The Principles of Training & Overload
● The key principles of training are the different factors that are important to consider
when putting together a training programme
● When planning training as a professional athlete, coach, or trainer in the lead-up to a big
competition or event the training must follow the principles of SPORT:
SPORT training table
Feature of Description of feature
training
Specificity The training needs to be specific for the requirements of the athlete and
their sport, for example, gymnasts must focus on strength and flexibility in
their training but do not need to train for endurance
Progressive This describes how athletes must overload themselves by pushing
Overload themselves harder than their 'comfortable' level, however, they must do this
progressively over time, gradually pushing themselves harder and harder
at a manageable rate
Reversibility Changes to the body and fitness level are reversed if training ceases or
is significantly reduced. This can relate to muscle strength or cardiovascular
fitness
Tedium The training programme should not be boring. The activities should be
varied and engaging for the participant
●
Overload is the process of a person pushing themselves out of their 'comfort zone'
during training to try and improve their strength, fitness or endurance
○ E.g. a runner that regularly runs a 5km distance comfortably might choose to
overload and push themselves to increase their speed or distance to become a
better runner
● The four basic principles of overload follow the FITT guidelines:
FITT guidelines table
Principle of overload Description
training
Frequency How often the training takes place
Intensity How intense the training is in terms of how hard the athlete pushes
themselves e.g. speed, strength, endurance
Time How long the training session is
Type Type of training the person participates in e.g. circuit training,
continuous training
Application of the Principles of Training
● The principles of training could be applied to the example of long-distance running
● The table below shows a section of a typical 12-week schedule for someone training to
run a half marathon:
Half marathon training plan table
Wee Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursda Friday Saturda Sunda
k y y y
5 4 mile Strength training Hill sprints x Rest Yoga 7 mile Rest
run 5 reps run
6 3.5 mile Strength training Fartlek Rest Strength 8 mile Rest
run training x 30 training run
minutes
7 4 mile Cross training Fartlek Rest Yoga 9 mile Rest
run e.g. cycling, training x 60 run
swimming or minutes
cardio class
8 Strength 5 mile run Hill sprints x Rest Yoga 11 mile Rest
training 6 reps run
●
This training is specific because it focuses on strength and endurance for long-distance
running, as well as building cardiovascular fitness
● It includes progressive overload because the distance of the training-runs gradually
increases throughout the weeks
● The different principles of overload must be considered when planning a training
schedule to find the perfect balance for optimum improvement:
○ Too much overload too quickly can result in burnout or injury
○ Too little overload limits improvement
● It also has reversibility because stopping or slowing down the training would reverse
the progress of the training causing muscles and cardiovascular fitness to weaken
● It avoids tedium by being varied, for example adding in extra activities like strength
training, yoga and interval training between long, tedious and challenging runs
Types of Training
● There are lots of different training methods; each has its role to play for the performer
and the sport being trained for
Types of training table
Training type Description Considerations
Circuit training ● ●
Usually involves various Space and equipment
exercises that are available
repeated at different ● Number of circuit stations
stations in a circuit ● Work : rest ratio
● Content of the exercises ● Number of repetitions
can be altered to suit
training for different sports
and fitness levels
Continuous training ● ●
Sustained exercise at a Time to train: Involves
constant rate (steady aerobic demand for a
state) without rests minimum of 20 minutes for a
● Involves using heart rate set number of times a week
as a guide to the intensity
of the exercise
● E.g. running, swimming,
rowing, cycling
Fartlek training ● ●
Uses varying speeds and Work : recovery ratios
terrain (hills, flat, trails)
● Usually involves running
at different speeds - walk,
jog, sprint
Interval training / ● ●
high-intensity Periods of exercising at Work : rest ratios
