTIONAL LOG
Chip log or Ship log
The ship log was made with a quadrant (quarter circle) shaped wooden board attached
to a log line. Log line was knotted at regular intervals and attached to the board with a bridle
of three lines connected to the holes made at uniform spacing on the board. Just to ensure that
the wooden log properly floats in water, the lower side of the board was made of lead or
piece of lead at the centre of the circular side. The log line was wound on a free turning reel.

Operation of Chip log or Ship log

When the sailor wanted to determine speed, the log chip was thrown overboard where it
floated vertically due to its ballasting. A considerable length of log line was let out to get the log chip
into undisturbed water astern, where its resistance to forward motion keeps it essentially stationary in
water (the wooded plank stay at the same place in water). As the ship moved forward, the line was
pulled off the reel. This was usually a 30 second timer and gave far more accurate results. Markings
were made on the log line which represented the distance travelled by the ship. A sand glass was also
used to measure the time taken by the ship to move away from the chip log. According to the length
of the log line released over the stern and the markings on the line, the speed of the ship was
calculated.

10
MODERN LOGS
RPM Counter

The engine revolution counters provide a convenient means of determining speed and
distance. They automatically count the revolutions of the propellers, and show the total count
continuously on their dials. By means of a master counter, average revolutions made by the
propellers can be obtained.

Pitometer log or Pressure log or Pilot tube

The pitometer log is similar to that of a pilot tube of an aircraft. A long tube called
Rodmeter, is the main part of this log that protrudes from the hull of the ship. Rodmeter has
two faces, one facing the direction of the sea water flow and the other is perpendicular to the
flow. The face of the opening in the direction of sea water flow measures the dynamic
seawater pressure where as the perpendicular face measures the static seawater pressure. A
difference of both these pressures is used to measure the ship’s speed.
For measuring the speed of the ship, both the static and dynamic pressures are added
and the velocity of water is found out. However, the result is not accurate when the ship is

11
moving with slow speed, as the difference in pressure is meagre. The speed is measured by
the variation of the pressure in the tube. This is not a very sensitive device.

Parts of Pressure Log

A typical pressure log consist of the following components,
1. Two openings outside the hull of the ship, static tube that provides static pressure and
impact or Pilot tube that measures dynamic pressure or the water flow of pressure
(Rodmeter)
2. Controller unit (pressure differentiator)
3. Speed and distance transmitter
4. Speed and distance recorder

Operations
The opening of the Pilot tube faces forward so that when the vessel moves forward,
the water causes a pressure at the tube this dynamic pressure is proportional to the speed at
which the vessel moves. The pressure differentiator measures the differential pressure. The
Controller unit converts the pressure difference into speed and distance units. This type of log
can give only speed through water and is greatly affected by the movement of the water
which would induce an extra pressure giving rise to error in readings.

Impeller log

An impeller or small propeller that projects outside the vessel’s hull below the bottom
of the boat. The movement of the vessel’s hull through the water causes the impeller to rotate.
The rotation of impeller produces the electric impulse that is proportional to the counts or
revolutions of impeller and that is translated into distance and speed. However, the projection
below the boat is liable to be damaged by gear and debris floating in water.
The impeller is driven by the water as the ship moves through it. The Electric impulse
output of the generator is amplified and passed to an indicator for display in to speed and
distance. The speed and distance readings are repeated at remote indicators by means of an

12
electrical synchro-transmission. The problem with this log is that the projection below the
boat is liable to be damaged by fishing gear and debris floating in water.
The Impeller Log is fitted in small sized vessels including fishing vessels. A typical
impeller log contains the following components

1. The log tube sensor assembly

2. The amplifier
3. Speed indicator and distance counter

The sensing device is a long-tube consisting of a small rotating device called impeller
which is projecting into the water. The tube has the opening facing forward. On the
movement of vessel, the water flow drives the impeller and the rotation induces an electrical
signal. The output is fed to the amplifier and is used to operate the speed and distance
indicator.
When the speed measurement is required, the log tube is lowered into the water, and
when not in use, is retracted inside the hull. Retraction of the log can be done manually or by
a remotely operated arrangement operated from the wheel house. The log-tube may be
blocked with foreign bodies such as small fish, seaweed, debris etc. This log requires
periodical cleaning.

Induction log or Electromagnetic Speed log or Em log

The electromagnetic speed log also called as induction log or EM log measures the
electromagnetic induction generated in sea water by its movement relative to magnetic field
by the electrodes fitted in the hull of a vessel. The sea water acts as the conductor and
generates an emf.. Electromagnetic Speed Log is highly accurate in indication of speed
though the water even at low speeds. Two electrodes are mounted athwart ships and the emf
(50-400 micro volts) induced in them is proportional to the speed of the vessel. This method
of measuring a ship’s speed has been found to be accurate, economic and simple.

Principle
The flow of conducting seawater past a sensor causes electromagnetic induction in the
sensor which can be measured and which is proportional to the speed of the flow of the water.
A typical EM log consists the following parts
1. Master Indicator
2. Preamplifier
3. Sensor
Operation of Electromagnetic Log
EM log consists of two electrodes placed beneath the hull. Magnetic field is produced
by an electromagnet. In the electromagnetic log, the potential difference generated in water

13
by its movement relative to the magnetic field is sensed by the electrodes. The current
induced in these electrodes by the water flowing past is a function of speed. The
measurement of speed of a ship by this log has been found to be accurately economic and
simple.
As the vessel moves, the sea water (conductor) relatively moving through the
magnetic field induces a small electromagnetic field into it. This emf is detected and
measured by two sensors on the hull region. The speed indicator signal is supplied to special
generator which produces a number of pulses per minute which is proportional to the speed
(say 200 pulses per nautical mile). This generator is connected to a distance run recorder
which counts off the pulses and hence the number of miles travelled .Accuracy of indicated
distance is about 1-2% of the distance travelled.

Advantages
i) The sensor device doesn’t project beyond the bottom of the ship.
ii) EM log operates with greater accuracy and can measure smaller ship speeds.
iii) Receiving device does not require regular maintenance.
iv) Small in size.

Disadvantage
i) It cannot be used in freshwater.

Doppler log
Doppler Log works with the principle of Doppler Effect. When a sound beam is
transmitted from a moving vessel, difference (shift) in the frequencies is observed between
transmitted sound and its reflected echo from a target. This frequency shift is known as the
“Doppler Shift”. The degree of shift in the frequency is proportional to the speed of the
vessel. The advantage of Doppler log is that it can indicate speed relative to seabed rather
than speed through the water. Doppler shift of frequency of sound wave is due to movement
of the transmitter (ship) is used to measure the speed of the ship. In the case of echo sounder
sound beams are sent vertically downwards, but in the Doppler log the transducers are angled
horizontally about 60o to the keel. The propagation time of the pulse and its echo plays no
role.
Depending on the size of the vessel up to four transducers are fitted. The frequencies
usually vary between 100 kHz and 1 MHz. Accuracy is affected by temperature and salinity
of the water (which alter the speed of propagation) and Doppler logs may have sensors to
monitor and correct for variations in these parameters.

Block Diagram of Doppler Log

14
Working Principle
A transmitting transducer below the ship continuously emits a beam of sound
vibrations in the water at an angle (usually 60˚ to the keel) in the forward direction. A second
transducer aboard receives the echo caused by diffuse reflection from the seabed. A Doppler
log uses a higher frequency than an echo sounder.

15