How Genes Are
Controlled
Chapter 11
11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic
genes on or off in response to environmental change
● Gene regulation - the turning on and off of genes
● Gene expression - the overall process by which genetic information flows
from genes to proteins
○ Central dogma of molecular biology
Operons
● Cluster of genes with related functions + control sequences
● Exist in prokaryotes
The lac Operon
1. 3 adjacent lactose-utilization genes
2. A promoter sequence, where RNA polymerase binds
3. An operator sequence, where a repressor can bind and block the binding of
RNA polymerase
Regulatory gene
● Located outside the operon
● Continually codes for a repressor protein
The lac Operon - when lactose is NOT present
The lac Operon - when lactose is present
Inducible vs. Repressible Operons
Activators
● Proteins that turn operons on by:
○ Binding to DNA
○ Stimulating gene transcription
11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical
modifications can affect gene expression
● Differentiation
○ Involves cell specialization
○ Controlled by turning specific sets of genes on or off
● Almost all of the cells in an organism contain an identical genome
○ Differences between cell types due to selective gene expression
DNA Packing
● Multiple levels of folding and coiling
● Tends to prevent gene expression by preventing RNA polymerase from
binding
Epigenetic Inheritance
● Inheritance mechanisms not directly related to nucleotide sequence
● Chemical modifications
○ Methylation - more tightly packed
○ Acetylation - less tightly packed
X Chromosome Inactivation
● In female mammals, one X chromosome is highly compacted
○ Early in embryonic development
○ Barr body
[Link]
room-resources/x-inactivation
11.3 Complex assemblies of proteins control
eukaryotic transcription
● Initiation of gene expression most important in
regulating gene expression
● Eukaryotes use regulatory proteins - activators
and repressors - that promote or block the
binding of RNA polymerase
● Default mode for most genes is typically “off”
○ Must be turned “on”
● RNA polymerase requires transcription factors
11.4 Alternative RNA splicing
● Produces different mRNAs from same transcript
● More than one polypeptide from the same gene
11.6 Later stages of gene expression are also
subject to regulation
● Gene expression can be regulated by
○ Breakdown of mRNA
○ Initiation of translation
○ Protein activation
○ Protein breakdown
11.7
Multiple mechanisms
regulate gene expression in
eukaryotes
Gene expression can be:
● Turned on or off
● Sped up
● Slowed down
11.10 Signal Transduction
Pathways
● Series of molecular changes that convert a
signal on the target cell’s surface to a
specific response within the cell
11.15 Cancer results from mutations in genes that
control division
● Control systems have malfunctioned
● Often due to changes in gene expression
● Mutations in 2 types of genes
○ Proto-oncogenes mutate to oncogenes
○ Tumor-suppressor genes inactivated by mutations
11.16 Multiple genetic changes underlie the
development of cancer
Colon cancer
● Oncogene results in increased cell
division in colon lining
● Additional mutations cause the
growth of a small tumor (polyp) in
colon wall
● Additional mutations lead to a
malignant tumor with the potential
to metastasize
11.17 Faulty proteins can
interfere with normal signal
transduction pathways
● Proto-oncogenes and tumor
suppressor genes often code for
proteins involved in signal transduction
pathways → gene expression
● 2 main types of signal transduction
pathways lead to the synthesis of
proteins that influence cell division
11.18 Lifestyle choices can reduce cancer risk