interval training high intensity,
(HIIT) interspersed with periods
of rest or low intensity
exercise
Static stretching ● ●
Stretching to increase Correct techniques must be
flexibility held throughout the stretch
● Stretches are held ● Advisable to avoid
(isometric contraction) for overstretching
up to 30 seconds
Weight training ● ●
Involves lifting a weight - Choice of weight and
body weight, free weights exercise depends on fitness
or resistance machines aim, e.g. strength training or
muscular endurance,
● The importance of safe
practice and lifting technique
● The need for spotters
Plyometric training ● ●
Use of plyometric Safety precautions must be
exercises, e.g. bounding followed to prevent injury
and depth jumping placed on muscles and joints
● Use of body weight and
gravity to work muscles
(see below)
● Used to increase power
●
Plyometric training involves eccentric contraction followed by larger concentric
contraction
○ Eccentric contraction happens when jumping down (from a box) where
muscles are lengthened under tension
○ Elastic energy is stored in the muscles which fuels the jump upwards
○ This is a concentric contraction involving the shortening of the muscles
○ The concentric contraction is stronger due to the eccentric contraction
Advantages & Disadvantages of Training Types
● Each of the training methods listed above has different effects on the body, some are
advantages and some disadvantages
Circuit training
● This type of training is suitable for different athletes as it can be tailored to suit a range
of sports
Advantages Disadvantages
● ●
Difficulty levels can be tailored to the Requires a large space to set up a
participants and their needs/age/fitness range of workout stations
levels ● Specialist equipment may be
● The circuit can be altered to train required
different components e.g. strength, ● Difficult to know the work: rest
power, speed, stamina ratios of participants (at the start
● It is easy to monitor and change by particularly)
altering the work : rest ratio
Continuous training
● Continuous training is aerobic exercise and it uses the same exercise continuously
● Therefore it is suited to a specific sport: a swimmer may perform continuous swimming
training, and a marathon runner continuous running training
● Endurance athletes can make good use of continuous training, such as marathon
runners
Advantages Disadvantages
● ●
Aerobic fitness is improved, which It can become repetitive and therefore
can improve other body systems participants may get bored
such as cardiovascular health ● Injuries are more common due to the
● It can be done with little or no repetitive motion and movement of joints
equipment (such as running) so is and muscles
cheap to participate in ● Continuous training involves at least 20
● It is simple to carry out (once the minutes of exercise for several times a
exercise has been mastered) week so there are time constraints
involved
● This training does not suit all sporting
types, e.g. in netball, players do not run
at one speed the whole match
Diagram of a swimmer
Swimmers will partake in continuous training
Fartlek training
● This training can alternate between aerobic and anaerobic exercise
● Fartlek training is well suited to performers of sports where there is a change in speed
such as football, netball and basketball
Advantages Disadvantages
● ●
More varied than continuous Intensity changes mean that the
training participant must be highly motivated for
● This can be adapted to suit the high intensity intervals
individual needs and fitness of a ● It is hard to assess whether participants
performer are performing at the correct intensity
Interval training
● This type of training is well suited to sprinters and those in sports with short bursts of
high intensity exercise involved in team games such as netball and basketball
Advantages Disadvantages
● ●
Quick and easy to set up and can High motivation is needed for high
be done anywhere intensity interval training (HIIT)
● No need for specialist equipment ● Injury can occur if rest intervals are not
● Burns body fat and calories properly timed and adhered to
● Both aerobic and anaerobic energy
systems can be worked
Static stretching training
● Static stretching is useful for athletes who require flexibility in their performance such as
gymnasts and dancers
Advantages Disadvantages
● ●
Flexibility can be improved which can help Stretching the whole body
prevent injury can be time-consuming
● Hardly any limitations to who can complete ● Overstretching can lead to
static stretching, even through injuries and injuries
