MECH 412

HEAT TRANSFER

Introduction to the Heat Conduction

Equation

Instructor: Dr. Mariam Itani

 Outline
 The Conduction Rate Equation

 The Thermal Properties of Matter: Thermal Conductivity &

Other Relevant Properties

 The Heat Diffusion Equation

 Boundary and Initial Conditions

 The Conduction Rate Equation
 Conduction Rate Equation or Fourier’s Law: Describes the rate
at which heat is being conducted
 In 1-D Cartesian coordinates, Conduction Rate Equation:
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 or 𝑞″ 𝑥 = −𝑘
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 In 3-D Cartesian coordinates, Conduction Rate Equation:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝒒″ = −𝑘𝜵𝑇 = −𝑘 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Where:
• 𝒒″ = heat flux vector
• ∇ = gradient operator
• ∇ T = gradient of temperature field (a vector quantity always perpendicular
to constant temperature surfaces called isotherms)
 The Conduction Rate Equation
 T(x, y, z) (ºC)= a scalar field of a specific value at any location
 Gradient of temperature field, ∇ T (ºC/m)= a vector field,
At any location in the domain of interest (like point B), we have a vector with
direction and magnitude, that tells what is the rate of change of temperature if
we move in that direction (x-direction). It is always perpendicular to constant
temperature surfaces or isothermal surfaces called isotherms)
 Heat flux, 𝒒″ (W/m2)= a vector field = −𝑘𝜵𝑇
Isothermal Surface
(area, A) 𝑑𝑇
𝒒″ 𝑥
= −𝑘
𝑑𝑥
 The Conduction Rate Equation
 Similarly:
• In 3-D Cylindrical coordinates, Conduction Rate Equation:
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝒒″ = −𝑘𝜵𝑇 = −𝑘 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧

• In 3-D Spherical coordinates, Conduction Rate Equation:

𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
𝒒″ = −𝑘𝜵𝑇 = −𝑘 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟sin𝜃 𝜕𝜑
 The Thermal Properties of Matter-
Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal Conductivity, k (W/m2·K): a property of the material
undergoing conduction, indicating how readily heat passes through a
material by diffusion.
 In general it varies in direction and with temperature and time.
𝑞″ 𝑥
 From Fourier’s Law: • 𝑘𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑇ൗ
𝜕𝑥
″
𝑞 𝑦
• 𝑘𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑇ൗ
𝜕𝑦
″
𝑞 𝑧
• 𝑘𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑇ൗ
𝜕𝑧

 For isotropic materials, k is independent of direction of heat transfer,

thus: 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘
 k can be assumed to be constant if evaluated at the average
temperature of the material so temperature- independent.
 The Thermal Properties of Matter-
Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal conductivity of solids is larger than that of liquids, which is
larger than that of gases (Figure).
 Thermal conductivity of a solid may be more than four orders of
magnitude larger than that of a gas (0.01 to 1000 W/m2·K).

 Low k: good insulators of

heat like gases (still air)
 High k: good conductors of

heat like solids (metals)

Range of k for various states of matter at

normal temperatures and pressure
 The Thermal Properties of Matter-
Thermal Conductivity
 Temperature dependence of k in solids:

The temperature dependence of k of

selected solids
 The Thermal Properties of Matter-
Thermal Conductivity
 Temperature dependence of k in gases and liquids:
k of nonmetallic liquids generally decreases with increasing temperature (water, glycerine
& engine oil are exceptions). Metallic liquids like mercury (k=8.54) and sodium (k=86.2)

The temperature dependence of k of selected gases at

The temperature dependence of k of selected normal pressures (Molecular diameters (d) are in nm &
nonmetallic liquids under saturated conditions. Molecular weights (M) of the gases are also shown)
 The Thermal Properties of Matter-
Other Relevant Properties
 Thermal diffusivity, α (m2/s):

• The ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat capacity (𝜌𝑐𝑝 ):

𝑘
𝛼=
𝜌𝑐𝑝

• It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative

to its ability to store thermal energy.
• Materials of large α will respond quickly to changes in their thermal
environment.
• Materials of small α will take more time to reach a new equilibrium
condition.
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 To find the temperature distribution or how the temperature
varies with position in the medium.