healing
Weight training
● Any sport can benefit from weight training
○ Training can be designed to target specific muscle groups e.g. a footballer
may use weights on the lower body to improve muscle strength in the legs to
improve their speed and power when running in games
Advantages Disadvantages
● ●
Easily adapted to specific training Can require specialist equipment and
needs and fitness gym membership if resistance
● Variety of weight training methods (free machines are required
weights, resistance machines) prevents ● Injury can occur if correct techniques
boredom in training are not used or too heavy weights
● No need for specialist equipment, lifting are trained with
of the body weight is a form of weight ● Often an additional person is needed
training as a spotter
● Strength and power are improved
Plyometric training
● This training can be used where an athlete requires power, such as sprinters,
long-jumpers or basketball players
Advantages Disadvantages
● ●
Increases power of Injury can occur due to high impact and stress put on
movement muscles and joints
● Targets specific muscle
groups
● No equipment is
necessary
Calculating Intensities to Optimise Training Effectiveness
Training thresholds
● Training threshold is the level of training that puts enough stress on the body systems
to induce change and improve performance, yet is safe and does not lead to injury
○ i.e. Training is safe, yet effective
● Aerobic and anaerobic training zones can be calculated and inform an athlete of their
training threshold
Calculating training zones
● Calculate maximal heart rate
○ There are different methods to do this but a well-accepted method is:
220 (bpm) - participants age
Where (bpm) is beats per minute
● Aerobic training zone is 60 - 80% of the maximal heart rate
○ e.g. Multiply the maximal heart rate by 0.6 (for 60%)
● Anaerobic training zone is 80 - 90% of the maximal heart rate
○ e.g. Multiply the maximal heart rate by 0.9 (for 90%)
Worked Example
A 20-year-old marathon runner wants to train within their aerobic training zones.
Calculate their upper and lower aerobic training thresholds.
1. Calculate the maximal heart rate
220 - 20 = 200 (bpm)
2. Calculate the upper aerobic training threshold
Upper threshold is 80% (0.8)
0.8 x 200 = 160 (bpm)
3. Calculate the lower aerobic threshold
Lower threshold is 60% (0.6)
0.6 x 200 = 120 (bpm)
4. State the aerobic training zones for a 20-year-old marathon runner
120 - 160 (bpm)
Circuit training and fitness aims
● Circuit training is designed to train different components of fitness
● By altering different aspects of the training, the fitness aim can be determined
○ Time - the time to complete each station and the circuit can be altered
○ Rest - the period of rest between stations can be altered depending on the
participants and fitness aims
○ Content - the content of each station can be designed to target different fitness
aims
Calculating one repetition maximum
● The intensity of weight training is measured in % one rep max (1 REP MAX) which is
a percentage of the performer's maximum lift
○ Maximum lift is the most a person can lift at one time (1 repetition/rep)
○ One rep is completing one lift of a weight up and down
● One rep max can be calculated to ensure the correct intensity of weight training is
carried out:
○ Lift a weight, for a chosen muscle group, for one rep (this is usually a bar-bell or
bench press machine)
○ If the rep is completed successfully, lift again with a heavier weight
○ Repeat step 2 until the heaviest weight the participant can lift is found; 1 full
rep must be completed
○ If a weight cannot be lifted then return to the lighter weight and this should be
used as one rep max
● Fitness aims can be achieved using one rep max
○ Strength/power training requires the participant to work at 70% above their one
rep max with a low number of repetitions (approximately three sets of 4–8
reps)
■ High weights x low repetitions
○ Muscular endurance training requires a participant to work at 70% below their
one rep max with a high number of repetitions (approximately three sets of
12–15 reps)
■ Low weights x high repetitions
Considerations to Prevent Injury
● In order to prevent injury during training there are several factors that should be
considered:
○ A warm up routine should be completed at the start of a training session to
increase muscle extension and joint range of motion
○ Training sessions should be at an appropriate level to avoid overtraining
■ The type of training should be relevant to the goals of the performer, e.g.
continuous training for improving aerobic capacity
■ The exercise intensity should be at the correct level, e.g. weights should
not be too heavy
○ Appropriate clothing and footwear should be worn
■ Footwear should provide enough protection and support
■ Clothing should allow for the full range of motion required
○ Performers with existing injuries should make use of taping/bracing to support
weakness
○ Hydration should be maintained to ensure that fluids lost through sweating are
replaced
○ Overstretching, and bouncing during stretches, should be avoided
■ Overstretching can occur when muscles are stretched beyond normal
limits, or when the same stretch is repeated too many times
■ When muscles are bounced into and out of a stretch very quickly this
results in a jerky movement; stretching movements should be smooth
and gradual
○ Any training techniques should be used correctly
■ E.g. when lifting heavy weights spotters should be present and the lifter's
back should be kept straight
○ Recovery should be allowed between training sessions
■ A cool down routine should be carried out at the end of a session
■ There must be enough time for rest between sessions
High Altitude Training as a Form of Aerobic Training
● High altitude training is a technique that can improve performance in aerobic activities
○ This includes endurance events, e.g. long distance running
● Training at altitude means carrying out training activities in places that are 2000 m or
more above sea level
● The benefit of altitude training can be explained as follows:
○ At altitude, the concentration of oxygen in the air is lower than it is at sea
level
○ Less oxygen enters the blood of a performer as they train, reducing blood oxygen
concentration
○ The body of the performer compensates for the decrease in oxygen by
increasing the production of red blood cells
○ When the performer returns to sea level, where air oxygen levels are higher, their
blood can carry more oxygen than normal, aiding performance
High altitude training diagram
Training at altitude increases the body's red blood cell count, so increasing the ability of
the blood to transport oxygen
Evaluating altitude training
● While altitude training can bring the aerobic benefits described above, the extent to
which it benefits individual performers may vary
● Some of the limitations of altitude training include:
○ Altitude training is of no benefit to performers in anaerobic disciplines, e.g.
sprint or long jump
○ Most performers need to travel in order to train at altitude; this may disrupt a
training routine
○ Training at altitude is very challenging, and many athletes end up training less
than they might do at sea level, so fitness may be lost
○ Some performers suffer from altitude sickness
○ Red blood cell count returns to normal within a few weeks of returning to low
altitudes, so the benefits are short-lived
Warming Up & Cooling Down
● Warming up and cooling down routines are an important part of any training session
● Both routines need to include specific types of activity to bring about changes in the
body
Warming up
● A warming up routine should be carried out before training to prepare the body for
exercise and optimise performance
● A warm up should include the following types of activity:
Constituent parts of a warm up table
Type of Description Purpose of activity
activity
Gradual Gentle activity that increases heart ●
pulse-raising rate Increases oxygen,
activity supply to working
E.g. walking, jogging, swimming muscles
● Raises body temperature
Stretching Dynamic stretching of relevant ●
muscles Increases range of
motion at the joints
E.g. lower body muscles might be ● Increases the ease with
stretched using high knees or lunges, which muscles can be
while shoulder rotations can stretch the extended
upper body ● Reduces risk of injury
Skill-based Activities that rehearse relevant skills ●
practice Increases effort towards
E.g. a netball team might practice a competition levels
series of passes or half-court drills ● Specific movements are
practiced before
competing
● Allows movements to be
practiced through the
whole range of motion
Mental Activities that increase focus and ●
preparation arousal Allows psychological
preparation
E.g. deep breathing, positive talk, ● Raise arousal levels to a
music helpful state to improve
performance
Cooling down
● Cooling down activities are also very important, aiding recovery from exercise and
returning the body to a resting state
● A cool down routine should include the following:
Constituent parts of a cool down table
Type of activity Description Purpose of activity
Maintenance of Gentle activity that keeps ●
elevated breathing the breathing and heart High blood flow to muscles is
and heart rate rate raised above normal maintained, allowing the
levels removal of waste products
such as lactic acid and CO2
E.g. gentle jogging or
cycling
Gradual reduction in The intensity level is ●
intensity decreased gradually Heart and breathing rate
gradually decrease
E.g. a gentle jog is slowed ● Body recovers
to a walk
Stretching Static stretching during ●
which relevant muscle Blood flow is increased, aiding
stretches are held for a recovery
short time ● Delayed onset muscle
soreness (DOMS) is prevented
E.g. a hamstring stretch ● Performers are better prepared
may be held for 30 seconds for future training