 Once this distribution is known, conduction heat flux at any

point in the medium or on its surface may be computed from
Fourier’s law.
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 Approach to find temperature distribution:
1. Apply the energy conservation equation to a differential CV
undergoing conduction
2. Identify the relevant energy transfer processes to CV
3. Introduce the appropriate rate equations
4. Get a differential equation (Heat Diffusion (Conduction)
Equation)
5. Use boundary and initial conditions to get the solution
6. Solution is the temperature distribution
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
1. Apply energy conservation equation to a differential CV
undergoing conduction
• homogeneous medium with no bulk motion
• temperature distribution T(x, y, z) is expressed in Cartesian coordinates
• infinitesimally small (differential) CV (volume = dx·dy·dz)
• formulate the 1st
law at an instant of
time
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
2. Identify the relevant energy transfer processes to CV
• In absence of motion (or with uniform motion): no changes in
mechanical energy & no work done on system
• Only thermal forms of energy are considered
• In presence of temperature gradients, conduction heat transfer will
occur across each control surface
• Conduction heat rates perpendicular
to CS at the x-, y-, and z-coordinate
locations are indicated by the terms
𝑞𝑥 , 𝑞𝑦 , and 𝑞𝑧 , respectively.
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
2. Identify the relevant energy transfer processes to CV
• Conduction heat rates at opposite surfaces can be expressed as a Taylor
series expansion where, neglecting higher-order terms:
𝜕𝑞𝑥
𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑞𝑦
𝑞𝑦+𝑑𝑦 = 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑞𝑧
𝑞𝑧+𝑑𝑧 = 𝑞𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑞𝑥
• 𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 states that:
𝜕𝑥
the x-component of heat transfer rate at
x+dx is equal to the value of this
component at x + amount by which it
changes with respect to x times dx.
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
2. Identify the relevant energy transfer processes to CV
• Within the medium there may also be an energy source term
associated with the rate of thermal energy generation, represented as:
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 , where q (W/m3)= rate at which energy is generated per
unit volume of medium
• Changes may also occur in amount of internal thermal energy stored by
the material in CV. If no phase change is present then latent energy
effects are not present, and the energy storage term may be expressed
𝜕𝑇
as: 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧,
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑇
where 𝜌𝑐𝑝 is the time rate of change of the
𝜕𝑡
sensible (thermal) energy of the medium per unit
volume
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
3. Introduce the appropriate rate equations
• General form of energy conservation on a rate basis:
𝐸𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠𝑡
• Conduction rates make up energy inflow 𝐸𝑖𝑛 and outflow 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 , thus:
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑞𝑧 + 𝑞𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 − 𝑞𝑦+𝑑𝑦 − 𝑞𝑧+𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡
• Substituting the outflow terms and reducing:
𝜕𝑞𝑥 𝜕𝑞𝑦 𝜕𝑞𝑧 𝜕𝑇
− 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑞𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑇
• Fourier’s law for isotropic 𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘dydz
𝜕𝑥
material to find conduction 𝜕𝑇
heat rates: 𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘dxdz
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑧 = −𝑘dxdy
𝜕𝑧
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
4. Get a differential equation: Heat Diffusion (Conduction) Equation
• Substituting and reducing by dividing with the volume, dxdydz:
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

• The Heat Diffusion Equation states that:

At any point in the medium, the net rate of energy transfer by conduction
into a unit volume plus the volumetric rate of thermal energy generation
must equal the rate of change of thermal energy stored within the volume.
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 For constant thermal conductivity (k):
𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
2
+ 2+ 2+ = ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑘
𝛼= (thermal diffusivity)
𝜌𝑐
 For k = constant & steady-state conditions:
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝑞
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘
 For k = constant, steady-state conditions & no internal heat
generation (q=0):
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
+ + =0, or 𝛻2𝑇 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
this is known as Laplace’s equation
 The Heat Diffusion Equation

 For k = constant, steady-state conditions, no internal heat

generation (q = 0) & 1-D heat transfer in x-direction:
d2 𝑇 𝑑𝑞″ 𝑥
=0, or =0
d𝑥 2 d𝑥

This means that the heat flux is constant in the direction of heat
transfer (x-direction)
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 Cylindrical Coordinates:
1𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘𝑟 + 2 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

 Spherical Coordinates:

1 𝜕 2
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑘𝑟 + 𝑘
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
+ 2 𝑘sin𝜃 + 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝
𝑟 sin𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑡
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
5. Use boundary and initial conditions to get the solution
• To solve the heat equation and get the temperature distribution

boundary conditions, which are known conditions at solution domain

boundaries, are needed.
• Initial condition, which is a known condition at t = 0, is also needed.

• Heat equation is 2nd order in the spatial coordinates, thus 2 B.C.s are

needed for each coordinate applied.

• Heat equation is 1st order in time, thus 1 I.C. is needed of the form:

𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 0) = 𝑇𝑖
where Ti may be a constant or a function of x, y, and z
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
 Types of Boundary Conditions for Conduction Problems:
Specified at the surface (x=0) for 1-D system with T(x,t):

1. Constant surface temperature,

known as Dirichlet condition or B.C.
of the 1st kind.
2. Constant surface heat flux, related
to temperature gradient at the surface
by Fourier’s law, knows as Neumann
condition or B.C. of the 2nd kind.
(Special case: adiabatic or insulated surface)
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
 Types of Boundary Conditions for Conduction Problems:
Specified at the surface (x=0) for 1-D system with T(x,t):

3. Convection heating/cooling at the surface or B.C. of the 3rd kind.

 Solving the Heat Diffusion Equation
1. Choose a coordinate system that best fits the problem geometry.
2. Identify the independent variables (x,y,z,t), e,g, is it a steady-state
problem? Is conduction 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D? Justify assumptions.
3. Determine if k can be treated as constant and if q = 0
4. Write the general heat conduction equation
5. Reduce equation to simplest form based upon assumptions.
6. Write boundary conditions and initial condition (if applicable).
7. Obtain a general solution for T(x,y,z,t)
8. Apply B.C.s and I.C. to solve for the constants in equation and obtain
particular solution
9. Check solution for correctness (e.g., at x = 0 & t = 0)
10. Calculate heat flux or heat rate using Fourier’s law, if required.
 Example 1
The temperature distribution across a wall 1 m thick at a certain instant of
time is given as: T(x) = a + bx +cx2, where T is in degrees Celsius and x is in
meters, while a= 900 ºC, b= -300 ºC/m, and c= -50 ºC/m2. A uniform heat
generation, 𝑞=ሶ 1000 W/m3, is present in the wall of area 10 m2 having the
properties ρ = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m·K, and cp = 4 kJ/kg·K.

1. Determine the rate of heat transfer

entering the wall (x = 0) and leaving the wall
(x = 1 m).
2. Determine the rate of change of energy
storage in the wall.
3. Determine the time rate of temperature
change at x = 0, 0.25, and 0.5 m.
 Example 1
Known: Temperature distribution T(x) at an instant of time t in a 1-D wall
with uniform heat generation.
Find:
1. Heat rates entering, qin (x=0), and leaving, qout (x=1m), the wall.
2. Rate of change of energy storage in the wall, Est.
3. Time rate of temperature change at x = 0, 0.25, and 0.5 m.

Assumptions:
1. 1-D conduction in x-direction
2. Isotropic medium of constant properties
3. Uniform internal heat generation, 𝑞ሶ (W/m3)
 Example 1
Solution:
 Applying energy conservation for a CV about the wall:
𝐸𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠𝑡
Where
• Using Fourier’s law with known temperature distribution:
𝜕𝑇
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑞𝑥 0 = −𝑘𝐴 ቤ
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0

𝜕𝑇 𝜕(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 )
ቤ = อ = (𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥)ቚ =𝑏
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0 𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0
𝑥=0

• Substituting in 𝐸𝑖𝑛 :
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = −𝑏𝑘𝐴 = −(−300ºC/m) × 40 𝑊/𝑚 · 𝐾 × 10 𝑚2

𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 120 𝑘𝑊
 Example 1
Solution:
• Using Fourier’s law with known temperature distribution:
𝜕𝑇
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑞𝑥 𝐿 = −𝑘𝐴 ቤ
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=𝐿

𝜕𝑇 𝜕(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 )
ቤ = อ = (𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥)ቚ = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝐿
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=𝐿 𝜕𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
𝑥=𝐿

• Substituting in 𝐸𝑖𝑛 :

𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −(𝑏 + 2𝑐𝐿)𝑘𝐴 = −(−300ºC/m+2( − 50ºC/𝑚2 ) × 1 𝑚) × 40 𝑊/𝑚 · 𝐾 × 10 𝑚2

𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 160 𝑘𝑊
 Example 1
Solution:
• The rate of change of energy storage in the wall, Est:

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑞𝐴𝐿
ሶ

𝑊
𝐸𝑔 = 1000 3 × 10 𝑚2 × 1 𝑚
𝑚

𝐸𝑔 = 10 𝑘𝑊
• Thus:
𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 120 + 10 − 160 = −30 𝑘𝑊

 Example 1
Solution:
• The time rate of change of the temperature at any point in the medium may be
determined from the heat equation:

𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕2𝑇 𝑞
= +
𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜌𝑐𝑝

• Using the given temperature distribution:

𝜕2𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 ) 𝜕
2
= = = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥 = 2𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2𝑇
2
= 2 −50ºC/𝑚2 = −100ºC/𝑚2
𝜕𝑥
 Example 1
Solution:
𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕2𝑇 𝑞
= +
𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜌𝑐𝑝

𝑊
𝜕𝑇 40 1000 𝑊/𝑚 3
= 𝑚. 𝐾 × −100ºC/𝑚2 +
𝜕𝑡 1600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 4 𝑘𝐽 1600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 4
𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝜕𝑇
= −4.69 × 10−4 ºC/s
𝜕𝑡
• Note that this derivative is independent of position in the medium. Hence the
time rate of temperature change is also independent of position:
• Note: The temperature at every point in the wall is decreasing with time.
 Example 2
A long copper bar of rectangular cross section, whose width w is much
greater than its thickness L, is maintained in contact with a heat sink at its
lower surface, and the temperature throughout the bar is approximately
equal to that of the sink, To. Suddenly, an electric current is passed
through the bar and an airstream of temperature 𝑇∞ is passed over the
top surface, while the bottom surface continues to be maintained at To.

Obtain the differential equation and

the boundary and initial conditions
that could be solved to determine
the temperature as a function of
position and time in the bar.
 Example 2
Known: Copper bar initially in thermal equilibrium with a heat sink, then
suddenly heated by passage of an electric current.
Find: Differential equation and boundary and initial conditions needed to
determine temperature as a function of position and time within the bar

Assumptions:
1. Since the bar is long & w << L, end and side effects are negligible and
heat transfer within the bar is primarily 1-D in x-direction.
2. Uniform volumetric heat generation, q
3. Constant properties
 Example 2
Solution:
• The temperature distribution is governed by the heat equation for 1-D and
constant property conditions, which reduces to:

𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
2
+ =
𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

• The temperature is a function of position and time, T(x, t).

• Two boundary conditions for the x-direction and one initial condition are needed.

• Boundary condition at the bottom surface with a constant temperature To, which

is fixed with time:

𝑇(0, 𝑡) = 𝑇𝑜
 Example 2
Solution:

• Boundary condition at the top surface undergoing convection heat transfer:

𝜕𝑇
−𝑘 ቤ = ℎ[𝑇 𝐿, 𝑡 − 𝑇∞ ]
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
 Example 2
Solution:
• The initial condition is inferred from recognition that, before the change in
conditions, the bar is at a uniform temperature To. Hence:

𝑇(𝑥, 0) = 𝑇𝑜

• If To, 𝑇∞ , 𝑞,ሶ and h are known, the previous equations may be solved to obtain
the time-varying temperature distribution T(x, t) following imposition of the
electric current.